Overview of GPRS

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service. GPRS technology was established to provide
higher data rate compared to GSM. GPRS is the packet – based and continuous wireless internet
service which offers data rates from 56 kbps to 172 kbps for computer and mobile users.
The standardization of GPRS technology was done by the European Telecommunications
Standard Institute (ETSI). The important point for GPRS technology is that it works with packet
switched data rather than circuit switched data and packet switching efficiently utilized available
capacity of the system.
GPRS also supports unicast, broadcast and multicast services. It provides more efficient and
inexpensive packet transfer service for typical internet applications that depends on packet
transfer. ‘Always on’ characteristic is the key advantage for GPRS user which does not require to
setup connection prior to data transfer.
For the new GPRS radio channels, the GSM system can assign between one to eight time slots
within a TDMA frame. Time slots are dynamic, they are not pre-determined or pre- fixed.
In GPRS technique, at least one time slot is reserved by the operator to provide good QoS and to
guarantee a minimum data transfer speed. Data transfer rate also depends on the capacity of
Mobile Station (MS) as all devices are not able to handle sending and receiving of data at same
time.

Characteristics of GPRS
Following are the key characteristics of GPRS technology:
 Packet switching operation:
GPRS technology works with packet switching technique and is quite advantageous compared to
GSM which works on circuit switching technique. Packet switching is more efficient and can
maximum utilize available capacity of system as well it also allows high commonality in internet
techniques.
 Always-on connection:
As GPRS works with packet switching technique, and in packet switching charges are on the
base of amount of data carried as it uses service provider’s capacity. While in circuit switching
technique, charges are calculated on the base of time for which circuit is used or for the time of
call.
 Speed:
The main reason to establish GPRS is to provide higher data rate over GSM. GPRS can provide
data rate upto 172 kbps, which is quite higher compared to GSM.
 Support more applications:
Always on characteristics and packer switching along with higher data rate allows GPRS to work
with many new applications. One of the greatest advancement in GPRS is Blackberry form of
PDA and mobile.
 CAPEX and OPEX:
Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) and Operational Expenditure (OPEX) are important for GPRS as
they are concerned with finance. As GPRS is an upgradation to GSM an mostly in the form of
Software upgrade, so it does not require dedicated networks and other resources. GPRS can
easily operate and maintain remotely. Hence the capital expenditure for GPRS is not as high as
newly setup network.
Simultaneously, operational expenditure is also very low, as operators don’t have to maintain
networks separately it can be handled and managed remotely. Also the base – station
infrastructure will be same so it will not affect OPEX.
 Quality of Service (QoS):
GPRS guarantees good Quality of Service (QoS) based on high, normal and low service
precedence, reliability class and delay class of the transmission and user data throughput.
Reliability class is used for greater error tolerance, error-detection and error-correction. While
delay class is used for channel access delay, coding for error correction and transfer delay in
GPRS network.
 Security:
GPRS provides various security services like authentication, user identity confidentiality, user
information confidentiality and access control

GPRS System Architecture:

GPRS system architecture contains 2 new elements, i.e., GSN (GPRS Support Nodes), which are
also known as routers, and SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Nodes). Figure – 1 displays GPRS
system architecture. GPRS architecture includes following important components:
 MS
 BSS
 GGSN
 SGSN
 MSC
 HLR / GR
 VLR
 EIR
 Interface

 Mobile Station (MS) comprises of users’ hardware and software to interact with GPRS
network. Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is responsible to maintain radio connection with
MS and coding / decoding of voice. Every BSS of network is controlled by Base Station
Controller (BSC).
 BSS is connected with MS via Um interface.
 All GSNs are integrated with GSM architecture and new interfaces have been defined in
GPRS architecture.
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is an interworking component between external
packet data network (PDN) and GPRS network.
 GGSN maintains GPRS user’s routing information and also performs address
conversions. GGSN is connected with PDN via Gi interface and transfer information in
terms of packets via Gn interface.
  SGSN is connected with MS and BSS via Gb interface while it is connected with other
SGSN through Gn interface. SGSN request Home Location Register (HLR) or GPRS
Register (GR) to track location of individual MS and collecting billing information.
 SGSN can request to Equipment Identity Register (EIR) for identification and
authentication related tasks. SGSN can also request to Visitor Location Register (VLR)
via Mobile Switching Center (MSC) for bilingual information if MS is not available in
HLR.
 As displayed in figure 1, information in packet data format is transferred from external
network to MS via GGSN, SGSN and BSS respectively. In GPRS architecture, MSC is
used for signaling process.

GPRS:-
The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) enhances GSM data services significantly by
providing end-to-end packet switched data connections.
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional entities
that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM
network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet
data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface
resources concurrently.

A. Mobile station (MS): Mobile station communicates with BSS by using radio air
interface. To connect with SGSN the GPRS facility should be added in MS. It consists of User
Equipment and SIM. SIM gives GM subscribers their identity.
B. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It consists of many BSC (Base Station Controller) and BTS
(Base Transceiver Station). BSCs connect to single MSC and each BSC controls several hundred
of BTSs. The BTS and BSC interface is called as Abis interface. BSC reduces burden on MSC in
case of handover from one BTS to another connected to same BSC.
C. Core Network (CN):
 MSC (Mobile Switching Controller) is the central unit of the network. It controls
mobility management, call set up, location updating, routing, basic switching and
supplementary services.
 HLR (Home Location Register) consists of subscriber information and location of each
user who reside in same city as MSC. It gives IMSI.
 VLR (Visitor Location Register) temporarily stores the IMSI of each roaming
subscriber.
 AUC (Authentication Centre) is strongly protected database which handles
authentication and encryption key for every single subscriber in HLR and VLR. It
consists of EIR (Equipment Identity Register) to check for stolen phones.

D. GPRS Network Interfaces

Several interfaces connect the nodes:
 Gn/Gp Interface: Between SGSN and GGSN.
 Gb Interface: Between BSC and SGSN.
 Gi Interface: Between GGSN and external packet data networks.
 Gr Interface: Between SGSN and HLR.
 Gs Interface: Between SGSN and MSC (Mobile Switching Center) for coordination
with the GSM voice network.
GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP
based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects
charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act as a packet
filter for incoming traffic.
The GGSN acts as a gateway between the GPRS network and external packet data networks
(e.g., the Internet or private corporate networks). Its functions include:
 Translating GPRS packets to Internet Protocol (IP) or other formats.
 Allocating IP addresses to mobile devices.
 Managing Quality of Service (QoS) and billing information.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration
of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on charging for the
use of the air interface.
The SGSN is a critical node responsible for:
 Handling the registration of mobile devices in the network.
 Managing session establishment, mobility, authentication, and encryption.
 Routing packets between the mobile device and external networks.
GPRS Protocol Architecture:

 GPRS transmission plane protocol architecture is depicted in figure 2. As per the

architecture stack, all data inside GPRS backbone is transferred through GPRS Tunneling
Protocol (GTP).
 GTP uses both protocols, either TCP – for reliable communication or UDP – for non-
reliable communication. Generally, TCP is used for transferring X.25 packets while UDP
is used for IP packets.
 To adapt different characteristics of underlying layers networks, Subnetwork Dependent
Convergence Protocol (SNDPC) is used between SGSN and MS.
 LLC protocol is used for higher reliability during packet transfer between SGSN and MS.
 To provide routing and Quality of Service (QoS) related information, Base Station
Subsystem GPRS Protocol (BSSGP) is used between SGSN and BSS.
 But BSSGP does not perform error-correction and it works on top of a frame relay (FR)
network.
 At last to transfer data to MS via Um interface, Radio Link Protocol (RLC) is used. RLC
provides a reliable link, while the MAC controls access with signaling procedures for the
radio channel and the mapping of LLC frames onto the GSM physical channels.
Features of GPRS:
GPRS includes following important features:
 Short Message Service (SMS):
SMS is a special-purpose protocol designed for text message communication. SMS contains upto
160 characters to transfer text message.
 Enhanced Message Service (EMS):
Enhanced Message Service offers larger message size compared to SMS, which contains 760
characters in single transaction of data transfer.
 Multimedia Message Service (MMS):
Multimedia Message Service allows transmission of multimedia contents like JPG, GIF and
short videos.
 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP):
Wireless Application Protocol is a special purpose communication protocol used for mobile
browsers.
 Always-On Connection: GPRS provides an "always-on" internet connection, meaning users
don't need to dial in every time they want to access the internet.
 Packet-Switched Technology: It uses packet-switched data transmission, which is more
efficient than circuit-switched methods because it only uses network resources when data is sent
or received.
 Flexible Billing: Billing is typically based on the amount of data transmitted (e.g., per
kilobyte or megabyte) rather than the time spent online.

Common GPRS Services

1. Internet Browsing: Basic web browsing through WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
or HTML-enabled browsers.
2. Email Access: Sending and receiving emails directly on mobile devices.
3. Multimedia Messaging (MMS): Sending images, video, and audio files via MMS
technology.
4. Instant Messaging: Using chat apps that rely on mobile data.
 5. Navigation and Location Services: Supporting GPS-based applications for navigation
and location tracking.
6. IoT and M2M Communication: GPRS is often used in IoT (Internet of Things) devices
and Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication for applications like fleet management
or smart meters.
Speeds
GPRS speeds are slower than modern mobile data technologies like 4G or 5G:
 Typical speeds: 40–60 kbps.
 Maximum speeds: Up to 114 kbps (theoretical).
Modern Usage
While GPRS is largely obsolete in urban areas with the availability of 4G and 5G networks, it is
still used in some rural or remote regions and for low-bandwidth IoT applications due to its wide
coverage and lower cost.

Quality of Service (QoS):-

GPRS Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the ability of the network to manage and prioritize data
traffic to ensure a consistent and reliable user experience. QoS parameters in GPRS are essential
for differentiating service quality based on user needs and application requirements.
Key QoS Parameters in GPRS
1. Precedence Class:
o Defines the priority of the data packets.

o Values range from 1 (highest priority) to 3 (lowest priority).

o Higher precedence ensures that critical applications (e.g., emergency

communications) get priority over less critical ones.
2. Delay Class:
o Determines the maximum acceptable delay for data transmission.

o Classes range from 1 (low delay, high priority) to 4 (high delay, low priority).

o Applications like VoIP and gaming require lower delay classes, while email can
tolerate higher delays.
3. Reliability Class:
 o Specifies the level of reliability for data delivery.

o Includes factors such as data loss, duplication, and corruption.

o Classes range from 1 (highest reliability) to 5 (lowest reliability).

o Critical applications like financial transactions require higher reliability.

4. Peak Throughput Class:

o Indicates the maximum data rate achievable.

o Ranges from 8 kbps to 2048 kbps, depending on the network's capabilities and the
device.
5. Mean Throughput Class:
o Specifies the average data rate expected during a session.

o Used to ensure fair distribution of network resources among users.

QoS Profiles
The QoS parameters are typically grouped into QoS profiles, tailored to different types of
applications and user requirements. For example:
 High-priority services: Low delay, high reliability, and high peak throughput (e.g.,
emergency services).
 Best-effort services: Moderate delay, medium reliability, and moderate throughput (e.g.,
web browsing).

QoS Management
 To enforce QoS, the network uses mechanisms like:
 Admission Control: Determines whether a new session can be admitted without
compromising the QoS of existing sessions.
 Traffic Shaping: Controls the flow of data to ensure compliance with QoS settings.
 Resource Reservation: Allocates network resources based on QoS requirements.

Challenges
1. Limited Bandwidth: GPRS is a 2G technology with low data speeds, making it hard to
meet high QoS demands.
 2. Network Congestion: Heavy traffic can degrade QoS for all users.
3. Device Capabilities: Older devices may not fully support advanced QoS features.
Mobility management in GPRS
Mobility management in GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) ensures seamless data
communication as mobile users move between different cells in a GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications) network. It involves tracking mobile devices, maintaining their
connection status, and efficiently handling handovers.
Key Components of Mobility Management in GPRS
1. Cell Selection and Reselection
o The mobile station (MS) selects the best serving cell based on signal strength and
quality.
o Reselection happens when a better cell is found.

2. Routing Area (RA) and RA Updates

o Unlike GSM (which uses Location Areas), GPRS groups cells into Routing
Areas (RAs).
o The MS sends Routing Area Updates (RAUs) when it moves between RAs.

3. Location Management
o GPRS uses two key network elements for tracking mobile stations:

 SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): Tracks user location and session
state.
 GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): Connects to external packet-
switched networks.
4. Paging and Attach/Detach Procedures
o GPRS Attach: When a device connects to the network, it registers with an SGSN.

o GPRS Detach: When a device disconnects, it informs the network to release

resources.
o Paging: The network locates an MS for incoming data packets when it is in an
idle state.
5. Handover (Cell Change)
o GPRS supports cell reselection but does not require circuit-switched handovers.
 o It ensures an uninterrupted data session when moving between cells.

6. IP Address and PDP Context Management

o The MS requests a PDP (Packet Data Protocol) context activation to obtain an
IP address.
o The PDP context remains active even during movement unless explicitly
deactivated.
Differences Between GSM and GPRS Mobility Management

Feature GSM (Circuit-Switched) GPRS (Packet-Switched)

Tracking Area Location Area (LA) Routing Area (RA)

Handover Hard/Softer Handover Cell Reselection

Attach/Detach Location Update Routing Area Update

Data Transfer Requires Connection Always-On (Packet-Switched)

GPRS Mobility Management States

a)Idle State
A MS in the idle state is not traceable and can only receive PTM-M transmissions such as
general broadcast events destined to a specific geographical area. The MS needs to perform the
attach procedure in order to connect to the GPRS network and become reachable.
b)Ready State
Data is sent or received in this state. The MS informs the SGSN when it changes cells. The MS
may explicitly request (or can be forced by the network) to detach in which case it moves to Idle.
A timer monitors the Ready state and upon its expiry, the MS is put on Standby. The timer
insures that resources are not wasted by an inactive MS.
c)Standby State
 A connected MS which is inactive is put in the Standby state. Moving back to Ready can be
triggered by sending data or signalling information from the MS to the SGSN. Upon arrival of
data destined to the MS, the SGSN pages the latter and a response to the page moves the MS
back to the Ready state. The MS may wish (or can be forced by the network) to terminate the
connection by requesting to detach in which case it returns to Idle. A timer is used by the SGSN
to monitor the tracking of the MS, and when it expires, the MS is detached and is considered
unreachable

Data Packet Routing

The main functions of the GGSN involve interaction with the external data network. The GGSN
updates the location directory using routing information supplied by the SGSNs about the
location of an MS.
It routes the external data network protocol packet encapsulated over the GPRS backbone to the
SGSN currently serving the MS.
It also decapsulates and forwards external data network packets to the appropriate data network
and collects charging data that is forwarded to a charging gateway (CG).
In Figure below , three routing schemes are illustrated:
 Mobile-originated message (path 1)—This path begins at the GPRS mobile and ends at
the Host
 Network-initiated message when the MS is in its home network (path 2)—This path
begins at the Host and ends at the GPRS mobile
 Network-initiated message when the MS roams to another GPRS network (path 3)—This
path is indicated by the dotted line.
In these examples, the operator's GPRS network consists of multiple GSNs (with a gateway
and serving functionality) and an intra-operator backbone network. GPRS operators allow
roaming through an inter-operator backbone network.
The GPRS operators connect to the inter-operator network through a border gateway (BG),
which can provide the necessary interworking and routing protocols (for example, border
gateway protocol [BGP]).
The main benefits of the architecture are its flexibility, scalability, interoperability, and
roaming attributes.
The GPRS network encapsulates all data network protocols into its own encapsulation
protocol called the GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP). The GTP ensures security in the
backbone network and simplifies the routing mechanism and the delivery of data over the
GPRS network.
Logical Channels in GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
In GPRS, logical channels are used to efficiently transmit control and data packets between
the mobile station (MS) and the network. These channels operate over physical radio
channels and are categorized into Control Channels and Traffic Channels.

1. Categories of Logical Channels in GPRS

GPRS logical channels are classified into two main groups:
A) Control Channels (Signaling)
Used for mobility management, session establishment, and control signaling.
1. Broadcast Control Channels (BCCH in GSM, Not Modified for GPRS)
o Used for system information broadcasting (e.g., network parameters).

2. Packet Common Control Channel (PCCCH)

o Manages access and resource allocation for packet-switched services.

o Includes multiple sub-channels:

 Packet Paging Channel (PPCH) – Pages MS for incoming data.

 Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH) – Grants resources to MS for
packet transmission.
 Packet Notification Channel (PNCH) – Used for multicast/broadcast
services.
3. Packet Broadcast Control Channel (PBCCH)
o Similar to BCCH but optimized for GPRS, broadcasting packet-specific system
information.
4. Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH)
o Used for signaling between MS and the network (e.g., resource allocation, power
control).
o Functions like a dedicated signaling channel in GSM.
B) Traffic Channels (Data Transmission)
Used for actual data transfer between MS and network.
1. Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH)
o Carries user data packets (e.g., web browsing, video streaming).

o Can be dynamically assigned based on network conditions.

2. Packet Timing Advance Control Channel (PTCCH)

o Handles uplink synchronization and power control.

2. Logical Channel Mapping

Logical Channel Type Function

PPCH (Packet Paging Channel) Control Pages MS for incoming data

PAGCH (Packet Access Grant

Control Grants access to MS for transmission
Channel)

PNCH (Packet Notification

Control Sends multicast notifications
Channel)

PBCCH (Packet Broadcast

Control Broadcasts GPRS system info
Control Channel)

PACCH (Packet Associated Sends signaling data (e.g., power

Control
Control Channel) control, resource allocation)

PDTCH (Packet Data Traffic

Traffic Carries user data
Channel)

PTCCH (Packet Timing Advance

Traffic Manages timing and power control
Control Channel)
3. Differences Between GSM and GPRS Logical Channels

Feature GSM (Circuit-Switched) GPRS (Packet-Switched)

BCCH, CCCH, SDCCH,

Control Channels PBCCH, PCCCH, PACCH
SACCH

PDTCH (Packet Data Traffic

Traffic Channels TCH (Traffic Channel)
Channel)

Paging Uses PPCH (Packet Paging

Uses PCH (Paging Channel)
Mechanism Channel)

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

A WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) is a type of local area network (LAN) that allows
devices to connect wirelessly using radio waves instead of physical cables. It provides high-
speed internet and network access over a limited area, such as homes, offices, schools, and
public hotspots.

1. Key Features of WLAN

 Wireless Connectivity – No need for Ethernet cables.
 Short-Range Communication – Typically covers 10 to 100 meters indoors, up to
several kilometers outdoors (with high-power antennas).
 Uses Wi-Fi Technology – Based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
 Supports Multiple Devices – Can connect laptops, smartphones, tablets, smart
TVs, IoT devices, etc.
 Scalability & Flexibility – Easy to expand and adapt.

2. WLAN Components
a) Access Points (APs)
 Acts as a bridge between wired networks (LAN) and wireless devices.
 Transmits data using radio signals (2.4 GHz & 5 GHz bands).
b) Wireless Clients (Stations – STAs)
 Devices like laptops, smartphones, IoT gadgets that connect to the WLAN.
c) Wireless Router
 Combines Access Point (AP), switch, and internet gateway into one device.
 Provides Wi-Fi and routes traffic between local devices and the internet.
d) WLAN Controller
 Used in enterprise WLANs to manage multiple APs centrally.

3. WLAN Standards (IEEE 802.11 Family)

The 802.11 standards define how WLANs operate:

Frequency Max Year

Standard Range
Band Speed Introduced

35m
802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps 1999
indoors

40m
802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps 1999
indoors

40m
802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps 2003
indoors

70m
802.11n (Wi-Fi 4) 2.4 & 5 GHz 600 Mbps 2009
indoors

35m
802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5) 5 GHz 6.9 Gbps 2014
indoors

802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6 & 50m

2.4, 5 & 6 GHz 9.6 Gbps 2019
6E) indoors

50m
802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) 2.4, 5 & 6 GHz 40 Gbps+ Expected 2024
indoors

4. WLAN Modes of Operation

a) Infrastructure Mode (Most Common)
 Uses a Wi-Fi router or AP for communication.
 Devices connect through the AP to access the network and internet.
b) Ad Hoc Mode (Peer-to-Peer)
 Devices communicate directly without an AP.
 Used in temporary networks or emergency situations.
c) Mesh Networks
 Multiple APs communicate with each other, extending coverage over large areas.
 Common in smart cities and large campuses.

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a wireless technology that uses radio waves to
identify and track objects, people, or animals automatically. It consists of RFID tags, RFID
readers, and a database system to store and process the collected data.

1. How RFID Works

 RFID Reader (Interrogator) sends a radio signal.
 RFID Tag (Transponder) receives the signal and responds with stored data.
 RFID Reader captures the data and sends it to a computer/database for processing.

2. Components of an RFID System

a) RFID Tags (Transponders)
Attached to objects and store unique identification data.
Passive RFID Tags – No battery; powered by reader’s signal.
Active RFID Tags – Have a battery; longer range and continuous transmission.
Semi-Passive RFID Tags – Have a battery but rely on reader’s signal for activation.
b) RFID Reader (Interrogator)
Sends and receives radio signals to communicate with tags.
Can be handheld or fixed (e.g., in warehouses, entry points).
c) Antenna
Helps transmit and receive RF signals between the reader and tags.
d) Database / Middleware
Stores and processes RFID data.
Integrates with ERP, WMS, security systems, etc.

3. RFID Frequency Ranges

Frequency Range Tag Type Common Applications

Low Frequency (LF) (125-134 Animal tracking,

~10 cm Passive
kHz) keycards

High Frequency (HF) (13.56 Contactless payments,

~1 m Passive
MHz) passports

Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) Retail, inventory,

~12 m Passive/Active
(860-960 MHz) logistics

Microwave (2.45 GHz, 5.8 Toll collection, vehicle

~100 m Active
GHz) tracking

4. Types of RFID Systems

a) Passive RFID Systems
✅ Lower cost

✅ No battery needed

❌ Shorter range (~10 cm to 12 m)

b) Active RFID Systems

✅ Longer range (~100 m)

✅ Real-time tracking

❌ More expensive

c) Semi-Passive RFID Systems

✅ Better performance than passive

✅ Less power consumption than active

What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications over
smaller distances. This generation changed into being invented via Ericson in 1994. It
operates within the unlicensed, business, scientific, and clinical (ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to
2.485 GHz.
Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters. Depending upon the version, it presents information up to
at least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps. The spreading method that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping
unfold spectrum). A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a group of interconnected
piconets is called a scatter net.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that lets devices like phones, tablets, and headphones
connect to each other and share information without needing cables. Bluetooth simply
follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It can be paired
with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated
communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network
called piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Key Features of Bluetooth
 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is a wireless technology.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
Piconet
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master node
and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total of
8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the
primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is
only between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has
255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication
unless it gets converted to the active state.
Scatternet
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master
or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message from a
master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is
acting as a master. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be
mastered in two piconets.
Bluetooth Protocol Stack
 Radio (RF) Layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency, the
use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs modulation/demodulation of
the data into RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers.
It defines two types of physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.
 Baseband Link Layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is
equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection establishment
within a piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power control.
 Link Manager Protocol Layer: It performs the management of the already established
links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for
creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon
command or failure.
 Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol Layer: It is also known as the
heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and
lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from
upper layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation
and multiplexing.
 Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) Layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It
allows discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.
 RF Comm Layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend
Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides
emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The
protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
 OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange
objects between 2 devices.
 WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
 TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The basic
function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for the
gateway serving multiple devices.
 Application Layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
Bluetooth Protocol Stack
Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use of
mobile phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or phone.
 Bluetooth-Equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via Bluetooth
with mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use Global Positioning System
(GPS) in cars, one can connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the
directions of the address.
Applications of Bluetooth
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wireless to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell phone to
another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical healthcare, sports and fitness, Military.
Advantages
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless broadband
technology based on the IEEE 802.16 standard. It provides high-speed internet access over
long distances, making it a strong alternative to DSL, cable, and fiber, especially in rural
and remote areas.

1. Key Features of WiMAX

 Wireless Broadband – No need for physical cables.
 Long-Range Connectivity – Up to 50 km (31 miles) in ideal conditions.
 High Data Speeds – Up to 1 Gbps (IEEE 802.16m WiMAX 2.0).
 Licensed & Unlicensed Spectrum – Operates on 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz, and
5.8 GHz bands.
 Supports Mobility – Can provide fixed, portable, and mobile broadband.
2. WiMAX Architecture
A WiMAX network consists of the following components:

a) Base Station (BS)

 Central unit that transmits and receives signals.
 Covers a large area (up to 10 km for urban settings).
b) Subscriber Station (SS) / Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)
 Installed at homes, businesses, or mobile devices to receive WiMAX signals.
c) WiMAX Tower
 Similar to a cell tower, it connects multiple base stations and provides coverage.
d) Core Network (Backhaul)
 Connects WiMAX base stations to the internet or other communication networks.

3. WiMAX Standards (IEEE 802.16 Family)

Frequency Max
Standard Range Mobility
Band Speed

802.16d (Fixed
2-11 GHz 75 Mbps 50 km No mobility
WiMAX)
 Frequency Max
Standard Range Mobility
Band Speed

802.16e (Mobile
2-6 GHz 128 Mbps 10 km Yes (cellular-like)
WiMAX)

802.16m (WiMAX Yes (Advanced LTE-

2-6 GHz 1 Gbps 10 km
2.0) like)

4. WiMAX vs. Wi-Fi vs. LTE

Feature WiMAX Wi-Fi LTE

Long-range (10-50 Short-range (~100

Coverage Wide-area (~10-30 km)
km) m)

Up to 1 Gbps Up to 9.6 Gbps (Wi-

Speed Up to 3 Gbps (LTE-A)
(WiMAX 2.0) Fi 6E)

Supports fixed &

Mobility Fixed only High mobility
mobile

Licensed bands (700

Frequency 2.3–5.8 GHz 2.4 & 5 GHz
MHz – 2.6 GHz)

Wireless broadband, Home/office

Use Case Cellular networks
ISP networking

Technology IEEE 802.16 IEEE 802.11 3GPP

5. Applications of WiMAX
✅ Rural Internet Access – Provides broadband where fiber or DSL isn’t available.
✅ Mobile Internet – Used as an alternative to LTE and 3G.
✅ Enterprise Connectivity – Businesses use WiMAX for high-speed data transmission.
✅ Public Safety & Disaster Recovery – Emergency communication in remote areas.
✅ Smart Cities & IoT – Used in surveillance, transportation, and industrial applications.

6. Advantages & Disadvantages of WiMAX

✅ Advantages
 Long Range – Covers large areas, reducing infrastructure costs.
 High Speeds – Faster than 3G, competitive with LTE.
 Scalability – Can serve both fixed and mobile users.
 Cost-Effective – Cheaper than fiber for long-distance deployment.
❌ Disadvantages

 Interference Issues – Affected by obstacles, weather, and RF congestion.

 Competition from LTE & Fiber – LTE is more widely adopted in mobile networks.
 High Initial Deployment Cost – Base stations and spectrum licensing are expensive.
 Limited Device Support – Fewer smartphones and devices support WiMAX compared
to LTE.