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Architectural Theory's Evolution and Response to Contemporary World

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Volume 9, Issue 1, January – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165

Architectural Theory’s Evolution and

Response to Contemporary World
Susan Mya Çaksın1; Demet Irklı Eryıldız2
Istanbul Okan University, Department of Architecture

Abstract:- In the ever-evolving sphere of architecture and Brophy & Lewis explored in ‘A Green Vitruvius’ on
urban planning, the quest for creating inclusive, vibrant, how contemporary architects might include ecological
and community-centered places has led to this study. This concerns into their projects.1 It emphasized sustainability,
paper initially analyzes five architectural theories energy efficiency, and the use of environmentally friendly
(Vitruvian Principles, Modernism, The International materials. It is an expansion of the original Vitruvian theory
Style, Post Modernism, Sustainability & Green which now serves as a guide for architects to create
Architecture) to propose a more appropriate concept. In environmentally conscious and responsible structures and
regard to promoting vernacular architecture and local spaces in today's context.
architectural traditions, a more appropriate model
‘Pluralistic Placemaking’ is proposed. This theory The Vitruvian Principles emphasize the fundamental
advocates for the celebration of cultural, social, and elements of strength, functionality, and beauty. But it falls
aesthetic diversity in our communities, promoting spaces short in addressing the dynamic cultural and social needs of
that not only reflect this diversity but also nurture a sense contemporary diverse communities.
of unity and shared ownership. It encourages us to think
architecture from many nuance approaches. Architects B. Modernism
should not only consider architectural theories and ‘Form follows function’ is a famous phrase by Louis
traditions, but also consider the importance of Sullivan which sums up the Modernist ideology that the
community building, vernacular architecture, emergency design of a building should be dictated by its purpose. ‘Less
and disaster resilient design, architectural conservation, is more’ is a minimalist mantra by Mies van der Rohe which
aesthetic approaches and more. To be able to do that, we captures the Modernist preference for clean lines and
need to be aware of integration of theories and traditions, uncluttered spaces. ‘A house is a machine for living in’ is a
respect cultural context, understand symbolism, practice quote by Le Corbusier which highlighted the functional
community involvement, exercise adaptation instead of aspect of architecture in the Modernist worldview.
assimilation, understand architectural language and Modernism in architecture is a significant movement that
allow flexibility and innovation. emerged in the early 20th century, primarily as a response to
the elaborate and ornate styles of the 19th century such as
Keywords:- Architectural Theory, Pluralistic Placemaking, Victorian and Edwardian architecture. It reflects a
Diversity in Architecture, Inclusive Urban Planning, philosophical shift towards simplicity and functionality,
Community-Centered Design. influenced by the rapid industrialization and technological
advancements of the era. Key components of Modernist
I. THE EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURAL architecture include the use of industrial materials such as
THEORIES steel, glass, and reinforced concrete, enabling the creation of
open, airy spaces with clean lines and minimal decorative
A. Vitruvian Principles elements. 2345
The Vitruvian Principles, established by the ancient
Roman architect Vitruvius, serve as enduring cornerstones in 1
Vivienne Brophy and J Owen Lewis, A Green Vitruvius:
architectural thought. These principles, encompassing Principles and Practice of Sustainable Architectural Design
Firmitas (durability), Utilitas (functionality), and Venustas (London: Routledge, 2011)
(beauty) underline the fundamental aspects of architectural <https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849776929>.
design. Firmitas / Durability focuses on the structural 2
Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History
strength and longevity of a building, ensuring it endures the (World of Art) (Thames & Hudson, 2020).
test of time. Utilitas / Functionality emphasizes the value of 3
Le Corbusier, ‘Towards a New Architecture’, Reprint of
functions, stressing why a building must serve its intended (1927), 2014, 312.
purpose effectively. Venustas / Beauty places importance on 4
James R. Abbott, ‘Louis Sullivan, Architectural Modernism,
aesthetics, stating that a building should not only be and the Creation of Democratic Space’, The American
functional but also a source of delight and visual harmony. Sociologist, 31.1 (2000), 62–85
The Vitruvian Principles continue to stand as a timeless <https://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-000-1005-0>.
framework that highlights the fundamental characteristics of 5
Francesco Passanti, ‘The Vernacular, Modernism, and Le
durable and well-designed structures. Corbusier’, Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians, 56.4 (1997), 438–51
<https://doi.org/10.2307/991313>.

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Volume 9, Issue 1, January – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Modernism's focus on minimalism and rejection of diversity with wit and humor by being playful with scales
ornamentation can occasionally result spaces that feel and proportions. 678
impersonal and disconnected from the historical and cultural
background of the local context. It can also prioritize Charles Jencks’ theory of ‘The architect's task is to
function above human sensitivity, creating places lacking of make buildings talk, sing, and dance’ celebrates the ability of
cultural and aesthetic life. architecture to evoke emotions and engage in human senses.
‘Less is a bore’ a cheeky jab by Robert Venturi or ‘Buildings
C. The International Style are like people. They become more interesting as they get
A significant architectural movement that arose as a older’ are interesting aspects of Postmodernism.
subset of modernism was the International Style. It was
defined by its emphasis on volume over mass, use of Postmodernism gradually to wane in popularity and
lightweight, industrial materials, and rejection of unnecessary influence in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Some of the
ornamentation. It was celebrated from the 1920s until the major critiques include being kitsch, overly superficial or
1970s. Originating in Western Europe and later spreading trivializing serious architectural discourse, focus on elitism
globally, this style attempt to express the age of and insider jokes in playfulness, historical distortion and loss
industrialization through architectural design. Buildings in of identity, Form over Function and inconsideration of
the International Style were known for their clean lines, environmental concerns.
geometric forms, open interior spaces, and a harmonious
balance between functionality and aesthetics. The use of E. Sustainability and Green Architecture
glass, steel, and reinforced concrete became trademarks, Sustainability and green architecture gained significant
enabling the creation of structures that appeared to float. It momentum in late 20th and early 21st centuries. It was a
attempts to defy the traditional architectural norms and break vibrant movement that integrates environmental
away from nationalistic concepts. It strives for a global, consciousness into architectural principles. Energy-
standardized architecture with universal principle attempting efficiency, usage of eco-friendly local materials, promotion
to address the power of globalization. It also attempts to of natural and recycled materials and integration with
connect nature with the use of large windows and open floor renewable energy sources like solar panels are major factors
plans blurred the lines between indoors and outdoors, of consideration which emphasis on minimizing
bringing light and air into the living space. It also introduced environmental effect. This movement not only focuses on
the concept of how art and technology cannot exist without reducing the ecological footprint of buildings but also
the other. ‘The artist must understand the machine, the attempts to provide healthier and more sustainable living
engineer must be able to feel’ was the famous quote by environments. It reflects a growing awareness of climate
Walter Adolph Georg Gropius who tried to bridge the gap change, scarcity of resources, and an ethical responsibility
between artistic expressions and technological advancements towards future generations.9 10
which became one of the principles of the International Style.
Glenn Murcutt advocated the usage of local materials
However, by the year 1970s, it began to face criticism and minimalism in design that blends with nature, with the
for its perceived coldness and lack of human scale. The phrase ‘Touch the earth lightly’. Kate Orff promoted
International Style’s pursuit of universal architectural biophilic design and usage of natural materials by
solutions, end up overlooking the unique cultural, stating ‘We need to design buildings that make us feel like
environmental, and social characteristics of each location. It we're outside, even when we're inside’. Vo Trong Nghia
leads to erasing of local identities. claimed ‘Bamboo is the steel of the 21st century’. Hassan
Fathy demanded architecture must also serve the poor. 11
D. Postmodernism Semih Eryildiz summed up the sustainable architecture into
Postmodernism in architecture arose in the late 20th
century as a departure from the rigid norms of Modernism. It
gained its prominence in the 1960s and 1970s and embraced
playfulness, diversity and complexity. The minimalist and
functional ethos of Modernism were questioned by
postmodern architects like Robert Venturi, Charles Moore,
and Michael Graves, Philip Johnson, who infused buildings
6
Charles Jencks, Post Modernism: The New Classicism in
with bold, symbolic, and sometimes quirky whimsical Art and Architecture (Academy Editions, 1987).
elements. It uses vibrant colors, unconventional forms, and
7
Charles Jencks, The New Paradigm in Architecture: The
decorative elements that often borrowed from historical or Language of Postmodernism (Yale University Press, 2002).
cultural sources. The intension is to create contextually
8
Robert Venturi, Steven Izenour, and Denise Scott Brown,
sensitive and inclusive approach to architecture in contrast to Learning from Las Vegas - Revised Edition: The Forgotten
impersonal and universal aesthetics of Modernism. It was a Symbolism of Architectural Form (The MIT Press, 1977).
vibrant rebellious architecture with playful juxtapositions of
9
David Bergman, Sustainable Design: A Critical Guide
historical styles, clashing patterns, and flamboyant neon (Architecture Briefs) (Princeton Architectural Press, 2012).
signs. It broke the mold of ‘less is more’ mantra. It celebrated
10
Rob Fleming and Saglinda H Roberts, Sustainable Design
for the Built Environment, 2019.
11
Hassan Fathy, Architecture for the Poor: An Experiment in
Rural Egypt (University of Chicago Press, 2000).

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 Volume 9, Issue 1, January – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
three major themes: energy efficiency, water management B. Buddhist Architecture
and food production (urban farming). 12 Most of the finest Buddhist Architectural works are
found in Temples, Monasteries, Stupas, Pagodas, Rock-cut
‘Cost and Accessibility’ has always been One of the cave architecture and symbolism of lotus flower, the Dharma
most common critiques of this movement since low-income wheel, and the Bodhi tree. Major key figures of this
communities and developing countries cannot effort a typical architecture were King Ashoka, Kukai and Saicho.
green building. ‘Greenwashing and Hype’ is the accusation Depending on the location and branch of teaching, it can be
used against this approach when architects pursue superficial sub-categorized into Vajrayana Architecture, Mahayana
green features while neglecting broader environmental Architecture and Theravada Architecture. Mahabodhi
concerns. ‘Overreliance on Technology’ occurs when Temple of India, Borobudur of Indonesia, Kiyomizu-dera
architects end up neglecting fundamental design principles.13 Temple of Japan, Potala Palace of Tibet, Bulguksa Temple of
The absence of clear and rigorous standards for green Korea, Mahamuni Pagoda of Myanmar and The Forbidden
buildings causes ‘Lack of Standardization and Regulations’. City of China are some of the best noteworthy case studies. 17
‘Aesthetic Limitations’ and more importantly ‘Social 18

Disconnect’ of the communities while focusing solely on

ecological consideration. It pushes us to consider other C. Jewish Architecture
possible nuance pursuits in architecture. Synagogues, Mikveh (Ritual Baths) and Yeshivas
(Religious Schools) are the places that reflects best works of
II. PLURALISTIC PLACEMAKING Jewish Architectural tradition. Due to Diaspora various other
elements across Europe and America influenced on it. Some
Renowned philosopher of Pluralism Isaiah Berlin used of the most influential forces of it came starting from King
an ancient Greek poem ‘The fox knows many things, but the Solomon, Herod the Great, Erich Mendelsohn, Arnold W.
hedgehog knows one big thing’ to explain his theory. 14 In his Brunner, Albert Kahn and Daniel Libeskind. Some of the
theory, a hedgehog (a typical monist) sees one big thing and best case-studies include Great Synagogue of Budapest,
the fox (a pluralist) sees many things. His theory stresses on Western Wall, Beth Sholom Synagogue (Pittsburgh)
why the society needs more pluralists in the world. Oranienburgerstraße of Berlin and Victoire Synagogues of
Placemaking is the term used in architecture for turning Paris.19 20
‘spaces’ into ‘places. It turns the empty irrelevant urban
voids into meaningful active places. D. Christian Architecture
Architectural styles of Christendom differ according to
Following is the summary of religious architectural time periods Byzantine Period, Romanesque Period, Gothic
traditions, contemporary architecture movements and other Period, Renaissance, Baroque and contemporary. Some of
major relevant factors. the major branches of Christianity such as Catholicism,
Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Anglicanism also had
III. RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURAL TRADITIONS different influence on its architecture. Notable figures of this
style which changed architectural movements include
A. Hindu Architecture Emperor Constantine, Abbot Suger, Filippo Brunelleschi,
Best works of Hindu architecture can be found in rock- Michelangelo and Christopher Wren. Notre-Dame Cathedral
cut caves, beehive-shaped shikhara (temple towers), of Paris, St. Peter's Basilica and The Sistine Chapel of
garbhagriha, temple complexes, intricate carvings and Vatican and Sagrada Família of Barcelona are some of the
towering gateways (gopurams) in South-East Asia. Major most noteworthy case-studies. 21 22
key figures behind this architecture were Krishnadevaraya,
Raja Raja Chola I and Raja Bhoja. Best case studies include
Brihadeeswarar Temple and Khajuraho Temples of India,
Angkor Wat of Cambodia and Pura Temples of Indonesia. 15
16
17
Wei Ran, Buddhist Buildings: The Architecture of
Monasteries, Pagodas, and Stone Caves (CN Times Beijing
Media Time United Publishing, 2015).
18
Vikram Lall, The Golden Lands: Cambodia, Indonesia,
Laos, Myanmar, Thailand & Vietnam (Architecture of the
12
Semih Eryildiz and Demet Eryildiz, Emarlik-Ecological Buddhist World) (Abbeville Press, 2014).
Design and Planning :Eture -Ecological Design and 19
Richard Cohen, Building a Public Judaism: Synagogues
Planning (Istanbul: Istanbul Okan University, 2022). and Jewish Identity in Nineteenth-Century Europe
13
Victor Papanek, The Green Imperative: Ecology and Ethics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).
in Design and Architecture (Thames & Hudson, 2005). 20
Carol Herselle Krinsky, Synagogues of Europe:
14
Isaiah Berlin, The Hedgehog and the Fox (United Architecture, History, Meaning (Dover Publications, 1996).
Kingdom: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1953). 21
Jeanne Halgren Kilde, Sacred Power, Sacred Space: An
15
George Michell, Hindu Art and Architecture (World of Art) Introduction to Christian Architecture and Worship (Oxford
(Thames & Hudson, 2000). University Press, 2008).
16
Prasanna Kumar Acharya, Hindu Architecture in India and 22
James F. White and Susan J. White, Church Architecture:
Abroad (Manasara Series) (Low Price Publications, 2006). Building and Renovating for Christian Worship, 2018.

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Volume 9, Issue 1, January – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
E. Islamic Architecture  Architectural Conservation
Mosques, Madrasas, Mausoleums (Tombs) and The main ideology of architectural conservation is to
Caravanserais are usually the finest works of Islamic preserve the past for the future. It protects and manage
Architecture. Some of the most distinctive Islamic historically significant structures, buildings and landscapes.
Architectural Styles are of Arabic, Persian, Ottoman and The use of science, technology, artistic sensibility, and
Mughal. When this movement blends with local architecture, understanding of traditions is required for this field. It intends
it produces new authentic local architecture. For instance, the to protect heritage of the built environment, cultural
Registan Square in Samarkand of Timurid artistry is very significance and values. There are several types of
different from Great Mosque of Djenné or the adobe city of conservations (i) preventive method which maintain, monitor
Mali. Some of the key figures that influenced this and prevent deterioration, (ii) curative method which repair
architectural tradition are Mimar Sinan of Ottoman Empire, the damages and address structural issues (iii) adaptive-reuse
Emperor Akbar and Shah Jahan of Mughal Empire. Some of method which give new life to historic buildings while
the most noteworthy case-studies are Alhambra of Spain, respecting their original nature and (iv) documentation and
Dome of the Rock from Jerusalem, Great Mosque of record keeping which preserve history and knowledge
Damascus, Taj Mahal of Agra and Sheikh Zayed Grand through archives, documents, maps and photographs.
Mosque of Abu Dhabi. 23 24 Although it is a crucial field, there are many challenges such
as difficulties in raising awareness and appreciation, funding
 Vernacular Architecture and resources, climate change and environmental threats,
Vernacular Architecture is also known as ‘architecture adaptation to modern accessibility and needs.29 30
of the people’ since it’s major focus is on creating
environments for ordinary people using methods and  Architecture and Aesthetic
materials that reflect their needs, traditions and environment. Many approaches of aesthetic pursuits are developed in
25
It focuses on climate adaptation and sustainability. While contemporary architecture. One that struck most is by Roger
traditional vernacular architecture was built spontaneously, it Scruton on the topic of ‘genius and originality’. Since the
is now evolved into constructing with more sensible time of Kant, people are not to be entitled in the realm of art
approaches to adapt the modern needs.26 By studying Tuscan without the ‘originality’ a.k.a being an ‘authentic genius’. TS
farmhouses, Japanese wooden houses, Mudbrick houses in Eliot in his essay ‘Tradition and Individual talent’ argued that
Mali to Straw-thatched cottages of England, we can conclude while the originality is necessary, it must be in the bounds of
vernacular architecture reflects culture. tradition. Otherwise, traditions shall die. 31 32

 Emergency and Disaster Resilient Design Just doing something which hasn’t been done before
Some of the main considerations include structural when it shows no understanding of what has been done
integrity, managing water sources, power grids, and escape before is not originality it is merely unpredictability. To
routes. It is not only oriented on resource efficiency but also sweep away the art, tradition and architectural inheritance of
allow accessibility and inclusivity. Earthquake-resistant a tradition just to create something else can be considered a
buildings of Japan, hurricane-proof houses of coastal regions, fake originality. Aesthetic education starts from
fire-resistant skyscrapers, green infrastructure and landscapes understanding and embracing a tradition to be able to define
that reduce storm damage and absorb floodwaters are your own efforts in terms of it. 33
examples of it. It involves both disaster-resilient design and
post-disaster shelter design.27 28 IV. CONCLUSION

The integration of diverse architectural traditions and

practices in architecture could be very challenging. It requires
careful consideration, a nuanced approach to design and
respect for cultural sensitivities. Each architectural tradition
23
Luca Mozzati, Islamic Art: Architecture, Painting, carries with it a set of unique religious, cultural and historical
Calligraphy, Ceramics, Glass, Carpets (Prestel, 2019). values. Attempting to integrate them without proper
24
Leyla Uluhanli, Mosques: Splendors of Islam (Rizzoli,
2017).
25
Jorge Fernandes, R. Mateus, and L. Bragança, ‘Portuguese 29
R. Livingston, ‘Conservation and Applied Mineralogy’,
Vernacular Architecture: The Contribution of Vernacular Canadian Mineralogist, June (1986).
Materials and Design Approaches for Sustainable 30
International Council on Monuments and Sites, ‘ICOMOS’
Construction’, Architectural Science Review, October, 2015. <https://www.icomos.org/en>.
26
Xiaosui Xiao, ‘The Present Tense of “Vernacular”’, 31
Andrea Sauchelli, ‘The Structure and Content of
Journal of Chongqing, Jianzhu University, 2001. Architectural Experience: Scruton on Architecture as Art’,
27
Esther Charlesworth and John Fien, ‘Design and Disaster Estetika, 49.1 (2012), 26–44
Resilience: Toward a Role for Design in Disaster Mitigation <https://doi.org/10.33134/eeja.89>.
and Recovery’, Architecture, 2.2 (2022), 292–306 32
Eleri Lloyd, ‘Aesthetic Value in the Built Environment’,
<https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture2020017>. April, 2022.
28
Esther Charlesworth, Humanitarian Architecture: 15 33
Roger Scruton, ‘The Aesthetic Endeavour Today’,
Stories of Architects Working after Disaster (Routledge, Philosophy, 71.277 (1996), 331–50
2014). <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031819100041620>.

IJISRT24JAN658 www.ijisrt.com 268

Volume 9, Issue 1, January – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
understanding and sensitivity could risk diminishing or [7]. Charlesworth, Esther, and John Fien, ‘Design and
distorting their significance. Some factors which should be Disaster Resilience: Toward a Role for Design in
taken into account are: Disaster Mitigation and Recovery’, Architecture, 2.2
(2022), 292–306 <https://doi.org/10.3390/
 Respect for Cultural Context: architecture2020017>
The consideration and respect for cultural and religious [8]. Cohen, Richard, Building a Public Judaism:
significance as well as social and historical tradition is Synagogues and Jewish Identity in Nineteenth-
required. Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 2014)
 Understanding Symbolism: [9]. Corbusier, Le, ‘Towards a New Architecture’, Reprint
Understanding meaning, architectural features, symbols, of (1927), 2014, 312
and patterns to be able to integrated in the design is essential. [10]. Eryildiz, Semih, and Demet Eryildiz, Emarlik-
Ecological Design and Planning :Eture -Ecological
 Community Involvement: Design and Planning (Istanbul: Istanbul Okan
While dealing with significant spaces, local community University, 2022)
and stakeholders in the design process is very important. [11]. Fathy, Hassan, Architecture for the Poor: An
Experiment in Rural Egypt (University of Chicago
 Adaptation, Not Assimilation: Press, 2000)
Assimilation means the adoption of the architectural [12]. Fernandes, Jorge, R. Mateus, and L. Bragança,
style of the dominant culture, while adaptation means the ‘Portuguese Vernacular Architecture: The
modification of the architectural style to suit the local Contribution of Vernacular Materials and Design
environment and culture. Because the goal is not to dilute the Approaches for Sustainable Construction’,
uniqueness of each tradition but to find points of harmony Architectural Science Review, October, 2015
and integration. [13]. Fleming, Rob, and Saglinda H Roberts, Sustainable
Design for the Built Environment, 2019
 Architectural Language: [14]. Frampton, Kenneth, Modern Architecture: A Critical
Consideration of the visual, spatial, aesthetic and History (World of Art) (Thames & Hudson, 2020)
symbolic aspects to create lies in understanding it’s [15]. International Council on Monuments and Sites,
architectural language. ‘ICOMOS’ <https://www.icomos.org/en>
[16]. Jencks, Charles, Post Modernism: The New
 Flexibility and Innovation: Classicism in Art and Architecture (Academy
Allowing the design to evolve and adapt over time is a Editions, 1987)
part of innovation. [17]. The New Paradigm in Architecture: The Language of
Postmodernism (Yale University Press, 2002)
To sum up, ‘Pluralistic Placemaking’ is an ideology [18]. Kilde, Jeanne Halgren, Sacred Power, Sacred Space:
which demands architecture from various perspectives to An Introduction to Christian Architecture and
solve the contemporary urban needs of the cities. Worship (Oxford University Press, 2008)
[19]. Krinsky, Carol Herselle, Synagogues of Europe:
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<https://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-000-1005-0> 2014)
[2]. Acharya, Prasanna Kumar, Hindu Architecture in [21]. Livingston, R., ‘Conservation and Applied
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(Routledge, 2014)

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Volume 9, Issue 1, January – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
[27]. Ran, Wei, Buddhist Buildings: The Architecture of
Monasteries, Pagodas, and Stone Caves (CN Times
Beijing Media Time United Publishing, 2015)
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[30]. Uluhanli, Leyla, Mosques: Splendors of Islam
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[31]. Venturi, Robert, Steven Izenour, and Denise Scott
Brown, Learning from Las Vegas - Revised Edition:
The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form (The
MIT Press, 1977)
[32]. White, James F., and Susan J. White, Church
Architecture: Building and Renovating for Christian
Worship, 2018
[33]. Xiao, Xiaosui, ‘The Present Tense of “Vernacular”’,
Journal of Chongqing, Jianzhu University, 2001

IJISRT24JAN658 www.ijisrt.com 270

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