ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY

As temperature decreases, the energy of particles will

1. States of Matter decrease, making them move more slowly.
Condensation and Freezing are both energy-given-out
reactions.
1.1. Solids, Liquids and Gases
Freezing, Melting and Sublimation
States of Matter are the different forms in which matter
can exist 1. Melting is the process in which a solid converts to a
The three states of matter are Solid, Liquids, and Gases liquid. It happens at a set temperature called the
melting point.
Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gases 2. Freezing is the process in which a liquid converts to a
solid. It happens at the same temperature as the
Solids Liquids Gases freezing point.
take the shape take the shape 3. Sublimation occurs when a solid has enough energy
have a definite
Shape of their of their
shape to convert into a gas or gas converted into a solid.
container container
Density high medium low
have a fixed have a fixed no fixed
Volume
volume volume volume
particles can particles are
particles can
vibrate about mobile and
Particle Motion move past one
their fixed move
another
positions randomly
particles are
particles are particles are
Particle arranged
randomly randomly
Arrangement regularly in a
arranged arranged
lattice

Diagram 1.3. Cooling and Heating Curves

Cooling Curves
1. On cooling, the particles of a gas move slower and
slower and the gas contracts
1.2. Changes of States 2. The particles are now closer together, and inter-
molecular bonds start to form between them once
Boiling and Evaporation the condensation point is reached
3. The temperature of the substance stops falling; the
Boiling and Evaporation are both endothermic processes: energy released by bond formation cancels out the
Boiling and evaporation are processes that involve the energy lost due to cooling
conversion of a liquid into a gas. 4. Once all the gas has turned into liquid, the
Both processes allow molecules to move further apart temperature starts to fall again, and the liquid begins
from each other. to contract until the freezing point is reached
5. At the freezing point, inter-molecular bonds between
Boiling Evaporation the liquid molecules start to develop to form a solid
occurs at any temperature 6. At the freezing point, the temperature remains
happens at a set temperature below the boiling point and constant until all of the liquid has solidified since the
called the boiling point above the freezing point energy released due to bond formation cancels out
(liquid) the energy lost due to cooling
occurs throughout the liquid only occurs at the surface
relatively faster process a slow process

Condensation
Condensation is the process by which a gas converts into a
liquid. It happens at the same temperature as the boiling
point.

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The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is
plotted - the cooling curve:

1.4. Diffusion
Heating Curves Diffusion: the net movement of particles from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration as a
1. On heating, the particles of a solid start to vibrate result of their random movement until equilibrium is
faster and faster in their mean positions, and the reached.
solid begins to expand
2. Once the melting point is reached, the intermolecular The rate of diffusion is most rapid in gases > liquids >
bonds between the particles begin to break. solids.
3. The temperature of the substance at this point
remains constant until all the solid has turned into a Effect of Relative Molecular Mass in Diffusion
liquid because the energy received by the system is
cancelled out by the energy used to break The rate at which gases diffuse differs and depends on
intermolecular bonds the gas's molecular' mass.
4. Once all the solid has turned to liquid, the At the same temperature, molecules with a lower mass
temperature starts to rise again, and the liquid move faster on average than those with a higher mass.
begins to expand until the boiling point is reached
5. At the boiling point, the intermolecular bonds 1.5. Pressure and Temperature on Gas
between the liquid molecules start to break down to
form a gas Gases are compressible. By changing the pressure acting on
6. At the boiling point, the temperature of the them, their volume may be influenced.
substance remains constant until all of the liquid has
vaporised since the energy absorbed by the 1. An increase in external pressure produces a
substance is cancelled by the energy used for the contraction (decrease) in volume. The gas is said to
breakdown of intermolecular bonds be compressed.
2. A fall in external pressure produces an expansion
The following curve is obtained if this phenomenon is (increase) in volume. The gas is said to be
plotted - the heating curve: decompressed.

The volume of gases may also be influenced by temperature.

The temperature of a gas affects its internal pressure and,
thereby, its volume.

1. When temperature increases, the gas molecules have

increased kinetic energy and hit the walls of their
container more often and with greater force. This
causes an increase in internal pressure and an
increase in volume.
2. When the temperature decreases, the gas molecules
have decreased kinetic energy and hit the walls of
their container less often and with attenuated force.
This causes a decrease in internal pressure and a
decrease in volume.

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The Proton Number (Atomic Number) is the number

2. Atoms, Elements and of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
It is unique to each element. It is denoted by the letter
Compounds “Z”. For a neutral atom, the number of protons and
electrons are equal; therefore, the proton number (Z)
also corresponds to the number of electrons.
2.1. Elements, Compounds and The Nucleon Number (Mass Number) is the total
Mixtures number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
Elements: A substance made of atoms that share the Mass number = number of protons + number of
SAME number of protons and cannot be broken down neutrons
into simpler substances by chemical methods. Number of protons = mass number – number of
There are 118 elements in the periodic table, such as neutrons
sodium. Number of neutrons = mass number – number of
Compounds: Two or more elements chemically bonded protons
together (in a fixed proportion). The following format (AZX Notation) is shown below:
e.g. Carbon Dioxide, Sodium Chloride
Mixtures: Two or more elements not chemically
bonded together.
e.g. Sand and Water, Oil and Water

2.2. Atomic Structure

All substances are made of tiny particles called atoms, the
building blocks of all matter.

The structure of the atom has a central nucleus

containing neutrons and protons surrounded by
electrons in shells
The characteristics of neutrons, protons, and electrons
are as follows: 2.4. Electronic Configurations of
Subatomic particle Relative Mass Relative Charge
Elements & Ions
Proton 1 +1
Atoms have electrons that orbit around a central nucleus,
Neutron 1 0 and these orbits are referred to as electron shells.
Electron 1/1840 -1
The energy levels of the shells increase as their distance
Since electrons and protons have opposing and equal from the nucleus increases.
charges, the atom’s overall charge is neutral. The first shell has a max capacity of 2 electrons, while
Neutrons have the purpose of holding the nucleus the subsequent shell can hold up to 8.
together. The larger the nucleus gets, the more neutrons
are required to hold the nucleus together. For this syllabus, we only need to know the general
complete electronic configuration as (2.8.8)
2.3. Proton and Nucleon Number Group VIII noble gases have an entire outer shell
the number of outer shell electrons is equal to the
group number in Groups I to VII.
the number of occupied electron shells is equal to the
period number

2.5. Isotopes

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Isotopes: different atoms of the same element with the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. 1. Metallic Bonds have good electrical conductivity:
Delocalised electrons can move through the
The isotopes of an element have the same chemical structures and carry current.
properties because they contain the same number of 2. High Melting and Boiling Point: More energy to
outer shell electrons and, therefore, have the same overcome strong forces of attraction between
electronic configuration. positive metal ions and the sea of delocalised
The difference in mass affects the physical properties, electrons and vibrate/transfer heat
such as density, boiling point and melting point 3. Malleability: Can be hammered into shapes as
layers can slide over each other.
2.6. Relative Atomic Masses 4. Ductility: Can be drawn into thin wires

Most elements exist naturally as a mixture of their 2.8. Giant Covalent Structures
isotopes. Using the data on the abundance of these
naturally occurring isotopes, we can calculate the mass Giant Covalent (Macromolecular) Structures: solids with
relative atomic mass of the element. very high melting points, where all the atoms are made of
The Formula: pure carbon.

Diamond
An example for calculating the relative mass and
abundance:
Question: Iridium has two isotopes. These isotopes
are Iridium - 191 and Iridium - 193. A natural sample
consists of 37.3% of Iridium - 191. Calculate the
relative atomic mass (Ar ) of the natural sample of
​

Iridium.
% of Iridium - 191 = 37.3%
% of Iridium - 193 = 100% − 37.3% = 62.7%
Ar = (37.3 × 191)100
​
+ (62.7 × 193)
​

∴ Ar = 192.2
​

2.7. Metallic Bonding Properties

Metallic Bonding: the electrostatic attraction between the 1. Each carbon atom is joined with four other carbon
positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a “sea” of atoms
delocalised electrons. 2. High Melting and Boiling Points - Strong Covalent
Bonds
3. No Delocalised/Free Moving Electrons
4. It cannot be scratched easily
5. Transparent colour (Extra information)
6. Cannot conduct electricity due to no free-moving
electrons
7. Hard in structure
8. Giant Lattice Arrangement
9. Uses are for cutting tools

Properties of Metallic Bonding

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Graphite 1. The structure of Silicon (IV) Oxide is

similar/resemblance to that of a diamond.
2. Hard Structure
3. High melting and boiling point - More energy to
overcome
4. Rigid Tetrahedral Structure
5. Does not conduct electricity

Each Silicon atom is covalently bonded with 4 Oxygen

Atoms
Each Oxygen atom is covalently bonded with 2 Silicon
Atoms

2.9. Simple Molecules and Covalent

Properties Bonds
1. Each carbon atom is joined with three other carbon Covalent Bond: Pairs of electrons shared between two
atoms atoms leading to noble gas electronic configuration (2.8.8)
2. High Melting and Boiling Points - Strong covalent
bonds within the layers (but the layers are attracted Covalent Bonds Dot and Cross Diagram
to each other by weak intermolecular forces)
3. Contains Delocalised/Free Moving Electrons
4. It can be scratched easily
5. Opaque/Black
6. Can conduct electricity due to free-moving
electrons
7. Soft - Layers can slide easily
8. Layers of hexagonal rings held by weak
intermolecular forces
9. Uses are for lubricant and electrode in Electrolysis

Silicon (IV) Oxide

Properties

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Different Types of Covalent Bonds

1. Single Bonds - e.g., Chlorine
2. Double Bonds - e.g., Carbon Dioxide
3. Triple Bonds - e.g., Nitrogen

Properties of Covalent Compound

1. The intermolecular forces in covalent compounds are
weak but have strong covalent bonds.
2. Covalent Compounds have low melting and boiling
point. They require less energy to break the weak
intermolecular forces (same as attractive forces).
3. Poor Electrical Conductivity - No free electrons or
ions present to carry an electrical current

2.10. Ions and Ionic Bonds

Cations: Positive Ions
Anions: Negative Ions
Ionic Bonds: strong electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions (metals + non-metals)

Ionic Compounds Dot and Cross Diagram

Typical ionic compounds are usually giant lattice

structures with a regular arrangement of alternating
positive and negative ions.

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Using an X and a dot in your drawings will help

differentiate the two ions.

The formula of a simple and ionic compound from the

relative numbers of atoms present in a model or a
Properties of Ionic Compound
diagrammatic representation
1. High Boiling and Melting Point: A lot of energy is
needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces State Symbols & Chemical Equations
between oppositely charged ions
Balancing equations: A chemical equation is balanced
2. Good Electrical Conductivity when molten or
when there are an equal number of atoms and charges on
aqueous:
both sides of the equation
As the charges flow, ions can move freely in an
aqueous/molten state. State symbols:
Ions are not free to move when in a solid state, as (s) = solid
the charges cannot flow. (l) = liquid
(g) = gas
Other Properties of Ionic Compound (aq) = aqueous solution
Names of compounds
1. Brittle A compound ending with -ide only contains two
2. Low Volatility different elements
A compound ending with -ate contains oxygen
3. Stoichiometry
3.2. Relative Masses of Atoms and
3.1. Formulae Molecules
Charges of Common Ions Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the average mass of the
Name Formula Charges isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass
Ammonium NH4+ +1 of an atom of 12C.
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): sum of relative atomic
Nitrate NO3- -1
masses of all the atoms in one molecule of the
Hydroxide OH- -1 compound.
Carbonate CO3 2- -2
Sulfate SO42- -2 3.3. The Mole and the Avogadro
Constant
Molecular Formula: The number and type of different
atoms in one molecule A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the same
Empirical Formula: The simplest whole number ratio of the number of units as the number of carbon atoms in 12 grams
different atoms or ions in a compound. of carbon-12
Molecular Formula to Empirical Formula Calculation

M olecularF ormula = n(EmpiricalF ormula)

M olar M ass
n= ​

Calculated EmpiricalF ormulaM ass

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20 x 0.0500 divide 1000 = 0.001
A mole is the Ar or Mr expressed in grams e.g. 1 mole of
Carbon-12 is equal to 12 grams.
3.9. Percentage Composition by Mass
It is equal to 6.02 × 1023 particles; this number is called
Avogadro’s constant. Percentage Composition by Mass =
1 mole also occupies a volume of 24dm3 at room Mass of Element × 100
Molecular Mass ​

temperature and pressure

Example Question (0620/42/F/M/23)
3.4. Number of Moles
mass
Amount of Substance =
molar mass
​

Amount of Substance (mol)

Mass (g)
Molar Mass (Mr) in (g/mol) Step 1: Calculate the molar mass of (NH4)2SO4
Step 2: Find the mass of Nitrogen
Step 3: Use the formula and multiply by 100.
3.5. Number of Moles in Aqueous Step 4: That will be the percentage of the question given.
Solution
3.10. Percentage Purity & Yield
Moles = Concentration × Volume
mass of product (pure)
Percentage Purity = mass of compound (impure) × 100
Moles (mol)
​

actual mass obtained

Concentration (mol/dm3) Percentage Yield = calculated/theoretical mass × 100 ​

Volume (24 dm3)

4. Electrochemistry
3.6. Moles in Gases
Volume = No. of Moles × 24dm3 at r.t.p
4.1. Electrolysis
1 dm3 = 1000cm3 Electrolysis: the decomposition of an ionic compound,
when molten or aqueous solution- by passing of an electric
current
3.7. Concentration
This is possible due to the presence of mobile
no. of moles electrons/free-moving ions
Concentration =
volume An electrolyte is a molten or aqueous substance that
​

undergoes electrolysis
Moles per dm3
1mol/dm3 Components of Electrolysis Definition
Grams per dm3 , g/dm3 Metal or graphite rods that aid
the flow of electricity in and out
Concentration can be measured and converted into g/dm3 of the electrolyte
or mol/dm3 , by multiplying the molar mass of the Electrodes 1. Anode: Positive electrode
compound. 2. Cathode: Negative Electrode
(PANIC: Positive is Anode,
Negative is Cathode)
3.8. Moles Calculation in Acid-Base Anion
Negatively charged ion that
moves to anode
Titration Positively charged ion that
Cation
moves to the cathode

Note: Reactive electrodes participate in the reaction,

while inert electrodes (Graphite, Carbon) do not react
with the cations or anions.

We will use the formula:

Number of Moles = Concentration X Volume
1000 (change unit) ​

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Electrolyte At Cathode At Anode
Molten Lead (II) Bromide Lead Bromine
Concentrated Aqueous Sodium
Hydrogen Chlorine
Chloride (Brine)
Dilute Sulfuric Acid Hydrogen Oxygen
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate with
Copper Oxygen
Graphite Electrodes
Aqueous Copper (II) Sulfate with
Copper Copper
Copper Electrodes

Blue copper (II) sulfate doesn’t change as the

concentration of Cu2+ ions remains unchanged.
Inert (Unreactive electrodes) are Platinum, Graphite or
Carbon Electrodes, So they don’t react with the ions
4.2. Reduction and Oxidation during electrolysis.

Reduction of positive cations happens at the cathode

Oxidation of negative anions happens at the anode
4.4. Electroplating
For example (Ionic Half Equations) Electroplating: the process of coating the surface of a metal
At the anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e- (more reactive) with another metal (less reactive) using
At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2 electrolysis

Components:
Anode: pure/impure metal being used for
electroplating the object
Cathode: object being electroplated
Electrolyte: aqueous solution of the soluble salt of
pure metal (same as anode)
Used to:
Prevent corrosion
Enhance appearance

Useful Acronyms
4.5. Refining Metals
1. REDCATANOX (Reduction is Cathode, Anode is
Oxidation) Cathode: a thin strip of pure metal
2. OILRIG (Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain) Anode: impure metal
3. PANIC (Positive is Anode, Negative is cathode) Electrolyte: Aqueous Salt Solution of metal
4. CMAN (Cathode discharge Metals, Anode Discharge
Non-Metals) Example:

4.3. Observations in Electrolysis

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Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells: Uses hydrogen and oxygen
The refining of copper: Impure copper as the anode as the main reactants to produce electricity; the only
and pure copper as the cathode; the aqueous copper (II) product released is water.
sulfate helps the copper ions move from the anode to
the cathode. Here, the ions gain electrons and become
copper atoms, making the pure copper cathode thicker.
1. Reaction at Anode: Cu → 2e + Cu2+ (mass
decreases)
2. Reaction at Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu (mass
increases)

Main Chemical Equation: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Advantages of motor Disadvantages of motor
vehicles vehicles
Renewable source Large fuel tank required
Emission Free (No carbon
Currently expensive
pollutions)
Non-toxic Lesser Hydrogen Filling stations

4.6. Electrolysis of Brine 5. Chemical Energetics

Brine is a concentrated aqueous NaCl solution
Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl- and OH- 5.1. Exothermic & Endothermic
Reactions
Chemical reactions involve energy transfer between the
system (the chemical reaction) and its surroundings.
Exothermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
Heat energy is released into Heat energy is absorbed from
the surroundings the surroundings
Bond forming reactions Bond breaking reactions
Surrounding temperature Surrounding temperature
increases decreases

At the anode At the cathode 5.2. Energy Level Diagrams

Made of titanium Made of steel
Hydrogen cations reduced to H2 Energy level diagrams represent chemical reactions that
Cl- ions; Chlorine gas include the relative energies of the reactant and product.
molecules
A reaction's energy change (∆H) is represented by the
difference in height between the reactant and its
Unreacted ions (Na+, H+ and OH-) move through porous product.
membranes due to differences in liquid pressure
The activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy
Left Na+ and OH- which form aqueous sodium hydroxide required for the reaction to take place.

4.7. Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells Endothermic Energy Level Diagram

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Thus,
The system gains energy; higher activation energy is ∆ H ⟶ 679 - 864 = -185 kj/mol
required: Energy is taken in. The reaction is exothermic.

6. Chemical Reactions
6.1. Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Change Chemical Change
The reaction is readily The reaction is harder to
reversible reverse
The product has no new Chemical product has different
chemical properties properties
Exothermic Energy Level Diagram Ex. dissolving a solute in a Energy change
solvent [exothermic/endothermic]
The system loses energy; lower activation energy is
required: Energy is given out. 6.2. Rates of Reaction
Collision Theory
Successful collisions have enough activation energy to break
pre-existing bonds and form new bonds at impact.
Rates of reaction
The measure of the speed of the collision
Calculated by the concentration of reactant used up or
product produced per unit of time
Unit = (mol/dm3)/s

6.3. Concentration
5.3. Bond Energy
Increasing the concentration of reactants increases the rate
This is the energy released when a bond is formed or of reaction
required when a bond is broken respectively. The unit
measure of this energy is kJ/mol. Higher-concentration reactants contain more particles
The energy change in a reaction is calculated using the per unit volume, increasing the successful collision and
following formula: reaction rates.
When the concentration changes in the rate of reaction
ΔH = Bond Breaking − Bond F orming graph, the collision energy will remain the same, but the
collision rate will increase (activation energy does not
If the overall heat energy value is negative, the reaction is
change).
exothermic
If the overall heat energy value is positive, the reaction is
endothermic

Example
H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl
Bond Bond energy (kj/mol)
H-H 436
Cl - Cl 243
H - Cl 432

Bond breaking ⟶ 436 + 243 = 679 kj/mol

Bond forming ⟶ 2 (432) = 864 kj/mol
6.4. Temperature
Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction

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Increased temperatures lead to increased average The distance between particles is reduced under
kinetic energy of particles. Particle movement produces pressure
energy greater than/equal to activation energy; an There are more particles per unit volume; the successful
increased successful collision rate leads to an increased collision rate increases, resulting in an increased reaction
reaction rate. rate.
Equilibrium moves left in the exothermic direction and
right in the endothermic.

6.7. Catalyst
6.5. Surface Area of Solids A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate by
lowering the activation energy and is left unchanged at
Decreasing the particle size increases the rate of reaction
the end of the reaction.
Decreasing particle size increases surface area; more
More particles will have an energy greater than or equal
reactant particles are exposed to collide, so the
to the activation energy, therefore successful collision
successful collision rate increases. This results in an
rate increases, resulting in an increased rate of reaction
increased rate of reaction
For gaseous reactants, if the catalyst is solid metal, the
catalyst provides a surface for the reaction.
The larger the surface area of the metal catalyst, the
larger the area for the reaction to take place; therefore
higher the rate of reaction

Explosive Combustion

Fine particles are combustible in the air due to a larger

surface area
The rate of reaction is high, making them explosive
Examples: methane gas in coal mines and flour milling

6.6. Pressure Enzymes Affecting Rate of Reaction

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous system increases the
but remain chemically unchanged.
rate of reaction
Enzymes function best at optimum temperature and pH
level; otherwise, they may denature and completely stop
functioning.

6.8. Rates of Reaction Graphs

Interpreting graphs:
A graph with a steeper gradient at the beginning and
reaching a horizontal gradient faster depicts a high rate of
reaction.

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Gas Evolved Mass Loss Colour Change
1. Change in Mass method
Not suitable for experiments where hydrogen gas
is given off (because density decreases, too small
mass)
2. Easier to set up the gas syringe and obtain reliable
measurements

If a gas evolves,
measure the loss in
If a gas evolves, mass per unit time
measure the volume by placing it on a If a colour change,
of gas produced per balance and then measure the time
unit of time using a putting cotton wool taken to turn cloudy
gas syringe on top to allow gas
to pass but not
enter 3. An inverted Measuring cylinder to collect gas over
water is harder to set up.
6.9. Evaluating Practical Methods

6.10. Reversible Reactions and

Equilibrium
The symbols of reversible reactions are: ⇌
The products can then react with each other or
decompose to form the reactant molecules.
Two equations you should know:
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O (blue) ⇌ CuSO4 (white) + 5H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​

CoCl2 ⋅ 6H2 O (pink) ⇌ CoCl2 (blue) + 6H2 O

​ ​ ​ ​

(anhydrous by heating; hydrated form by adding water)

Reversible Reaction in a closed system when
equilibrium:

Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction

Concentrations of all reactants and products remain
constant and are no longer changing

Equilibrium

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Why are these conditions chosen in the Haber Process?
Le Châtelier’s Principle: if conditions of equilibrium are
changed, the position of the equilibrium moves to 1. Pressure is not extremely high - (Although
oppose change increased pressure is more yield, more pressure will
Temperature: Temperature increases equilibrium and require more expensive equipment, and it can
moves in the endothermic direction. When the explode).
temperature is lowered, equilibrium shifts in the 2. Optimum temperature - (If lower temperature,
exothermic direction. more ammonia yield, however too low, the rate is
Pressure: Pressure raised; equilibrium moves to the side uneconomical.
with the fewest gas molecules. When pressure is
lowered, equilibrium shifts to the side with most gas 6.12. Contact Process
molecules.
Concentration: Decreasing reactant concentration or
increasing product concentration; equilibrium moves to
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3 (g) [Exothermic]
the reactant side. Increasing reactant concentration or Materials (Reactants) in Contact Process
decreasing product concentration; equilibrium shifts to Sulfur Dioxide: Burning sulfur or Roasting Sulfide ores
the product side. Oxygen: From the air
Catalyst: The presence of a catalyst does not affect the
equilibrium position but increases the rate at which
equilibrium is reached. Therefore, it only increases the
rate of the forward and backward reactions by the same
amount.
Oxidising Agents are Electron Acceptors and
Reducing Agents are Electron Donor.

6.11. Haber Process Conditions

N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 (g) [Exothermic] Temperature: 450°C

Pressure: 2 atm (200 kPa)
Materials (Reactants) in the Haber Process Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide catalyst
Nitrogen: From the air Why are these conditions chosen in the Contact Process?
Hydrogen: From the reaction between Methane and Steam
1. Pressure is high - (Increase pressure, more yield)
2. Optimum temperature - (If lower temperature,
more sulfuric acid yield, however too low, the rate is
uneconomical.

6.13. Redox
Redox: A simultaneous oxidation and reduction reaction
Oxidation Reduction
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen

NOTE: Roman Numerals next to an element’s name are the

Conditions oxidation number of an element in a compound, e.g. Iron
Temperature: 450°C (II) and Iron (III). The reaction product formula depends on
Pressure: 200 atm (20,000 kPa) this.
Catalyst: Iron catalyst Reducing agents are oxidised, and oxidising agents are
reduced.

Identifying Redox Reactions

1. Oxidation State:

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The oxidation state highlights electron movement in a
reaction 2. Weak acids: partially dissociated in aqueous
eg. CuO + Mg → MgO + Cu solution producing few H+ ions
Cu2+ + Mg → Mg2++ Cu [oxide is a spectator and is removed
as it doesn’t change its oxidation state] ⇌
e.g: CH3COOH (aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Here Copper (II) is reduced while magnesium is oxidized; the Chemical properties
reaction is redox
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
2. Indicators: Acid + base → salt + water
Acidified Aqueous Potassium manganate (VII) Acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water
is a deep purple oxidising agent; when added to a
reducing agent changes from purple to 7.2. Properties of Bases
colourless.
Aqueous Potassium iodide is a reducing; when Bases: substances which neutralise acids to form salt and
added to an oxidising agent changes colourless to water only.
yellow-brown. Definition of Bases: They are proton acceptors (form OH-
ions)
Redox Reactions by Changes in Oxidation Number Indicators
Rules Example Have a pH between 8 (weak) and 14 (strong)
The oxidation numbers of the In H2, the oxidation number of Turns red litmus blue
element in their uncombined Turns methyl orange indicator yellow
state are zero H is “0.”
Turns Blue in thymolphthalein
The oxidation number of a
monatomic ion is the same as In Zn2+, the oxidation number
is “+2.” Weak and Strong Alkalis (Soluble Bases)
the charge of the ion.
The sum of the oxidation In H2O, the oxidation number 1. Strong alkalis: completely dissociates in aqueous
numbers in a compound is of H is +1, and O is -2, (2 x (+1)
zero + (1+(-2)) = 0
solution, producing lots of OH- ions
The sum of the oxidation In MnO 4-, the oxidation e.g.: NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
numbers in an ion is equal to number of Mn is +7, therefore
the charge of the ion (1 x (+7)) + (4 x (-2)) = -1
2. Weak alkalis partially ionize in water producing OH-
ions
7. Acids, Bases and Salts ⇌
e.g: NH4OH (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Chemical properties
7.1. Properties of Acids
Base + acid → salt + water (+ CO2 when base is a metal
Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when carbonate)
dissolved in water. Base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water
Definition of Acids: Proton donors.
Indicators 7.3. Neutral
Have a pH between 1 (strong) and 6 (weak) Neutral substances are pH 7.
Turns blue litmus red pH scale
Turns methyl orange indicator red
Colourless in Thymolphthalein pH is the concentration of H+ ions per dm3 of solution
Universal indicator solution is used to determine the
Weak and Strong Acids pH of a substance by matching the color change to the
pH color chart.
1. Strong acids: completely dissociated in aqueous
solution producing lots of H+ ions

e.g: HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

7.4. Types of Oxides

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Metal oxides are basic, e.g. Copper oxide and Calcium

oxide 7.6. Preparation of Salts
Non-metal oxides are acidic, e.g. sulfur dioxide and
carbon dioxide Soluble Salts
Aluminium and zinc form amphoteric oxides, e.g. zinc
Method A: Soluble Salts from Excess Insoluble Bases
oxide
Oxides that react with neither acids nor bases are (metal, metal oxide, carbonates)
neutral, e.g. nitrous monoxide and carbon monoxide 1. Warm acid (increases the speed of reaction)
2. Add an excess reactant + stir
Colours of Transition Metal Compounds 3. Filter mixture
4. Transfer to evaporating basin
Metal Compounds Colour 5. Heat using a Bunsen burner
Copper (II) Sulfate Blue 6. Leave to cool until crystallisation point
Copper (II) Oxide Black 7. Wash crystals with distilled water
Copper (II) Carbonate Green 8. Dry crystals on filter paper
Manganese (IV) Oxide Black
Iron (II) Salts Pale Green Method B: Titration
Iron (III) Salts Brown or Orange
1. Place a known volume of alkali into a conical flask
using a volumetric pipette.
7.5. Water of Crystallisation and 2. Add indicator (e.g. thymolphthalein)
General Solubility Rules 3. Titration: add acid using a burette until the endpoint
has reached
4. Record the volume of acid added
Water of Crystallisation
5. Repeat without indicator
A salt is a compound formed when a metal replaces all 6. Transfer to evaporating basin
the hydrogen atoms of an acid. 7. Heat with Bunsen burner
Naming salts involves two parts: the name of the metal 8. Leave to cool until crystallisation point
and the acid-ending 9. Wash crystals with distilled water
eg. calcium + hydrochloric acid = calcium chloride 10. Dry crystals on filter paper
The Water of Crystallisation is the water molecules
present in hydrated crystals.

Type of Salt Acid used

Sulfate Sulfuric acid
Nitrate Nitric acid
Chloride Hydrochloric acid
Ethanoate Ethanoic acid

General Solubility Rules

Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts
All sodium, potassium and
None
Insoluble Salts
Ammonium salts
All nitrates None Precipitation: Insoluble Solid forms between two aqueous
Chlorides Except for silver and lead solutions.
Except for barium, lead and
Sulfates 1. Mix two soluble salts
calcium
Potassium, Sodium and 2. Filter to remove the precipitate
All other carbonates 3. Wash the precipitate with distilled water
Ammonium Carbonates
Sodium, Potassium and 4. Leave to dry
Ammonium Hydroxides Nearly all hydroxides
(partially calcium hydroxide)
8. The Periodic Table

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Chemical Properties Physical Properties
8.1. Arrangement of Elements Readily react with oxygen and Good conductors of heat and
water; stored in oil electricity
The Periodic table is a method of classifying elements. React violently with chlorine Soft and easy to cut
Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic Burst into flames when heated
number (each proceeding element has one more proton) with oxygen[red flame for
lithium; yellow flame for Shiny when freshly cut
Made up of rows called periods and columns called
sodium; lilac flame for
groups, the position of an element helps determine its potassium]
electronic configuration. Produce soluble white Melting points decrease down
Period number: number of electron shells compounds. the group.
Group number: number of outer shell electrons React with water to form
Increase density down the
alkaline metal and hydrogen
Elements in the same group have similar chemical group
gas
properties.
Predicting the properties of other Group I alkali metals:
Rubidium, Caesium and Francium [reactivity increases
down the group]

Element Reaction with Water

Floats and gives off hydrogen gas
Lithium
(effervescence)
Sodium Vigorous Reaction and moves very quickly
Potassium Explosive Reaction, lilac flame

8.3. Group VII Properties

Properties Patterns
Periodic Trends States and Colours, at RTP:
Fluorine- Yellow-green gas
1. The table moves from metals on the left to non- Chlorine- Pale Yellow-Green Down the group, size, mass
metals on the right. gas and density increase
2. Down a group of metals, elements become more Bromine- Red-Brown liquid
reactive. Iodine- Grey-Black solid
3. With non-metals going down a group, reactivity Down the group, the colour
Poisonous
darkens
decreases.
Reactivity decreases down the
group,
8.2. Group I Properties because it has to gain an
electron,
Diatomic; form halide ions in a
Group I metals: Lithium, sodium and potassium so the closer the electron is to
displacement reaction
the positive nucleus, the more
easily it will be gained,
so atoms with fewer shells will
react more easily.
melting point increases down
Do not conduct electricity
the group

8.4. Transition Elements

Physical Properties

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High melting & boiling points 1. Aluminium

Malleable and ductile Manufacture of Aircraft/Cars (Low density)
Good conductors of heat & electricity Food Containers (Resistant to corrosion)
High density Overhead electrical cable (Good conductor of
electricity/ductile)
Chemical Properties 2. Zinc
Galvanizes Iron = coats it to stop it from rusting
Act as catalysts
Form coloured compounds (protective coating)
Variable Oxidation Numbers (Iron (II) or Iron (III) ) Alloys – brass/bronze
Batteries
Sacrificial Protection
8.5. Noble Gases 3. Copper
Electrical Wiring (Good conductor of
Properties Uses electricity/Ductile)
Density increases down the group Helium-filling balloons
Monoatomic and colourless
M.P. and B.P. increases down the
Argon – Lamps
9.3. Alloys and their Properties
Neon – advertising signs
group
Alloy: a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non-
Don’t conduct electricity
metal
Inert & stable due to full outer shell
electrons Alloys are useful because they are harder and
stronger/useful than pure metal; they can also resist
9. Metals rusting with air and water.

Alloy Made from Special Properties Uses

9.1. Properties of Metals Brass
Copper and
Stronger and more
resistant to
Electrical
fittings, car
zinc
corrosion/rusting radiators
Metals Iron, carbon, Kitchen sinks,
Stainless resistant to
chromium and cutlery, surgical
Physical Properties steel corrosion/rusting
nickel instruments
1. Good conductors of heat and electricity
Due to the irregularity in atom sizes and structure, metal
2. Lustrous
alloys, which stop layers from sliding over each other, are
3. Malleable and Ductile
stronger.
4. High densities and High Melting Points This is what the structure of an alloy (a) looks like
5. Solids at room temperature (except mercury is liquid)
compared to a pure metal (b).
Chemical Properties

1. Metals + Acids → Salt + Hydrogen

2. Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
3. Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
4. Metal + Steam → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen

Properties of Non Metals

9.4. Reactivity Series
Physical Properties

1. Poor thermal conductor NOTE: Aluminum - despite its high placement in the
2. Poor conductor of electricity (Except graphite) reactivity series, it is seemingly unreactive due to its
3. Low Density and Low Melting Point protective aluminium oxide layer.
4. Brittle and not malleable
5. Solids and gases at room temperature (bromine is
liquid)

9.2. Uses of Metals

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General Reactivity Series The Chemical
(descending order of reactivity) Reactivity of Metals
K - Potassium
Na - Sodium
Ca – Calcium
Mg – Magnesium
Water:
Al – Aluminum
1. metal + cold water →
C – Carbon
metal hydroxide +
Zn – Zinc
hydrogen
Fe – Iron
2. metal + steam →
Pb – Lead
metal oxide + hydrogen
H – Hydrogen
Cu – Copper
Ag – Silver The conditions for rusting to occur:
Au – Gold
Everything above hydrogen can Oxygen: 1. Water
displace hydrogen from its acid, and metal + oxygen → 2. Air containing oxygen
hydrogen cannot reduce its oxides. metal oxide
Dilute acids: The Equation for Rusting of Iron
In a metal and acid
reaction, the hydrogen Iron + Water + Oxygen → Hydrated Iron (Ill) Oxide
Metals above carbon, their oxides
atom in the acid is
cannot be reduced by carbon 4Fe (s) + 2H2O (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3·H2O (s)
replaced by the metal
atom to form a product
of salt and hydrogen Two Ways of Preventing Rust
Copper, Silver and Gold cannot react with Dilute 1. Barrier Method
Hydrochloric acid because its too unreactive Coating a material to prevent the iron/steel from
being in contact with water and oxygen (Painting,
Displacement Reactions Greasing & Plastic Coating)
2. Sacrificial Method
In these reactions, metals compete for oxygen or anions When more reactive metals corrode to less
reactive metals, they lose electrons in preference
Oxidisation is the loss of electrons to iron.
Reduction is the gain of electrons
The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive Galvanisation of Iron
metal from oxygen or an anion.
If the more reactive metal has oxygen or an anion, no It is the protection of iron and steel objects by coating
reaction occurs them with a layer of zinc.
The bigger the difference in reactivity between the two
metals, the faster the reaction

Example: Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Here magnesium is oxidised while the oxygen atom is reduced

9.5. Corrosion of Metals

Rusting: the corrosion of iron and steel to form rust
(hydrated iron (Ill) oxide) via oxidation

The barrier method is due to the zinc layer preventing

exposure to air and water and sacrificial protection due to
zinc being more reactive than iron, corroding in preference
to iron.

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9.6. Extraction of Aluminium 9.8. Extraction of Iron

The main ore of Aluminium Oxide is bauxite Ore haematite (Fe2O3) + Impurities
Aluminum (III) oxide (alumina) is dissolved in molten Burning of coke (Carbon) to provide heat and produce
cryolite (Na3AlF6) – this mixture has a lower melting carbon dioxide
point (industrially preferred)
1. Ore is crushed and mixed with carbon and limestone
(CaCO3) and transferred into the blast furnace

C + O2 → CO2 (exothermic)
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (thermal decomposition)
CO2 + C → 2CO

2. Carbon monoxide reduces Iron(III) oxide from the ore

to iron
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
During electrolysis, aluminium ( Al3+ + 3e- → Al ) is produced 3. The Calcium oxide reacts with impurities like silica to
at the carbon cathode, and oxygen (2O2- → O2 + 4e-) at the form slag (a waste product)
carbon anode. CaO + SiO2→ CaSiO3
4. Uses of slag include making roads and cement
Molten Cryolite
High temperatures are needed to melt, which is
expensive. Therefore, molten cryolite lowers the
melting point/operating temperature and increases
conductivity.
Due to the high temperature, the oxygen reacts with
the carbon in the graphite anode to form CO2, so the
anode must be periodically replaced.

9.7. Extraction of Metals

Process of separating a particular metal from its
compound; metal ore The remaining waste gases that leave the blast furnace are
Ore is more difficult to ‎decompose from gold to Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, and Nitrogen.
potassium (expensive)

Metal Extraction Method 10. Chemistry of the

K - Potassium
Na - Sodium Environment
Ca – Calcium Reduction via electrolysis
Mg – Magnesium
Al – Aluminum 10.1. Water
Carbon
Zn – Zinc Chemical Tests for the Presence of Water
Fe – Iron Reducing by Carbon
Pb – Lead Type of
Test Positive result
Hydrogen test
Cu – Copper Anhydrous Cobalt (II) It turns from blue to
Chemical
Ag – Silver Occur naturally Chloride pink
Au – Gold Anhydrous Copper (II) It turns from white to
Chemical
Sulfate blue
Test Melting and Boiling M.P at 0℃ and B.P at
Physical
Point 100℃

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Substances contain inside fertilisers are Ammonium Salts
Distilled Water is used in practical chemistry rather and Nitrates.
than tap Water because it has fewer chemical impurities.

Water from Natural Sources

Water is an essential source in the natural world. However,
with the changing world and massive urbanisation. Our
water may contain substances such as:
1. Dissolved Oxygen (this is important for aquatic
life)
2. Metal Compounds (Provide essential minerals for
life - however, some are toxic)
3. Plastics (harm aquatic life)
4. Sewage (contains harmful microbes which cause
diseases) N.P.K - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Fertilisers are
5. Harmful microbes found inside fertilisers, essential to improve plant growth.
6. Nitrates from fertilisers
7. Phosphate from fertilisers and detergents (leads to Functions of Elements
deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic
life (Eutrophication) 1. Nitrogen - Makes chlorophyll and protein. Promotes
healthy leaves
Treatment of Domestic Water Supply 2. Phosphorus - Promotes healthy roots
3. Potassium - Promotes growth and healthy fruits and
1. Water is pumped into screens to remove solid, flowers
insoluble impurities.
Reaction with any alkali substance (except ammonia)
2. A sedimentation process makes small clay pieces
displaces ammonia from its compound, for example:
stick together and are then removed.
Calcium hydroxide + Ammonium chloride → Calcium
3. The water then undergoes filtration through layers
chloride + Ammonia + Water
of sand and gravel to remove larger, insoluble
debris.
4. Carbon is also added into filtered water to remove 10.3. Air Quality and Climate
taste and odour.
5. The chlorination process adds chlorine gas bubbled The pie chart below presents the components present in
into the water to kill bacteria and other microbes; clean air:
the acidic effect on the water is reversed by adding
Primary: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%)
an alkali, sodium hydroxide.
Secondary: Noble gases (mainly Argon) and Carbon
Step one and five, chlorine is added before going to Dioxide (1%)
domestic areas.

10.2. Fertilisers
Fertilisers: Substances added to the soil and taken up by
plants to increase crop yield.

Air Pollutants and their Adverse Effects

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Pollutant Source Negative impact
Incomplete Binds with 1. Short wavelength radiation from the Sun reaches
combustion of carbon- haemoglobin, the Earth's surface
Carbon 2. Some thermal energy is absorbed and heats
containing fuels (ex. constricting oxygen
monoxide (CO)
Internal combustion supply in cells; leads oceans/lands
engines) to fatigue/ death 3. Earth radiates some thermal energy as more
Carbon Dioxide Complete Combustion Increased global prolonged wavelength radiation
(CO2) of Carbon Containing warming leads to 4. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the infrared
Fuels climate change. radiation and re-emit in all directions
Decomposition of 5. Some infrared radiation comes back to Earth's
Increased global
Methane (CH4) vegetation and waste surface, and this reduces the heat loss to space and
warming leads to
gases from digestion
climate change. leads to global warming
in animals
Sulfur Dioxide Combustion of fossil
(SO2) fuels which contain It causes acid rain.
sulfur compounds
High temperatures Causes respiratory
Nitrogen Oxides that trigger a reaction problems and
(NO2) between N2 and O2 photochemical smog;
contributes to acid
(from air) rain
Damages brain and
Lead Combustion of leaded
nerve cells in young
Compounds fuels
children

Impact of Greenhouse Gases

Strategies to Reduce the Effect of Environmental
Issues
1. Climate Change: planting trees, reducing livestock
farming, decreasing the use of fossil fuels, increasing
the use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind,
solar
2. Acid Rain: use of catalytic converters in vehicles,
reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-
sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium
oxide

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis: the reaction between carbon dioxide and
water to produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of
chlorophyll and using energy from light.
Word Equation: Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose +
Oxygen
Balanced Chemical Equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

10.4. Catalytic Converters

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Petroleum: a mixture of hydrocarbons (Carbon and
1. Present in car exhausts; contains transition metal Hydrogen ONLY) which can be separated into useful
catalysts of platinum and rhodium fractions by fractional distillation
2. Aids redox reactions to neutralize toxic pollutants Going down the fractions
formed as a result of incomplete fuel combustion: (a)
Carbon Monoxide, (b) Nitrogen Oxides, (c) Unburned Increasing chain length
hydrocarbons Increasing temperature
3. Reaction equations: Lower volatility
(a) 2CO+ O2 → 2CO2 Increase Boiling Points
(b) 2NO+ 2CO→ N2+ 2CO2 Increase Viscosity (harder to flow)
(c) C8H18 + 12½O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O
Petroleum Fraction Uses
Refinery gas heating and cooking
11. Organic Chemistry Gasoline fraction fuels for cars
Naphtha fraction chemical feedstock
Kerosene/Paraffin fraction jet fuel
11.1. Formulae, Functional Group and Diesel oil/Gas oil fraction fuel in diesel engines
Terminology Fuel oil fraction
fuel in ships and home heating
systems
Organic Chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, Lubricating fraction lubricants, waxes and polishes
properties, and reactions of organic carbon compounds. Bitumen making roads

Suffix Compound type Complete & Incomplete Combustion

-ane Alkane
-ene Alkene Complete Combustion
-anol Alcohol A complete combustion reaction with any organic
-anoic acid Carboxylic acid compounds will produce Carbon Dioxide and Water as its
-yl/-anoate Ester product. The general equation is:
CXHY + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Homologous Series: a group of organic compounds that Incomplete Combustion
have similar chemical properties due to being part of the: An incomplete combustion reaction with any organic
compounds will produce Carbon Monoxide and Water as
Same Functional Group its product. The general equation is:
Same General Formula CXHY + O2 → CO + H2O
Differing from One member to the next by a CH2 unit
Displaying a trend in physical properties
Sharing similar chemical properties 11.3. Alkanes
Essential Terminology Alkanes: saturated hydrocarbons [single carbon bonds] that
are generally unreactive; however, they do undergo
1. Functional Group: an atom or group of atoms that combustion reactions
determine the chemical properties of a General formula = CnH2n+2
homologous series
2. Structural Isomers: compounds with the same
molecular formula but different structural
formula.
3. Saturated Compounds: molecules in which all
carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds.
4. Unsaturated Compounds: molecules where one or
more carbon-carbon bonds are not single.

11.2. Fuels
Common fossil fuels include: coal, natural gas [main
constituent: methane] and petroleum

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Methane: CH4 (n=1) Ethane: C2H6 (n=2) (n=1) Ethene:C2H4 (n=2)

N/A

Propene:C3H6 (n=3) But-1-ene:C4H8 (n=4)

Propane: C3H8 (n=3) Butane: C4H10 (n=4)

Catalytic Cracking (Alkane)

Substitution Reaction Thermal decomposition reaction, in which an alkene (and
sometimes hydrogen) is produced from an alkane.
Alkanes go through substitutional reactions, where the atom Hydrocarbon is heated, and vapours are passed over a
of another element under UV light replaces the hydrogen catalyst (alumina (Al2O3 and silica)
atom. (Photochemical)
Cracking always produces a short-chain compound with
The presence of UV light is to provide activation energy a C=C bond (matches the supply of fractions with
demand and produces alkene for feedstock.)
CH4 + Cl2 → (light) → HCl + CH3Cl / CH2Cl2 / CHCl3 / CCl4 e.g. Cracking of ethane will give ethene and hydrogen
Compounds = chloromethane/di/tri/tetrachloromethane

11.4. Alkenes
Alkenes: unsaturated hydrocarbons [at least one double
bond between 2 carbon atoms]
Have isomers: same molecular formula but different
structural formula (placement of double bond shifts), e.g.
but-1-ene and but-2-ene
General formula = CnH2n
Functional group: C=C bond Butane → Ethane + Ethene ; C4H10 → C2H6 + C2H4

How do we distinguish between saturated and

unsaturated hydrocarbons?
Using Bromine water (reddish-brown):
Saturated: remains reddish brown (unreactive)
Unsaturated: turns colourless/decolourises

11.5. Alkenes’ Addition Reactions

Alkene addition reactions only form one product.

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Fermentation of Aqueous Catalytic Addition of
1. With Bromine: (the test for saturation - orange Glucose (for Ethanol) Steam to Ethene
brown-colourless) The ethene reacts with
e.g. ethene (g) + bromine (aq) → 1,2-dibromoethane steam (reversibly) to form
(l) Yeast is added to dissolved ethanol in the following
2. With steam (hydration): forms alcohols with heat glucose. The products ethanol, conditions: 300°C, 60 atm
(300°C), pressure (60atm/6000kPa) and an acid carbon dioxide, and the (6000 kPa) \n Catalyst -
catalyst (phosphoric acid) temperature between 25-35 °C are phosphoric acid [while low
⇌
e.g. ethene (g) + steam (g) ethanol (l)
used for optimal enzyme activity. temp. Gives better yield,
high temp. is used for a
3. With hydrogen (hydrogenation), a double bond faster rate of reaction]
breaks down to form an alkane with a heat of 200 The slow reaction produces a
degrees and a catalyst (nickel) The fast reaction produces
dilute solution that requires
e.g. ethene (g) + hydrogen (g) → ethane (g) pure ethanol. Continuous
processing. Can only be produced
production (no batches)
in batches
11.6. Alcohols Produces greenhouse gas (CO2) No greenhouse pollutants
Uses non-renewable
Uses renewable resources
General formula = CnH2n+1OH resources (crude oil)
Functional group: OH
Methanol: CH3OH (n=1) Ethanol: C2H5OH (n=2) Uses of Ethanol:

Solvent in glues, printing inks & perfumes

Fuel

11.8. Carboxylic Acids

General formula: CnH2n+1COOH
Functional group: COOH
Ethanoic Acid: CH3COOH
Methanoic Acid: CH2O2 (n=0)
Propanol: C3H7OH (n=3) Butanol: C4H9OH (n=4) (n=1)

11.7. Methods of Production

Propanoic Acid: C3H6O2 (n=2) Butanoic acid: C4H8O2 (n=3)

Properties of Ethanoic Acid

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Plastics (polyethylene terephthalate) are made from
Weak acid with high pH and low dissociation polymers. However, they are not biodegradable. (NOTE: PET
Formed by: can be hydrolysed back to monomers and re-polymerised)
Bacterial Oxidation of Ethanol (Vinegar Production)
With acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII)
(Good Oxidising Agent)

Carboxylic acids react with alcohols (with an acid

catalyst/Heat) to give esters in a condensation reaction, for
example:

⇌
Ethanoic acid + ethanol ethyl ethanoate + water
(alcohol = -yl & carboxylic acid = -anoate)

Environment Challenges caused by Plastics

1. Disposal in Landfill sites
Carboxylic Acids also have different structural isomers. 2. Accumulation in Oceans
3. Formations of toxic gases from burning
Reactions with Carboxylic Acid
Magnesium reacts with ethanoic acid to form 11.11. Properties of Polymers
magnesium ethanoate and hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH + Mg → (CH3COO)2Mg + H2 It can be moulded under heat and pressure due to its
When propanoic acid reacts with hydroxides, it will form low density
salt and water (Neutralisation reaction) Low conductivity (retain heat)
CH3CH2COOH + KOH → CH3CH2COOK + H2O Resistant to corrosion
Non-biodegradable and lead to plastic waste
When butanoic acid reacts with carbonates, it will form
salt, water, and carbon dioxide.
2CH3CH2CH2COOH + K2CO3 → 2CH3CH2CH2COOK + 11.12. Addition and Condensation
H2O + CO2 Polymerisation
11.9. Polymers Addition Polymerisation

Large molecules are built up from small units known as This only occurs in monomers that contain double
monomers. carbon (C=C) bonds
Monomers are a single unit of a substance. Polymers produced using alkene monomers
Polymers can have different linkages depending on the Forms only a polymer molecule
type of polymerisation and monomer Poly(ethene): is a polymer produced from ethene by
addition polymerisation
Example:
Small units (monomers) Linkages
Polyester (PET) Ester
Polyamide & Protein Amide

11.10. Plastics (PET)

Double bond splits, and the polymer is formed. (Polymers

have no double bonds)

Condensation Polymerisation

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Use Structure
When two different monomers are linked together with
the removal of a smaller molecule, usually water (forms Plastic bags and gloves,
one H20 molecules per linkage). clingfilm (low density),
Poly(ethene)
1. Nylon (polyamide) is made from a dicarboxylic mugs, bowls, chairs,
acid monomer and a diamine monomer (a dustbins (high density)
compound with an NH2 functional group). Forms
amide linkage. Variable Unit(s) Apparatus
Time min/sec Stopwatch
Temperature ºC Thermometer
Mass grams Balance

2. PET (polyester) is made from a dicarboxylic acid Measuring Volume in Liquids

monomer and diols (alcohol with an -OH
functional group). Forms ester linkage. Approximate measure to most accurate measure.
Burettes
Measuring Volumetric Pipettes
Name (variable
Cylinder (fixed volumes)
volume)

11.13. Protein & Natural Polyamides

Proteins act as the natural polyamides formed from amino
acids monomers.
General Structure of Amino Acids: Image

Measuring Volume in Gases

Proteins:

Proteins contain the same linkages (amide links) as nylon

but with different units from amino acid monomers.
Their main structure you should know is:

A gas syringe is used to measure the volume of

gases gradually

12. Experimental Techniques

and Chemical Analysis
12.1. Measurement 12.2. Mixture of Substances

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Mixture: A mixture is a substance made from two or

more other substances not chemically bonded together
Solution: A mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent
Solute: A substance that dissolved in a solvent
Solvent: A substance that dissolves a solute
Saturated Solution: A solution containing the maximum
concentration of the solvent that can be dissolved in it.

12.3. Acid-Base Titration

A method of quantitative chemical analysis where an
acid is added slowly to a base until it has been
neutralised. 12.5. Crystallisation
Used to separate dissolved solid from a solution
The solution is heated to increase concentration (solvent
evaporates)
A drop of solution is placed on a slide to check for crystal
formation
The solution is left till it reaches the crystallisation point.
Crystals are filtered from the solution, washed with
distilled water, and dried between the filter paper.

In Acid-Base Titrations, we must add a few drops of indicator

(passes the endpoint) to check whether there are colour
changes in the chemical reaction.
Colour in Colour in Colour in
Indicators
Acid Neutral Base
Thymolphthalein Colourless Colourless Blue
Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow

12.4. Filtration 12.6. Simple Distillation

Used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid Used to separate a solvent from a solution

The mixture goes through a funnel with filter paper into The impure liquid is heated in a round bottom flask
a flask. When it boils, the steam rises into the attached
Insoluble residue remains in the funnel condenser
Filtrate flows through the funnel and gets collected in the Condenser cools the steam to a pure liquid, and it drops
flask or test tube or a beaker into the beaker
A thermometer is placed to ensure the highest boiling
point is not exceeded.

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1. Drop the substance onto the start line (pencil) drawn

on chromatography paper.
2. Paper is placed in a beaker with solvent; the paper
must touch the surface of the solvent (water or
ethanol) while the line must be above the liquid.
3. The solvent travels up the paper.
4. Different solubilities lead to different travel rates
(high solubility -> high travel rate)
The stationary phase is the material on which
separation takes place
The mobile phase is the mixture you want to
separate, dissolved in a solvent.

12.7. Fractional Distillation

Used to separate miscible liquids
Mixture is heated
Substances, due to their different boiling points, rise in
different fractions.
A mixture of gases condenses on the beads in the
fractional column.
The beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest
substance so that the substance being removed cannot Interpreting simple chromatograms:
condense on the beads. Chromatograms are the visual outputs on the
The other substances continue to condense and will drip chromatography paper
back into the flask. Number of rings/dots = number of substances
The beaker can be changed after every fraction If two dots travel the same distance up the paper,
they are the same substance.
The pure substance only gives one spot.
Retention Value:
Used to identify a substance, calculated by the formula:
Distance moved by substance
Rf Value =
Distance moved by solvent
​

Locating Agents
Used to make colourless chromatograms visible
Dry paper in the oven
Spray it with locating agent
Heat it for 10 minutes in the oven
12.8. Chromatography
12.9. Separation Techniques
Used to separate substances in a solvent with different
solubilities. This can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate
solvent
Then filter one and extract the other from the solution by
evaporation
If one solid is magnetic, it can use a magnet, e.g. sand
and iron fillings

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY
Component Component With aqueous
Technique Example Cations With aqueous NaOH
1 2 Ammonia
Solid Solid Use a solvent Sand and Salt Aluminum White soluble
White precipitate,
Use Filtration - precipitate turns
Copper (II) (Al3+) colourless in excess
insoluble in excess
Insoluble Separating the
Liquid Oxide and
Solid residue and the Ammonium Ammonia gas
Water
filtrate (NH4+) produced on warming
Crystallization - White precipitate,
Copper (II)
Liquid is Calcium (Ca2+) insoluble in excess Faint or no precipitate
Soluble Solid Liquid sulfate from
evaporated to
water Light Blue precipitate,
leave the solid Light Blue
2+ soluble in excess to
Distillation (2 Copper (Cu ) precipitate, insoluble give a dark blue
Ethanol & Water in excess
Liquids) or solution
Liquid (Simple), Crude
Liquid Fractional
(Miscible) Oil (Fractional Green precipitate, Green precipitate,
Distillation (More
Distillation) Iron(II) (Fe2+) insoluble in excess insoluble in excess
than two liquids)
Red-brown Red-brown
Iron(III) (Fe3+) precipitate, insoluble precipitate, insoluble
12.10. Purification in excess in excess
White precipitate, White precipitate,
Purity in Substances Zinc (Zn2+) soluble and turns soluble and turns
colourless in excess colourless in excess
Assessing purity Chromium Green precipitate, Green precipitate,
(Cr3+) soluble in excess insoluble in excess
Have a definite, sharp melting
Pure substances
point/boiling point
Test for Anions
Impure Have a lower melting point and a higher
substances boiling point
1. Sulfate ions (SO42-):
This assessment of substance purity is important, especially
Add dilute nitric acid, then add aq. barium nitrate
in food consumption, as its intake can be dangerous.
White precipitate formed

12.11. Identification of Ions and Gases 2. Sulfite ions (SO32-):

Test for Cations Add acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) and
heat
Colour changes from purple to colourless
3. Halide ions:

Add nitric acid, then aqueous silver nitrate

Chloride (Cl-) White precipitate

Bromide (Br-) Cream precipitate
Iodide (I-) Yellow precipitate

4. Nitrate ions (NO3-):

Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then add warm

aluminium foil
The pungent gas produced turns damp red litmus blue

5. Carbonate ions (CO32-):

Add dilute hydrochloric acid

If bubbles/ gas produced turn limewater cloudy,
carbonate ions present

Gas Tests

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Gas Test and Test Result
Ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus paper turns blue
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Turns limewater milky
Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches red/blue litmus paper
Hydrogen (H2) Place lighted splint, squeaky pop
Oxygen (O2) Place glowing splint, splint relights
Turns Acidified Aqueous Potassium
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Manganate (VII) from purple to
colourless

Flame Tests
Metal Ion Flame Colour
Lithium Red
Sodium Yellow
Calcium Orange-red
Potassium Lilac
Barium Light-Green
Copper (II) Blue-Green

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CAIE IGCSE
Chemistry

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