BCA III SEM

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Unit 1
What is Computer Networking?
A network set up by connecting two or more computers and other supporting hardware devices through
communication channels is called a computer network. It enables computers to communicate with each
other and to share commands, data, etc., including the hardware and software resources.
Each computing device in a network is called a node or station. The nodes can be routers, personal
computers, and servers. Data transformation is done via the network using rules known as protocols. The
protocols are the set of rules which every node of the network should follow for transferring information
over the wired or wireless network.
Working of a Computer Network
The nodes (like computers, switches, and modems) are the sources of generating and transmitting data. Then
the link (a transmission media) is used to bond among the nodes.
By following the protocols, the nodes will transfer and receive data via connections. computer network
architecture defines the design associated among these physical and logical components. It provides the
definitions for the network's physical components, functional organization, protocols, and procedures.
Goals of Networks
Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone) computers for information
exchange. The connecting media could be a copper wire, optical fiber, microwave, or satellite.
Goals of computer network Goals of computer network are as follow :
• To provide sharing of resources such as information, devices or processors
• To provide inter-process communication among user and processors.
• It provides the network user with maximum performance at minimum cost
• It provides centralized control for a geographically distributed system.
• It provides compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software.
• It provides centralized management and allocation of network resources.
• It provides distributed processing functions.
Networking Elements – The computer network includes the following networking elements:
1. At least two computers
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4. Network software such as Network Operating System
Network Criteria:
The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:
1. Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Performance is dependent on the following factors:
• The number of users
• Type of transmission medium
• Capability of connected network
• Efficiency of software
• Bandwidth
• Network topology
• Network protocols
• Distance
• Network congestion
• Network hardware
2. Reliability – It is measured in terms of
• Frequency of failure
• Recovery from failures
• Robustness during catastrophe

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 • Quality of service (QoS)
• Reducing single points of failure
• Capacity planning
• Network architecture
3. Security – It means protecting data from unauthorized access.
4. Network topology- it is another crucial factor to consider when designing a computer network. It refers
to the way in which computers, devices, and links are arranged in a network. Common topologies include
bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid, each with its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost,
scalability, reliability, and performance. The choice of topology depends on the specific needs and
constraints of the network. Other important criteria that must be met by a computer network include
performance, reliability, and security.
Goals of Computer Networks: The following are some important goals of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing – Many organization has a substantial number of computers in operations, which
are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner,
etc.
2. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated on two or
more machines. If one of them is not available, due to hardware failure, the other copies could be
used.
3. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically apart, may converse in an
interactive session through the network. In order to permit this, the network must provide almost
error-free communications.
4. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project can be begun
on one computer and finished on another.
5. Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against unauthorized access, data breaches,
and other security threats. This includes implementing measures such as firewalls, antivirus software,
and encryption to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
6. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and low latency to ensure that
applications and services are responsive and available when needed. This requires optimizing
network infrastructure, bandwidth utilization, and traffic management.
7. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed to accommodate
changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic. This requires careful planning and
management to ensure the network can meet current and future needs.
Other goals include Distribution of processing functions, Centralized management, and allocation of
network resources, Compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software, Good network performance,
Scalability, Saving money, Access to remote information, Person to person communication, etc.

Advantages:
Resource sharing: Networks enable the sharing of resources such as printers, scanners, storage devices, and
software applications, which can reduce costs and increase efficiency.
Communication and collaboration: Networks provide a platform for communication and collaboration
among users, allowing for easy sharing of information and ideas.
Centralized management: Networks allow for centralized management of devices, users, and resources,
making it easier to control and monitor the network.
Scalability: Networks can be scaled up or down to accommodate changes in the number of users, devices,
or data volume.
Accessibility: Networks can provide remote access to resources, enabling users to work from anywhere and
improving accessibility to information and resources.
Disadvantages:
Security vulnerabilities: Networks can be vulnerable to security threats such as hacking, viruses, and
malware, which can compromise sensitive data and disrupt network operations.
Complexity: Networks can be complex to set up, configure, and maintain, requiring specialized knowledge
and expertise.

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Dependence on infrastructure: Networks depend on the underlying infrastructure such as cables, routers,
switches, and servers, which can be prone to failures or downtime, disrupting network operations.
Cost: Networks can be expensive to set up and maintain, requiring investments in hardware, software, and
personnel.
Performance limitations: Networks have performance limitations such as bandwidth constraints, latency,
and congestion, which can affect the speed and reliability of network operations.
Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware,
protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are organized and
how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a
problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it cannot
back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.

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 o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send
some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends
the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole
system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost
of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
Network Services?
o
Network services are applications at the network application layer that connect users working in
offices, branches, or remote locations to applications and data in a network. These services typically
run on servers.

What are some types of network services?

Here are examples of types of network services:
• Internet and cloud connectivity
• Branch office and campus connectivity
• Private data center services
• Secure cloud-connectivity services
• Virtual network services
In computer networking, a network service is an application running at the network application
layer and above, that provides data storage, manipulation, presentation, communication or other
capability which is often implemented using a client–server or peer-to-peer architecture based on
application layer network protocols.
Each service is usually provided by a server component running on one or more computers (often a
dedicated server computer offering multiple services) and accessed via a network by client
components running on other devices. However, the client and server components can both be run on
the same machine.
Clients and servers will often have a user interface, and sometimes other hardware associated with it.
Examples are the Domain Name System (DNS) which translates domain names to Internet
Protocol (IP) addresses and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to assign networking
configuration information to network hosts. Authentication servers identify and authenticate users,
provide user account profiles, and may log usage statistics.
E-mail, printing and distributed (network) file system services are common services on local area
networks. They require users to have permissions to access the shared resources.
Other network services include:
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• Directory services
• e-Mail
• File sharing
• Instant messaging
• Online game
• Printing
• File server
• Voice over IP
• Video on demand
• Video telephony
• World Wide Web
• Simple Network Management Protocol
• Time service
• Wireless sensor network
Network examples
1. The World Wide Web. This is a directed network in which nodes represent Web pages and edges
are the hyperlinks between pages. More precisely, there exists an edge from page p to page q if
page p contains at least one hyperlink pointing to page q. Usually, the actual number of hyperlinks
from p page q is not important and hence the network modelling the Web is unweighted.
2. The Internet. This is a collection of routers linked by various physical lines. The Internet is a
growing network with no central control authority. When adding a new node to the Internet, two
factors mainly determine the router node to connect to: distance and bandwidth. While distance puts
obvious constraints, bandwidth, a measure of connection speed of the router, is typically the
dominant factor. This explains the emergence of hubs in the Internet.
3. Powerline and airline networks. These are human-made networks that might be involved in
random failures as well as targeted attacks. Failures may have cascading effects: the failure of one
node may recursively provoke the failure of connected nodes. Clearly, such events on these networks
might have catastrophic consequences. The topology of the network directly influences the
magnitude and reach of such events.
4. Citation networks. An article citation network links scholarly papers through bibliographic
references contained in the bibliography of the papers. This network is directed and follows the
temporal ordering of papers: we cite the past, not the future
5. Language networks. In these networks the nodes are words and the links represent relationships
among words like significant co-occurrence in texts.
6. Food webs. These are networks created by nature. In food webs, species are connected by links
telling which species feeds on which other species. The links of these networks seldom go both
ways, and hence food webs are also an example of directed networks. Studying food webs is
important to understand the ecosystem dynamics.
7. Economic networks. Market can be viewed as a huge directed multi-relational network. Companies,
firms, financial institutions, governments play the role of nodes. Links symbolize different
interactions between them, for instance purchases and sales or financial loaning, and the weight of
the links captures the value of the transaction. Viewing the economy as a network of interacting
actors is useful to make sense of global financial meltdowns, which are provoked by a sequence of
failures cascading over the highly connected and interdependent network economy.
8. Metabolic and protein networks. The nodes of metabolic networks are simple molecules like water
or ATP. The links are the biochemical reactions that take place between these molecules. Moreover,
proteins can be viewed as nodes of a complex network in which two proteins are connected if they
can physically interact.
9. Social networks. Social networks link people according to various social relationships, like
acquaintance, friendship, collaboration, and sexual relation. They are of paramount importance to
understand and anticipate the spread of ideas, innovations, fads, as well as biological and computer
viruses

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Network Standardization

Many network vendors and suppliers exist, each with their own ideas of how things should be done. Without
coordination, there would be complete chaos, and users would be able to get nothing done. The only way out
is to agree upon some network standards.
Not only do standards allow different computers to communicate, they also increase the market for products
adhering to the standard, which leads to mass production, economies of scale in manufacturing, and other
benefits that decrease price and further increase acceptance.
We will take a quick look at the subject of international standardization.
Standards fall into two categories:
1. de facto, and
2. de jure.
De facto (Latin for "from the fact") standards are those that have just happened, without any formal plan.
The IBM PC and its successors are defacto standards for small office computers because dozens of
manufacturers have chosen to copy IBM's machines very closely. UNIX is the de facto standard for
operating systems in university computer science departments.
De jure (Latin for "by law") standards, in contrast, are formal, legal standards adopted by some authorized
standardization body.
nternational standardization authorities are generally divided into two classes:
1. Those established by treaty among national governments, and
2. Voluntary, non-treaty organizations.
In the area of computer network standards, there are several organizations of each type.

Networking models are frameworks that represent how devices and systems communicate and interact
within a network. They help organize the flow of data, ensure efficient communication, and share resources.
What are Centralized Systems?
Centralized systems are a type of computing architecture where all or most of the processing and data
storage is done on a single central server or a group of closely connected servers. This central server
manages all operations, resources, and data, acting as the hub through which all client requests are
processed. The clients, or nodes, connected to the central server typically have minimal processing power
and rely on the server for most computational tasks.

Centralized Systems
Key Characteristics of Centralized Systems
1. Single Point of Control:
• All data processing and management tasks are handled by the central server.
• Easier to manage and maintain since there is one primary location for administration.
2. Simplicity:
• Simplified architecture with a clear structure where all operations are routed through the
central node.
• Easy to deploy and manage due to centralized nature.
3. Efficiency:
• Efficient use of resources as the central server can be optimized for performance.
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 • Easier to implement security measures and updates centrally.
4. Scalability Issues:
• Limited scalability as the central server can become a bottleneck if the load increases
significantly.
• Adding more clients can strain the server’s resources, leading to performance degradation.
5. Single Point of Failure:
• If the central server fails, the entire system can become inoperative.
• High availability and redundancy measures are essential to mitigate this risk.
What are Decentralized Systems?
Decentralized systems are computing architectures where multiple nodes, often spread across different
locations, share control and processing power without a single central authority. Each node in a
decentralized system operates independently but collaborates with others to achieve common goals. This
structure enhances fault tolerance, scalability, and resilience compared to centralized systems.

Decentralized System
Key Characteristics of Decentralized Systems:
1. Distributed Control:
• No single point of control or failure.
• Each node operates independently, contributing to the overall system’s functionality.
2. Fault Tolerance:
• If one node fails, the system can continue to function with the remaining nodes.
• Enhanced resilience against failures and attacks.
3. Scalability:
• Easier to scale by adding more nodes without overwhelming a central point.
• Load distribution across multiple nodes improves performance and resource utilization.
4. Coordination and Communication:
• Nodes must communicate and coordinate to maintain system integrity and consistency.
• Complex algorithms and protocols often manage this coordination.
5. Autonomy and Redundancy:
• Each node can operate autonomously, contributing to redundancy and reducing single points
of failure.
• Data and services are often replicated across multiple nodes for reliability.
What are Distributed Systems?
Distributed systems are computing architectures where multiple independent nodes or computers work
together to achieve a common goal. These nodes communicate and coordinate with each other over a
network, appearing as a single coherent system to the end user. Distributed systems aim to improve
performance, reliability, scalability, and resource sharing by leveraging the collective power of
interconnected devices.

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Distributed Systems
Key Characteristics of Distributed Systems
1. Geographical Distribution:
• Nodes are spread across different physical locations.
• They communicate via a network, such as a local area network (LAN) or the internet.
2. Resource Sharing:
• Nodes share resources such as processing power, storage, and data.
• This enables more efficient utilization of resources.
3. Concurrency:
• Multiple nodes operate concurrently, performing tasks simultaneously.
• This parallelism enhances the system’s overall performance and throughput.
4. Scalability:
• Easy to scale by adding more nodes to the system.
• System capacity and performance improve with the addition of resources.
5. Fault Tolerance:
• Designed to handle failures gracefully.
• Redundancy and replication ensure the system remains operational even if some nodes fail.
6. Transparency:
• The complexity of the distributed system is hidden from users.
• Users interact with the system as if it were a single entity.
Differences between Centralized, Decentralized and Distributed Systems
Aspect Centralized Systems Decentralized Systems Distributed Systems

Single central server Multiple nodes with Multiple interconnected nodes

controls and manages independent control, no working together as a single
Definition all operations. central authority. system.

Centralized control Distributed control, each Shared control, nodes

with a single point of node operates collaborate to achieve common
Control management. independently. goals.

High risk; if the Reduced risk; failure of

Reduced risk; designed for fault
Single Point of central server fails, the one node does not impact
tolerance and redundancy.
Failure whole system fails. the entire system.

Limited scalability,
More scalable, can add Highly scalable, can add more
can become a
nodes independently. nodes to distribute the load.
Scalability bottleneck.

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Aspect Centralized Systems Decentralized Systems Distributed Systems

Central server
Resources are spread Efficient resource sharing across
Resource resources are heavily
across multiple nodes. nodes.
Utilization utilized.

Can be high initially Generally good,

High performance due to parallel
but may degrade with performance improves
processing and resource sharing.
Performance increased load. with more nodes.

More complex, requires

Easier to manage Complex, requires coordination
managing multiple
centrally. and management of many nodes.
Management nodes.

Lower latency, as
Can vary, depends on the Potentially higher latency due to
operations are
distance between nodes. network communication
Latency managed centrally.

Network Topology

Topology: It refers to the physical arrangement and representation of all the nodes and components of the
network. In general terms, Topology defines the structure of the entire network. The network topology is
divided into five types. They are bus topology, star topology, ring topology, mesh topology, and tree
topology.

1) Bus Topology:

In this arrangement, the nodes (computers) are connected through interface connectors to a single
communication line (central cable) that carries the message in both the directions. The central cable to which
all the nodes are connected is the backbone of the network. It is called a bus. The signal in this arrangement
travels in both directions to all the machines until it finds the recipient machine. It is easy to set up than
other topologies as it uses only a single central cable to establish the network.
Advantages:
o Configuration of the network is easy.
o Less costly because a single cable is used to connect all nodes.
o The Bus topology supports a maximum of 10 Mbps speed by using the network's coaxial or twisted
pair cables.
Disadvantages
o Due to the multipoint communication model, it is difficult to identify and isolate the faulty terminals.
o The reconfiguration will affect the network and slows down the performance.
o Signal interference is another drawback of the bus topology; if two or more nodes transmit the
messages simultaneously, their signals will collide.
o A single node failure also causes the breakdown of the whole network.
o
2) Ring Topology:
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As the name suggests, in a ring topology, the computers are connected in a circular and closed loop. The
message in this topology moves only in one direction around the ring from one node to another node and is
checked by each node for a matching destination address. So, the data keeps moving until it reaches its
destination. All nodes are equal; a client-server relationship does not exist between them. As the nodes are in
the form of a ring, if one node fails to transmit the data, the flow of communication is severed.
Advantages:
o The data transfer and Communication are easy due to easy packet movement.
o The installation of the network and reconfiguration is easy.
o The presence of errors in links and faulty nodes can be easily identified and isolated.
o The reliability of the ring topology is more.
Disadvantages:
o As the data transmission is unidirectional, the packet will travel all the nodes to reach the destination.
o One node failure incurs damage to the entire network.
o Reconfiguration (adding new nodes) is easy but gets down the performance of the network.
o The delay is more in data transmission when the network contains more stations.
3) Star Topology:

In this topology, all the computers are separately connected to a central node or connection point, which can
be a server, a hub, a router, or a switch. This topology offers an advantage that if a cable does not work, only
the respective node will suffer, the rest of the nodes will work smoothly. All data or messages that one node
sends to another passes through the central hub.
This topology is easy to design and implement as well as it is easy to add additional nodes to the central
node. The major drawback of this topology is that it is prone to bottleneck or failure at the central
connection point, i.e., failure at the central node will affect the entire communication.
Advantages:
o Easy installation and reconfiguration.
o Less expensive as compared to mess Topology because the star requires less wiring.
o Easy to identify and isolate the faulty networks and links.
o When we add a new node, there is no interruption to other nodes in the network as the node is
directly connected to the hub.
o Using star topology, we can achieve a high speed of data transfers.

Disadvantages
o If the hub fails, the whole network will not work.
o The star topology is more expensive than the bus topology because of the hub.

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 o We use more wire than that of the bus and ring topology.
o Every node completely depends on the hub for making decisions to transmit and process the data
packets.
4) Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device in a network using a point-to-point
connection. The connection is generally known as a dedicated connection, as the link transports data
between two devices. The number of links in a mesh topology is calculated using the formula below.
Military organizations use mesh topology to avoid breaks down in communications.
Many connections = n * (n - 1) /2. Here, "n" represents the number of nodes in a network.

Advantages:
o Easy to transmit data.
o We can send data from many devices simultaneously. Mesh topology will handle much traffic as
compared to other topologies.
o If one link is broken or remains faulty, data transfer can occur between nodes using other links.
Hence data transmission is uninterrupted and reliable.
o The physical margins will not allow other persons to enter and access the messages.
o Fault detection and isolation are easy.
Disadvantages:
o The cabling used to construct the network is more.
o The installation cost is high compared to other topologies due to more wiring.
o The installation and reconfiguration are tough because of the presence of many links.
5) Tree Topology
Tree topology is the combination of star and bus topologies. The nodes are connected to a hub as in star
topology, and all the star-connected nodes are placed in a bus topology. The tree topology is a hybrid
connection.

Advantages:
o Network extension is easy.
o The network is broken into smaller star-connected topology units. The nodes connected in a tree
topology are easier to maintain.
o Fault detection and correction are easy.
o If one of the stars connected unit of nodes goes faulty, the other segments will not be affected and
network can be runed with remaining nodes.
Disadvantages:
o The main disadvantage is that if the bus cable is damaged, the entire topology will not work.
o The management of Topology becomes easier when the number of nodes and star-connected
topologies is increased in large numbers.
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 o The reconfiguration becomes difficult when new nodes are added.
Transmission modes
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission
mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide the
direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require any
corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows them
to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the data
from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can
be utilized during transmission.
Advantage of Simplex mode:
o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so that
more data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the data
as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
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 o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and
another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously
will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:
o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the entire
bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.
Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:
o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes the
delay in sending the data at the right time.

Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people are
communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.
Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:
o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode
comparison
Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the communication
communication communication is the communication is is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but one
at a time.
Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices can Both the devices can send and receive the
send the data but send and receive the data simultaneously.
cannot receive it or it data, but one at a time.
can only receive the
data but cannot send
it.
Performance The performance of The performance of The Full-duplex mode has better
half-duplex mode is full-duplex mode is performance among simplex and half-
better than the better than the half- duplex mode as it doubles the utilization
simplex mode. duplex mode. of the capacity of the communication
channel.
Example Examples of Example of half- Example of the Full-duplex mode is a
Simplex mode are duplex is Walkie- telephone network.
radio, keyboard, and Talkies.
monitor.

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Unit 2- Data Communication –

Transferring data over a transmission medium between two or more devices, systems, or places is known as
data communication. Nowadays, computing and telecommunications depend heavily on this data
transmission, which makes a variety of applications conceivable, including email, video chatting, the
Internet, and many more things.
In this article, we will learn about Data communication, Definition, Components, Types, and Channels.
Components of Data Communication
A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another. It
could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone,
laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile, workstation,
etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium that
connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless
media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to
the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If
Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

What is Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it
is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of medium
and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media, medium
characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more
important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical
layer.

14
Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:
o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the
higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due to
the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission
impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over a
communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases with
increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of
distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the delay
distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is added to it
which creates the noise.
Classification Of Transmission Media:

o Guided Transmission Media

o UnGuided Transmission Media
o
Guided Transmission Media in Computer Network
Introduction
Communication is an essential component of the vast field of computer networks, which depends on a
variety of transmission methods to enable data exchange. In this procedure, guided transmission media also
referred to as bounded or wired media, are essential. These media are the actual channels that direct signals
between connected devices in a network. We shall examine the different types, traits, and uses of guided
transmission medium in computer networks as we dig into their complexities in this article.
Types of Guided Transmission Media
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
o Description: To try to reduce electromagnetic interference, insulated copper wires are twisted
together in pairs to create twisted pair cables.
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair
cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy,
and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
o Characteristics: Twisted pair cables have become common in LANs and phone lines. They are
available in two types: unprotected twisted pair and shielded twisted pair.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
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The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the
number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the categories of the
unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
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o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial
cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up of
copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

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Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send the data by
pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference from
other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core is a
light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted
into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within
the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose of a
jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore,
the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fibre optic cable
to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper
cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is immune to any
temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.

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 o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand more
pull pressure than copper cable.
4. Guided Media Connectors:
o Description: Connectors are parts that connect parts of guided media so that continuous
communication channels may be created.
o Characteristics: To be able to offer stable and efficient communication in computer networks, a
variety of connectors are important, such as BNC connectors for coaxial cables and RJ-45 connectors
for twisted pair cables.
Applications of Guided Transmission Media
1. Local Area Networks (LANs):
In local area networks (LANs), guided transmission media, particularly coaxial and twisted pair cables, are
often utilized to link computers and other devices within a specific geographic region.
2. Wide Area Networks (WANs):
Due to their high bandwidth and ability to transfer data over long distances without a significant signal loss,
optical fiber cables are the preferred choice for wide-area networks.
3. Internet Backbone Networks:
A lot of data can be easily and quickly sent across continents due to the internet core, which is made up of
high-capacity fiber connections.
4. Telecommunication Networks:
A lot of data can be easily and quickly sent across continents due to the internet core, which is made up of
high-capacity fiber connections.
Advantages of Guided Transmission Media
1. Reliability:
High levels of stability are provided by guided transmission mediums such as optical fibers and twisted pair
cables. Because these media are real, there is less chance of interference or signal loss, ensuring safe and
constant communication.
2. Security:
When compared to wireless options guided transmission methods give a more secure communication
environment. Because these media are led, it is more difficult for hackers to intercept signals, which
improves network security in general.
3. Higher Bandwidth:
Higher bandwidths are ensured by guided media, especially optical fibers, than by many wireless choices.
These are perfect for applications with high data transfer requirements since this enables the transmission of
greater amounts of data at faster speeds.
4. Less Susceptible to Interference:
Compared to wireless transmission twisted pair and coaxial cables are less sensitive to electromagnetic
interference. This feature assures signal integrity and makes them useful for high electrical noise settings.
5. Predictable Performance:
Media with guided transmission provide consistent performance properties. Because these media allow for
more accurate control and management of signal behavior, they are perfect for applications where stability is
important.
6. Suitable for Long Distances:
Optical fibers, in particular, have a low signal reduction, making them perfect for long-distance
communication. They are also important for fast data transmission over big geographical regions and core
networks.
7. Cost-Effective for Short Distances:
When compared to building wireless infrastructure, guided transmission mediums such as twisted pair
cables can be cheaper for relatively short distances. They are also preferred choices for some connections
between devices and local area networks.
Disadvantages of Guided Transmission Media
1. Limited Mobility:

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The infrastructure physically attaches devices connected through guided media. These media are less suited
to applications that require continuous movement, like mobile communication, because of this restriction on
mobility and flexibility.
2. Vulnerability to Physical Damage:
Even cables guided transmission media are at risk of physical harm. Communication can be interrupted by
the construction of the environment or accidental cuts. These situations require maintenance and repair.
3. Cost for Long Distances:
Since optical fibers and other guided media are great for long-distance communication, the initial
installation costs of these systems can be high. For companies with small budgets, this cost may be a
problem.
4. Limited Bandwidth for Some Types:
Compared to wireless technologies, a few guided transmission media types, such as twisted pair cables, may
have lower bandwidth sizes. For applications that require high data transfer rates, this may be an issue.
5. Infrastructure Dependency:
Media that is guided mostly depends upon physical infrastructure. Any network upgrades or changes require
major adjustments to the current infrastructure that may result in delays and extra expenses.
6. Environmental Impact:
There can be environmental effects from the production and disposal of guided transmission media,
particularly cables. The creation of more environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives is becoming
more and more important as technology develops.
UnGuided Transmission
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o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical medium.
Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by
the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

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Microwaves are of two types:
o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal
from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000
GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves
sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km
away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct sight
of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions and
antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in
terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can catch
the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather condition.
This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre
optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the signal. The
amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.

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 o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the coverage
area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting,
mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite has to
be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote
operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one room
cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere with the
infrared waves.
Digital Communication
Digital communication is made from two words digital and communication. Digital refers to the discrete
time-varying signal. Communication refers to the exchange of information between two or more sources.
Digital refers to the discrete time-varying signal. Communication refers to the exchange of information
between two or more sources. Digital communication refers to the exchange of digital information between
the sender and receiver using different devices and methods.
The data transmission using analog methods for long-distance communication suffers from distortion,
delays, interferences, and other losses. To overcome these problems, the digitization and sampling of signals
using different techniques help in making the transmission process more efficient, clear, and accurate.
Digital communication is a popular technology used today in electronics. It allows us to access video
conferencing, digital meetings, online education, etc. The data can travel upto long distances within a
second with the help of the internet and other modes of digital communication. It not only saves money but
also saves time and effort. It has also raised the standard of an individual's social, political, and economic
life.

Data communication vs. digital communication

What is Communication?
Communication refers to the exchange of information using a specific medium, such as vacuum, space,
wireless medium, wired medium, etc. Good communication always transmits information with reduced
attenuation and noise. The received signal is the same as the transmitted signal with clear information.
Communication is a two-way process of sharing information. In digital terms, communication refers to the
exchange of digital information from the transmitter to the receiver.
The components of a communication system are the transmitter, communication channel, and receiver.
The transmitter transmits the data to the communication channel, which further sends it to the receiver.
Various devices are used in cascade or parallel with the transmitters and receivers for different purposes,
such as modulation, demodulation, noise removal, sampling, etc. The devices include modulators, filters,
amplifiers, encoders, and decoders.

21
Signals
A signal is an electromagnetic wave that carries information from one place to another, using a specific
propagation medium, such as air, vacuum, water, and solid. In electronics, the signal is defined as
a current, voltage, or wave carrying information. It can travel short distances or long distances depending
on the requirements. The speed of a signal wave is equal to the speed of light.

The signals are categorized as analog signal and digital signals.

Analog refers to the data transmission in continuous form, while digital refers to the data transmission in the
discrete form. It is also known as the transmission in the form of bits, 0 (LOW) and 1 (HIGH).
The waveforms of the analog and digital signal are shown below:

The noise in analog signals is high as compared to digital signal. It is due to the thresholding and high
bandwidth of the digital signals. Hence, electronic noise affects analog signals more than digital signals.
Filters are generally used in analog communication at transmitting and receiving ends to remove the noise.
Digital Signal
We can represent various physical quantities using digital signals, such as voltage and current. A signal
represented in the form of discrete values is known as digital signal. It is transmitted in the form of bits.
Only two bits (0 and 1) work in different combinations. A digital signal can take only one value at a time
from the set of finite possible values.
Digital signal is nothing but the representation of the analog data in the discrete form.
For example,

The above two waveforms are the analog and digital waveforms. The digital waveform depicts the
information in discrete bands of analog levels.
The binary signal is also known as the logic signal because both represent two bands, HIGH and LOW. 0
and 1 are also represented as the numbers in Boolean domain.
HIGH = 1 = TRUE
22
LOW = 0 = FALSE
A digital system represents a continuous waveform switching between the discrete values called bitstreams
in a communication system. It allows cost savings with reduced transmission time. The noise interference
during the transmission can be effectively removed using the data redundancy process or data compression,
where the data is encoded using fewer bits than the original information.
Digital vs. Analog
The digital computers were the first technologies used to store the digital record with a large size occupying
the space of a room. The later inventions created new history and today digital computers are used to store
millions of data with a size similar to rice grain.

The differences between digital communication and analog communication are listed in the below
table:

Category Digital Communication Analog Communication

Definition It uses digital signals with discrete values It uses analog signals for
for transmitting data represented in the form transmitting data.
of two binary digits 0 and 1.
Signal The digital signal represents one bit at a The analog signal represents
time. continuous values at a time.
Noise Immunity Good Poor

Error Probability Low High

Coding Yes No
The digital communication system uses an
encoder and decoder to convert the
information into bits and vice-versa.
Flexible More flexible Less flexible
Cost High cost Low cost
Power Low High
consumption
Data transmission More accurate Less accurate

Signal The digital signals are represented by a The analog signals are represented
representation square wave. by a sine wave or cosine wave.

Examples Clock signals Audio signals, speech signals,

sound waves, pressure waves,
video signals, etc.
Applications Digital watches, Compact Disks, computers, Radar, Telephony, etc.
etc.
What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium. The
process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is
known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to
generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving
end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say
that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?

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 o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The medium can only
have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in such a way
that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10
signals and bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision. Multiplexing
concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.
History of Multiplexing
o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several telephone calls are
carried through a single wire.
o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in communication.
o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.
Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the signals to form
a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a signal to
component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single
transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels,
and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range
from 1 to 5.

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 o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation techniques, and they are
combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency channels
and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and then
combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-carriers. They are
represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:
o FDM is used for analog signals.
o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and they are
multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are transmitted
through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with the help of
multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective
destinations.
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 o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to form a composite
signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different
frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same
frequency with different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed
among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time
slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is
transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots in
which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex digital
signals.
There are two types of TDM:
o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device
contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are organized in the form of
frames. If a device does not have data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be
transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET
multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

26
In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device is allocated with some
time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:
o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also transmitted which is
having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames,
some slots are empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed of the input lines. An
alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM
o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous
TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can
say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame that
contains only data with no empty slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many slots in
Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to
the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time slots. In Asynchronous
TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore,
the data of A and C are only transmitted through the transmission line.
Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

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The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the source of the data.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will decide
the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will
remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request
signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the
availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the
data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
o
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:
o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path is
accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a metallic
crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.

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 o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch using
FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has
n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes very
expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then
interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the
capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the channel
is free.

Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and
routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender
and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic routing
as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in the
message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of
network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of using
available bandwidth.

29
 o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the data
of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the messages
until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number to
identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address
and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an
independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are
sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

30
 o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and
receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message has
been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

Unit 3
What is Computer Networking?
A network set up by connecting two or more computers and other supporting hardware devices through
communication channels is called a computer network. It enables computers to communicate with each
other and to share commands, data, etc., including the hardware and software resources.
Each computing device in a network is called a node or station. The nodes can be routers, personal
computers, and servers. Data transformation is done via the network using rules known as protocols. The
protocols are the set of rules which every node of the network should follow for transferring information
over the wired or wireless network.
Working of a Computer Network
The nodes (like computers, switches, and modems) are the sources of generating and transmitting data. Then
the link (a transmission media) is used to bond among the nodes.
By following the protocols, the nodes will transfer and receive data via connections. computer network
architecture defines the design associated among these physical and logical components. It provides the
definitions for the network's physical components, functional organization, protocols, and procedures.
Uses of Computer Network:
o It allows you to share resources such as printers, scanners, etc.
o You can share expensive software and database among network users.
o It facilitates communications from one computer to another computer.
o It allows the exchange of data and information among users through a network.
Popular Computer Networks:
o Local Area Network (LAN)
o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
Local Area Network (LAN):
As the name suggests, the local area network is a computer network that operates in a small area, i.e., it
connects computers in a small geographical area like within an office, company, school, or any other
organization. So, it exists within a specific area, e.g. home network, office network, school network, etc.
A local area network may be a wired or wireless network or a combination of both. The devices in a LAN
are generally connected using an Ethernet cable, which offers an interface to connect multiple devices like
router, switches, and computers. For example, using a single router, few Ethernet cables, and computers, you
can create a LAN at your home, office, etc. In this network, one computer may act as a server and other
computers, which are part of the network, may serve as clients.

31
Features of LAN
o The network size is small, which consists of only a few kilometres.
o The data transmission rate is high, ranging from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps.
o LAN is included in bus, ring, mesh, and star topologies.
o Some network devices connected to the LAN will be limited.
o If more devices are added than prescribed network may fail.
Benefits of LAN:
o It offers a higher operating speed than WAN and MAN.
o It is less expensive and easy to install and maintain.
o It perfectly fulfills the requirement of a specific organization, such as an office, school, etc.
o It can be wired or wireless or a combination of both.
o It is more secure than other networks as it is a small set up that can be easily taken care of.
Primary Functions of LAN:
o Sharing of files: It allows you to share or transfer files from one computer to another computer
within the LAN. For example, in a bank, it can be used to send a file with the details of transactions
of a customer from the server to clients.
o Sharing of printers: It also allows shared access to a printer, file servers, etc. For example, ten
computers that are connected through LAN can use a single printer, file server, fax machine, etc.
o Sharing of Computational capabilities: It allows the clients to access to the computational power
of a server, e.g., an application server as some applications which run on clients in a LAN may
require higher computational capabilities.
o Mail and message related services: It allows sending and receiving mails between computers of a
LAN. You are required to have a mail server for this.
o Database services: It also allows storing and retrieving data with the help of a database server.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

MAN is a high-speed network that spreads over a large geographical area such as a metro city or town. It is
set up by connecting the local area networks using routers and local telephone exchange lines. It can be
operated by a private company, or it may be a service provided by a company such as a local telephone
company.
MAN is ideal for the people of a relatively large area who want to share data or information. It provides fast
communication via high-speed carriers or transmission media such as copper, fiber optics, and microwaves.
The commonly used protocols for MAN are X.25, Frame Relay, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital
Subscriber Line), and more.
The area covered by MAN is larger than the LAN but smaller than a WAN. Its network ranges from 5 to 50
km. Furthermore, it also provides uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and the internet. An organization
can use a MAN to connect all of its LANs located at its different offices across the city.
Examples of MAN:
o Cable TV Network
o Telephone service provides that provide high-speed DSL lines
o IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX
o Connected fire stations in a city
o Connected branches of a school in a city

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Features of MAN
o The size of the MAN is in the range of 5km to 50km.
o The MAN ranges from the campus to the entire city.
o The MAN is maintained and managed by either the user group or the Network provider.
o Users can achieve the sharing of regional resources by using MAN.
o The data transmission rates can be medium to high
Advantages of MAN:
o Less Expensive: It is less expensive to set up a MAN and to connect it to a WAN.
o High Speed: The speed of data transfer is more than WAN.
o Local Emails: It can send local emails fast.
o Access to the Internet: It allows you to share your internet connection, and thus multiple users can
have access to high-speed internet.
o Easy to set up: You can easily set up a MAN by connecting multiple LANs.
o High Security: It is more secure than WAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

WAN extends over a large geographical area. It is not confined within an office, school, city, or town and is
mainly set up by telephone lines, fiber optic, or satellite links. It is mostly used by big organizations like
banks and multinational companies to communicate with their branches and customers across the world.
Although it is structurally similar to MAN, it is different from MAN in terms of its range, e.g., MAN covers
up to 50 Kms, whereas WAM covers distances larger than 50 Km, e.g., 1000km or more.
A WAN works by using TCP/IP protocol in combination with networking devices such as switches, routers,
firewalls, and modems. It does not connect individual computers; rather, they are designed to link small
networks like LANs and MANs to create a large network. The internet is considered the largest WAN in the
world as it connects various LANs and MANs through ISPs.
The computers are connected to the wide area network through public networks, such as telephone systems,
leased lines or satellites. The users of a WAN do not own the network as it is a large setup connecting the
remote computer systems. However, they are required to subscribe to a service provided by a
telecommunication provider to use this network.
Features of WAN
o Has a much larger capacity.
o We can share the regional resources by using WAN.
o They have more bit-rate errors.
o The transmission delay is, and hence they need more communication speed.
Advantages of a WAN:
o Large Network Range: It spans a large geographical area of 2000 km or more, e.g., from one
country to another countries.
o Centralized data: It allows your different office branches to use your head office server for
retrieving and sharing data. Thus, you don?t need to buy email servers, files server and back up
servers, etc.
o Get updated files and data: It provides an ideal platform for companies who need a live server for
their employees to exchange updated files within seconds.

33
 o High bandwidth: It offers high bandwidth than a normal broadband connection. Thus, it can
increase the productivity of your company by offering uninterrupted data transfer and
communication.
o Workload Distribution: It helps distribute your workload to other locations. You can hire
employees in different countries and assign them to work from your office.

Examples of WAN:
✓ Internet
✓ US defense department
✓ Stock exchanges network
✓ Railway reservation system
✓ Big Banks' cash dispensers' network
✓ Satellite systems
✓ Standards for Good Network
✓ Performance
The performance is measured using transmit time and response time. The network quality will be improved
if the performance of the network is high.
Transmit time: The time taken to send a message from one device to another device is called as transmit
time.
Response time: The time passed from inquiry to response is called as response time.
The total performance of the network depends on many factors, which include several users, Topology used
in the network, and software and hardware used.
Reliability
The reliability in a network state whether the data delivery to the authorized and intended users was done
correctly. The reliability of a network is one of the important factors for the delivery of data in the layers of
the OSI model (Open System Interconnection).
Differences Between LAN, MAN, and WAN
Basis LAN MAN WAN

LAN stands for local MAN stands for metropolitan WAN stands for wide area
Full-Form area network. area network. network.

Operates in small Operates in larger areas

Operates in large areas such
Geographic areas such as the same such as country or
as a city.
Span building or campus. continent.

While WAN also might not

LAN’s ownership is MAN’s ownership can be
be owned by one
private. private or public.
Ownership organization.

The transmission
While the transmission speed Whereas the transmission
Transmission speed of a LAN is
of a MAN is average. speed of a WAN is low.
Speed high.

There is a Whereas, there is a long

The propagation delay
Propagation moderate propagation delay in propagation delay in a
is short in a LAN.
delay a MAN. WAN.

34
Basis LAN MAN WAN

Whereas there is more

There is less While there is more
congestion than MAN in
congestion in LAN. congestion in MAN.
Congestion WAN.

Whereas WAN’s design and

While MAN’s design and
LAN’s design and maintenance are also
maintenance are difficult than
Design & maintenance are easy. difficult than LAN as well
LAN.
Maintenance MAN.

There is more fault While there is less fault In WAN, there is also less
Fault tolerance tolerance in LAN. tolerance. fault tolerance.

terminal handling in a computer network involves processes such as interrupts and buffers, and the use of
standard interfaces:
• Terminal handlers: These processes are required along with interrupts and buffers.
• Interrupts: These get the operating system's attention to handle urgent tasks.
• Buffers: These temporarily store data during input/output to make the transfer smoother.
• Standard interfaces: These are the only fair terminal handling policy, and users and manufacturers
should adapt to them.
A terminal is a device that allows users to interact with a computer through a text-based user interface. It
allows users to execute commands, view results, and control applications. Terminals can be classified into
different types, including:
• Dumb terminals: These terminals are simple input/output devices or display monitors that send and
receive data from a network server or mainframe. They have no built-in processing capabilities.
• Smart terminals: These monitors process limited amounts of information.
• Intelligent terminals: These devices contain a CPU and main memory to perform special display
functions.

Polling
• Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the teacher, a controller
sends a message to each node in turn.
• In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are secondary stations. All data
exchanges must be made through the controller.
• The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected for granting
access.
• Although all nodes receive the message the addressed one responds to it and sends data if any.
If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent back.
• Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high dependence on the reliability
of the controller.

35
Advantages of Polling
• The maximum and minimum access time and data rates on the channel are fixed predictable.
• It has maximum efficiency.
• It has maximum bandwidth.
• No slot is wasted in polling.
• There is assignment of priority to ensure faster access from some secondary.
Disadvantages of Polling
• It consume more time.
• Since every station has an equal chance of winning in every round, link sharing is biased.
• Only some station might run out of data to send.
• An increase in the turnaround time leads to a drop in the data rates of the channel under low
loads.

Token Passing
• In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in form of ring and
access to stations is governed by tokens.
• A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from one station to the next
in some predefined order.
• In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in the ring whereas
incase of Token bus, each station uses the bus to send the token to the next station in some
predefined order.
• In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has a frame queued for
transmission when it receives the token, it can send that frame before it passes the token to the
next station. If it has no queued frame, it passes the token simply.
• After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to send the
token to their neighbours and the other N – 1 stations to send a frame, if they have one.
• There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or insertion of new station,
removal of a station, which need be tackled for correct and reliable operation of this scheme.

36
IEEE Standards in Computer Networks
IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The main AIM of IEEE is to foster
technological innovation and excellence for the benefit of humanity. The IEEE standards in computer
networks ensure communication between various devices; it also helps to make sure that the network
service, i.e., the Internet and its related technologies, must follow a set of guidelines and practices so that all
the networking devices can communicate and work smoothly. Since there are various types of computer
system manufacturers, the IEEE’s Computer Society started a project in 1985 called project 802 to enable
standard communication between various devices. The standards that deal with computer networking are
called the IEEE 802 wireless standards.
What are IEEE Standards in Computer Networks?
Before learning about the IEEE standards in computer networks, let us get a brief introduction
to IEEE. IEEE, or Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, is an organization that develops
standards for the electronics industry and computers. IEEE is composed of numerous scientists, engineers,
and students from all over the globe. The main AIM of IEEE is to ensure foster technological innovation and
excellence for the benefit of humanity.
The IEEE standards in computer networks ensure communication between various devices; it also helps to
make sure that the network service, i.e., the Internet and its related technologies, must follow a set of
guidelines and practices so that all the networking devices can communicate and work smoothly.
Since there are various types of computer system manufacturers, the IEEE’s computer society started a
project in 1985 called Project 802 to enable standard communication between various devices. Under this
project, the IEEE divided the data link layer into two sub-parts, namely
• LLC or Logical Link Control and
• MAC or Media Access Control.
The standards that deal with computer networking (networking in general) are called the IEEE 802 wireless
standards. The IEEE 802 is a collection of networking standards that deals with the data link layer and
physical layer technologies like ethernet and wireless communications.
There are various IEEE standards in computer networks. We will be discussing all the IEEE standards in
computer networks in the later section. Let us first learn about the three notable IEEE standards.
1. IEEE 802: The IEEE 802 deals with the standards of LAN and MAN, i.e., Local Area Network and
Metropolitan Area Network.
2. IEEE 802.1: The IEEE 802.1 deals with the standards of LAN and MAN. Along with that, it also
deals with the MAC (Media Access Control) bridging.
3. IEEE 802.2: The IEEE 802.2 deals with the LLC (Logical Link Control).
Let us take an example of IEEE standards in computer networks. The IEEE 802.11 standard in computer
networks is used in various homely devices like laptops, printers, smartphones, and various other devices
that allow them to communicate with each other using the Internet. Hence, the IEEE 802.11 standard in
computer networks is useful for devices that use wireless communication, i.e., WiFi bands.
Note: The IEEE 802.11 is a part of the IEEE 802 set of LAN technical standards.
List of IEEE Standards in Computer Networks
Let us look at the various IEEE standards in computer networks and their usage (or function):
IEEE standards in
Description
computer networks

IEEE 802 It is used for the overview and architecture of LAN/MAN.

IEEE 802.1 It is used for bridging and management of LAN/MAN.

IEEE 802.1s It is used in multiple spanning trees.

IEEE 802.1 w It is used for rapid reconfiguration of spanning trees.

IEEE 802.1x It is used for network access control of ports.

37
 IEEE standards in
Description
computer networks

IEEE 802.2 It is used in Logical Link Control (LLC).

IEEE 802.3 It is used in Ethernet (CSMA/CD access method).

IEEE 802.3ae It is used for 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

It is used for token passing bus access methods and the physical
IEEE 802.4
layer specifications.

It is used for token ring access methods and the physical layer
IEEE 802.5
specifications.

It is used in distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) access method

IEEE 802.6
and for the physical layer specifications (MAN).

IEEE 802.7 It is used in broadband LAN.

IEEE 802.8 It is used in fiber optics.

IEEE 802.9 It is used in isochronous LANs.

IEEE 802.10 It is used in interoperable LAN/MAN security.

It is used in wireless LAN, MAC, and Physical layer

IEEE 802.11
specifications.

It is used in the demand-priority access method, in the physical

IEEE 802.12
layer, and in repeater specifications.

IEEE 802.13 It is not used.

IEEE 802.14 It is used in cable modems (not used now).

IEEE 802.15 It is used in WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network).

It is used in Wireless MAN (Wireless Metropolitan Area

IEEE 802.16
Network).

IEEE 802.17 It is used in RPR access (Resilient Packet Ring).

Token Ring
Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN) where all stations are
connected in a ring topology and pass one or more tokens for channel acquisition. A token is a special frame
of 3 bytes that circulates along the ring of stations. A station can send data frames only if it holds a token.
The tokens are released on successful receipt of the data frame.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring
If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then passes the token to
the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next station. Passing the token means receiving
the token from the preceding station and transmitting to the successor station. The data flow is unidirectional
in the direction of the token passing. In order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed from
the network once their purpose is completed. This is shown in the following diagram −
38
Token Bus
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over virtual ring in LANs. The physical
media has a bus or a tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A virtual ring is created with the nodes/stations
and the token is passed from one node to the next in a sequence along this virtual ring. Each node knows the
address of its preceding station and its succeeding station. A station can only transmit data when it has the
token. The working principle of token bus is similar to Token Ring.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus
A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a computer network providing permission to
the stations for transmission. If a station has data to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the data and
then passes the token to the next station; otherwise, it simply passes the token to the next station. This is
depicted in the following diagram −

Differences between Token Ring and Token Bus

Token Ring Token Bus
The token is passed over the physical ring formed by the The token is passed along the virtual ring of
stations and the coaxial cable network. stations connected to a LAN.
The stations are connected by ring topology, or The underlying topology that connects the
sometimes star topology. stations is either bus or tree topology.
It is defined by IEEE 802.5 standard. It is defined by IEEE 802.4 standard.
The maximum time for a token to reach a station can be It is not feasible to calculate the time for token
calculated here. transfer.

39
The data link layer is used in a computer network to transmit the data between two devices or nodes. It
divides the layer into parts such as data link control and the multiple access resolution/protocol.

types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the different process as:

A. Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In random access
protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any station control another station.
Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However, if more than
one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a collision or data conflict. Due to the collision, the
data frame packets may be lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.
Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on the
channel.
o Aloha
o CSMA
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA
ALOHA Random Access Protocol
It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium to transmit
data. Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network simultaneously when a data frameset
is available for transmission.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a channel (idle or
busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the
channel. Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision
on a transmission medium.
CSMA Access Modes
1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense the shared channel and if
the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the
channel to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data, each node must
sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must
wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.
P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent mode defines
that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the
data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the frame with the next
time slot.
O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station before the transmission
of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to
retransmit the data.

40
CSMA/ CD
It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to transmit data frames. The
CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel
before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the
transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any
collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate
data transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.
CSMA/ CA
It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier transmission of data
frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a
channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only a
single (own) acknowledgment, that means the data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver.
But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame
occurs in the shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment
signal.
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:
Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it gets the channel is
idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for some time, and this time period is
called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the station.
Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots. When the
station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot number of slots as wait time. If
the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send
data packets when the channel is inactive.
Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame to the shared
channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.
B. Controlled Access Protocol
It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the controlled access method, each
station interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular station approved by all other stations. It
means that a single station cannot send the data frames unless all other stations are not approved. It has three
types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling, and Token Passing.
C. Channelization Protocols
It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared channel to be shared across
multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes. It can access all the stations at the same time to
send the data frames to the channel.
Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time, distance and codes:
41
 1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
FDMA
It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the available bandwidth into equal
bands so that multiple users can send data through a different frequency to the subchannel. Each station is
reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk between the channels and interferences of stations.

TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It allows the same frequency
bandwidth to be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid collisions in the shared channel, it divides the
channel into different frequency slots that allocate stations to transmit the data frames.

CDMA

The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method. In CDMA, all stations can
simultaneously send the data over the same channel. It means that it allows each station to transmit the data
frames with full frequency on the shared channel at all times. It does not require the division of bandwidth
on a shared channel based on time slots. If multiple stations send data to a channel simultaneously, their data
frames are separated by a unique code sequence. Each station has a different unique code for transmitting
the data over a shared channel.
Unit 4
OSI Model Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it
is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

42
Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user
and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer
just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of
the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.
7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
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 3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
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 o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame
contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It
ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed
the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is
sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment
for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then
the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a given
time.
3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.
45
 o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of
protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a
logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal
path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are
sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection between
source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
o Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into
smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple
routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer
but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is
to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport
layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer,
it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number
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 that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed
end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at
the destination without any error.
5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes
or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If
some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place
again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
o
6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
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Functions of Presentation layer:
o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from
sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the
sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of
bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide
that global information about various objects.

Physical Layer in OSI Model

The OSI model is the abbreviation for Open Systems Interconnection Model. It defines the transmission of
data from one system to another in a computer network. For example, in the most elemental form, two
systems are joined to each other using Local Area Network (LAN) cables and share data with the help of a
Network Interface Card (NIC) that allows communication over a network, but if one system is based on
Microsoft Windows, and the other is based on macOS, so how would these computers communicate with
each other. To successfully communicate between systems of distinct architectures, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) presented the 7-layered OSI model in 1984.
The individual layer of the OSI model is a package of protocols. This article will comprehend the physical
layer of the OSI model.

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The physical layer is the first and lowest layer from the bottom of the 7-layered OSI model and delivers
security to hardware. This layer is in charge of data transmission over the physical medium. It is the most
complex layer in the OSI model.

The physical layer converts the data frame received from the data link layer into bits, i.e., in terms of ones
and zeros. It maintains the data quality by implementing the required protocols on different network modes
and maintaining the bit rate through data transfer using a wired or wireless medium.

Attributes of the physical layer:

The physical layer has several attributes that are implemented in the OSI model:
1. Signals: The data is first converted to a signal for efficient data transmission. There are two kinds of
signals:

o Analog Signals: These signals are continuous waveforms in nature and are represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves for the transmission of data.
o Digital Signals: These signals are discrete in nature and represent network pulses and digital
data from the upper layers.
2. Transmission media: Data is carried from source to destination with the help of transmission media.
There are two sorts of transmission media:

o Wired Media: The connection is established with the help of cables. For example, fiber optic cables,
coaxial cables, and twisted pair cables.
o Wireless Media: The connection is established using a wireless communication network. For
example, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.
3. Data Flow: It describes the rate of data flow and the transmission time frame. The factors affecting the
data flow are as follows:

o Encoding: Encoding data for transmission on the channel.

o Error-Rate: Receiving erroneous data due to noise in transmission.
o Bandwidth: The rate of transmission of data in the channel.
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4. Transmission mode: It describes the direction of the data flow. Data can be transmitted in three sorts of
transmission modes as follows:

o Simplex mode: This mode of communication is a one-way communication where a device can only
send data. Examples are a mouse, keyboard, etc.
o Half-duplex mode: This mode of communication supports one-way communication, i.e., either data
can be transmitted or received. An example is a walkie-talkie.
o Full-duplex mode: This mode of communication supports two-way communication, i.e., the device
can send and receive data at the same time. An example is cellular communication.
5. Noise in transmission: Transmitted data can get corrupted or damaged during data transmission due to
many reasons. Some of the reasons are mentioned below:

o Attenuation: It is a gradual deterioration of the network signal on the communication channel.

o Dispersion: In the case of Dispersion, the data is dispersed and overlapped during transmission,
which leads to the loss of the original data.
o Data Delay: The transmitted data reaches the destination system outside the specified frame time.

The physical layer performs various functions and services:

o It transfers data bit by bit or symbol by symbol.

o It performs bit synchronization, which means that only one bit needs to be transferred from one
system to another at a time. There should be no overlapping of bits during transmission. Bit
synchronization can be achieved by providing a clock.
o Bit rate control defines how many bits per second can be transmitted, i.e., the number of bits sent per
second.
o The physical layer is responsible for knowing the arrangements made between devices in networks
called physical topologies, such as mesh, ring, bus, and star.
o The transmission mode in which data is transmitted, and there are three modes of transmitting data:
full-duplex, half-duplex, and simplex.
o It is responsible for point-to-multipoint, point-to-point, or multipoint line configurations.
o It is responsible for flow control and start-stop signaling in asynchronous serial communication.
o Signal processing of physical signals such as training sequence, pulse shaping, equalization filtering,
and others.
o It provides bit-interleaving and another channel coding.
o It is responsible for serial or parallel communication.
o It provides a standardized interface for physical transmission media, including electrical
specifications for transmission line signal levels, mechanical specifications for electrical cables and
connectors, radio interfaces, and wireless IR communication links, IR specifications.
o The physical layer is responsible for modulation, which means the conversion of information into
radio waves by adding the data to an optical nerve signal or electrical signal.
o This layer is responsible for circuit switching.
o This layer is concerned with auto-negotiation. Signals are mainly of two sorts, digital signals &
analog signals. The physical layer decides which signal will be used to transfer the data from one
point to another.
o It also avoids collisions between data flowing in the network due to the irretrievability of data
packets.
o It is responsible for the translation of data received from the data link layer for further transmission.
primary role of the data link layer is to check whether the data transmitted from one point to another node
point on the physical layer is error-free or not. If any error occurs during data transmission, the data link
layer will discard that data and resend the data. This layer is responsible for reliable and efficient
communication between devices.

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The data packet travels from the network layer to the data link layer. These data packets are further divided
into frames, and the frame size is chosen based on the NIC (Network Interface Card) used in the system.
This layer sets a logical layer between two points. It helps to manage the traffic control of frames on the
network by stopping the transmitted signal when the frame buffer is full. For the transmission of
information, the data link layer uses devices such as switches, bridges, etc.
The data link layer is classified into two sub-layers, which are given below:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC) or Data Link Control (DLC) Sublayer: LLC or DLC is the topmost
layer of the data link layer. It deals with the communication between the lower layers and upper
layers. This sublayer runs above the data link layer and provides flow control and error information.
It is responsible for assigning the frame sequence number. It specifies the mechanism that can be
used to address stations on a transmission medium and to control the data exchanged between the
sender and the receiver.
2. Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer: The bottom sublayer of the Data Link Layer is the Media
Access Control. It is also known as Medium Access Control. It provides multiplexing and flow
control for the transmission media. The main responsibility of this sublayer is to encapsulate the
frame, check for transmission errors, and then allow the frame to be forwarded to the upper layer. It
determines who is permitted to access the media at any given time.

Functions of Data link layer:

1. Hop to Hop or Node to Node delivery of data: The responsibility of the Data Link Layer (DLL) is to
provide hop-to-hop delivery of data. The data link layer determines the node to which the data
should be sent first, then the following node the data should be sent to, and so on, till the information
arrives at the destination system.
2. Framing: It is a process of encapsulating data packets obtained from the network layer into frames
for transmission. Each frame consists of a header, a payload field, and a trailer. The header contains
the frame start bits, the address of both the source and destination, the type of data, and quality
control bits. The payload field contains the data packet. The trailer contains error detection bits, error
correction bits, and frame stop bits.

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 3. Physical addressing: The Data Link Layer attaches the physical addresses of the receiver and sender
to the header of each frame. To send information from source to destination, you must know what we
are sending and where we are sending it.
4. Error control: During transmission, the frame can get corrupted by any cause. The error can be
controlled in the data link layer in three phases of error control as follows:
o Error detection: The error in the data frame is detected with the help of error detection bits
present in the frame trailer.
o Acknowledgment: After receiving the data frame, the receiver responds to inform the sender
about the successful delivery of the data frame. This acknowledgment can be positive or
negative. If the data frame is received successfully, it sends positive feedback to the sender;
otherwise, it sends negative feedback to the sender.
o Retransmission: If the receiver successfully receives the data frame, the sender sends the
next set of data frames, but if the data frame does not reach the receiver successfully, the
sender must resend the data frames.
5. Flow Control: The receiver should be able to receive the data frame at the same speed at which the
sender is sending the data frame, i.e., both the sender and the receiver should work at the same speed.
If the sender sends frames with high speed and the receiver receives frames with low speed, the
sender will be overloaded, resulting in loss of data.
Data loss can be handled with the help of two mechanisms:

o Stop and wait: The sender should wait until the acknowledgment is received from the receiver for
frame-1. The sender will wait for the response of the receiver, and then it will send the next data
frame.
o Sliding Window: Here, instead of sending acknowledgment after each frame, the sender sends
acknowledgment after some set of frames.

Protocols of Data link layer:

o Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC): It is the first bit-oriented protocol and is widely used. It
is a subset of the High-Level Data Link Protocol. IBM developed this protocol in 1975. It manages
synchronous serially transmitted bits over a data link layer.
o High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC): It is a bit-oriented protocol for conveying data on point-to-
multipoint and point-to-point links. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
developed this protocol in 1979. It is based on Synchronous Data Link Protocol. It provides
connectionless and connection-oriented services. It provides two transmission modes: Asynchronous
Balanced Mode (ABM) and Normal Feedback Mode (NRM).
o Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP): It is a simple internet protocol through which the user is
allowed to access the internet with the help of a computer modem. Rick Adams developed this
protocol in 1984. It works with TCP/IP for communication over the router and serial port.

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 o Point to Point Protocol (PPP): It is a character-oriented or byte-oriented protocol. PPP is a WAN
protocol that runs over an Internet link. It is used in broadband communication. It is used to transmit
multiprotocol data between point-to-point devices. It provides transmission encryption, loop
connection authentication, and compression of data.
o Network Control Protocol (NCP): This layer was implemented by ARPANET. It allows transferring
data between two devices. It is a part of the point-to-point protocol. This network layer will carry the
data packets from the origin to the goal.
o Link Control Protocol (LCP): This layer is also a component of the point-to-point protocol. It is
mainly used for establishing and maintaining the link before sending data.
o Link Access Procedure (LAP): It is derived from the high-level data link protocol. It is used for
framing and data transmission over point-to-point links. It has several Link Access Protocols, such as
Multilink Procedure (MLP), Link Access Procedure for Modems (LAPM), Link Access Procedure
for Half-Duplex (LAPX), and Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay (LAPF).

Unit 5

Routing

o A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from source to the
destination. Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.
o A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP model
o A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based on the information available in the
packet header and forwarding table.
o The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The routing algorithm is nothing but a
software responsible for deciding the optimal path through which packet can be transmitted.
o The routing protocols use the metric to determine the best path for the packet delivery. The metric is
the standard of measurement such as hop count, bandwidth, delay, current load on the path, etc. used
by the routing algorithm to determine the optimal path to the destination.
o The routing algorithm initializes and maintains the routing table for the process of path
determination.
o Routing metrics and costs are used for determining the best route to the destination. The factors used
by the protocols to determine the shortest path, these factors are known as a metric.
Metrics are the network variables used to determine the best route to the destination. For some protocols use
the static metrics means that their value cannot be changed and for some other routing protocols use the
dynamic metrics means that their value can be assigned by the system administrator.
The most common metric values are given below:

o Hop count: Hop count is defined as a metric that specifies the number of passes through
internetworking devices such as a router, a packet must travel in a route to move from source to the
destination. If the routing protocol considers the hop as a primary metric value, then the path with the
least hop count will be considered as the best path to move from source to the destination.
o Delay: It is a time taken by the router to process, queue and transmit a datagram to an interface. The
protocols use this metric to determine the delay values for all the links along the path end-to-end.
The path having the lowest delay value will be considered as the best path.
o Bandwidth: The capacity of the link is known as a bandwidth of the link. The bandwidth is
measured in terms of bits per second. The link that has a higher transfer rate like gigabit is preferred
over the link that has the lower capacity like 56 kb. The protocol will determine the bandwidth
capacity for all the links along the path, and the overall higher bandwidth will be considered as the
best route.
o Load: Load refers to the degree to which the network resource such as a router or network link is
busy. A Load can be calculated in a variety of ways such as CPU utilization, packets processed per

53
 second. If the traffic increases, then the load value will also be increased. The load value changes
with respect to the change in the traffic.
o Reliability: Reliability is a metric factor may be composed of a fixed value. It depends on the
network links, and its value is measured dynamically. Some networks go down more often than
others. After network failure, some network links repaired more easily than other network links. Any
reliability factor can be considered for the assignment of reliability ratings, which are generally
numeric values assigned by the system administrator.
Fewest hops routing is a network routing technique that minimizes the number of intermediate computers
that messages need to pass through while traveling from a source to a destination computer.
Here are some details about fewest hops routing:
• Routing schemes
A routing scheme is a mechanism that finds the path for delivering messages between a source and
destination node. It optimizes parameters like energy, congestion, delay, and jitter.
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
RIP uses the number of hops, or hop count, to determine the best route to a network or host. A hop count of
16 in RIP means infinity, or that the destination is unreachable.
• Hop-by-hop routing
This technique forwards packets from one node to the next based on short-term credits and long-term path
delay estimation.
• Algorithms
Algorithms like Dijkstra's algorithm and genetic algorithms are used to solve routing problems and find
efficient routes.

Types of Routing
Routing can be classified into three categories:

o Static Routing
o Default Routing
o Dynamic Routing

Static Routing

o Static Routing is also known as Nonadaptive Routing.

o It is a technique in which the administrator manually adds the routes in a routing table.
o A Router can send the packets for the destination along the route defined by the administrator.
o In this technique, routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology of the networks

Advantages Of Static Routing

Following are the advantages of Static Routing:

o No Overhead: It has ho overhead on the CPU usage of the router. Therefore, the cheaper router can
be used to obtain static routing.
o Bandwidth: It has not bandwidth usage between the routers.
o Security: It provides security as the system administrator is allowed only to have control over the
routing to a particular network.
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Disadvantages of Static Routing:
Following are the disadvantages of Static Routing:

o For a large network, it becomes a very difficult task to add each route manually to the routing table.
o The system administrator should have a good knowledge of a topology as he has to add each route
manually.
Default Routing
o Default Routing is a technique in which a router is configured to send all the packets to the same hop
device, and it doesn't matter whether it belongs to a particular network or not. A Packet is transmitted
to the device for which it is configured in default routing.
o Default Routing is used when networks deal with the single exit point.
o It is also useful when the bulk of transmission networks have to transmit the data to the same hp
device.
o When a specific route is mentioned in the routing table, the router will choose the specific route
rather than the default route. The default route is chosen only when a specific route is not mentioned
in the routing table.
Dynamic Routing
o It is also known as Adaptive Routing.
o It is a technique in which a router adds a new route in the routing table for each packet in response to
the changes in the condition or topology of the network.
o Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to reach the destination.
o In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the new routes.
o If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to reach the destination.
The Dynamic protocol should have the following features:

o All the routers must have the same dynamic routing protocol in order to exchange the routes.
o If the router discovers any change in the condition or topology, then router broadcast this information
to all other routers.
Advantages of Dynamic Routing:
o It is easier to configure.
o It is more effective in selecting the best route in response to the changes in the condition or topology.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:

o It is more expensive in terms of CPU and bandwidth usage.

o It is less secure as compared to default and static routing.
Routing algorithm
o In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the network layer must determine the
best route through which packets can be transmitted.
o Whether the network layer provides datagram service or virtual circuit service, the main job of the
network layer is to provide the best route. The routing protocol provides this job.
o The routing protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path from the source to the
destination. The best path is the path that has the "least-cost path" from source to the destination.
o Routing is the process of forwarding the packets from source to the destination but the best route to
send the packets is determined by the routing algorithm.
Classification of a Routing algorithm
The Routing algorithm is divided into two categories:
o Adaptive Routing algorithm
o Non-adaptive Routing algorithm
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1. Adaptive Routing Algorithm: These algorithms change their routing decisions to reflect changes in
the topology and in traffic as well. These get their routing information from adjacent routers or from
all routers. The optimization parameters are the distance, number of hops and estimated transit time.
This can be further classified as follows:
1. Centralized: In this type some central node in the network gets entire information about the
network topology, about the traffic and about other nodes. This then transmits this
information to the respective routers. The advantage of this is that only one node is required
to keep the information. The disadvantage is that if the central node goes down the entire
network is down, i.e. single point of failure.
2. Isolated: In this method the node decides the routing without seeking information from other
nodes. The sending node does not know about the status of a particular link. The
disadvantage is that the packet may be send through a congested route resulting in a delay.
Some examples of this type of algorithm for routing are:
▪ Hot Potato: When a packet comes to a node, it tries to get rid of it as fast as it can, by
putting it on the shortest output queue without regard to where that link leads. A
variation of this algorithm is to combine static routing with the hot potato algorithm.
When a packet arrives, the routing algorithm takes into account both the static weights
of the links and the queue lengths.
▪ Backward Learning: In this method the routing tables at each node gets modified by
information from the incoming packets. One way to implement backward learning is
to include the identity of the source node in each packet, together with a hop counter
that is incremented on each hop. When a node receives a packet in a particular line, it
notes down the number of hops it has taken to reach it from the source node. If the
previous value of hop count stored in the node is better than the current one then
nothing is done but if the current value is better then the value is updated for future
use. The problem with this is that when the best route goes down then it cannot recall
the second best route to a particular node. Hence all the nodes have to forget the
stored informations periodically and start all over again.
3. Distributed: In this the node receives information from its neighbouring nodes and then
takes the decision about which way to send the packet. The disadvantage is that if in between
the the interval it receives information and sends the paket something changes then the packet
may be delayed.

Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm

o Non Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static routing algorithm.
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o When booting up the network, the routing information stores to the routers.
o Non Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing decision based on the network topology or
network traffic.
o Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithm: These algorithms do not base their routing decisions on
measurements and estimates of the current traffic and topology. Instead the route to be taken in going
from one node to the other is computed in advance, off-line, and downloaded to the routers when the
network is booted. This is also known as static routing. This can be further classified as:
o Flooding: Flooding adapts the technique in which every incoming packet is sent on every
outgoing line except the one on which it arrived. One problem with this method is that
packets may go in a loop. As a result of this a node may receive several copies of a particular
packet which is undesirable. Some techniques adapted to overcome these problems are as
follows:
▪ Sequence Numbers: Every packet is given a sequence number. When a node
receives the packet it sees its source address and sequence number. If the node finds
that it has sent the same packet earlier then it will not transmit the packet and will just
discard it.
▪ Hop Count: Every packet has a hop count associated with it. This is decremented(or
incremented) by one by each node which sees it. When the hop count becomes
zero(or a maximum possible value) the packet is dropped.
▪ Spanning Tree: The packet is sent only on those links that lead to the destination by
constructing a spanning tree routed at the source. This avoids loops in transmission
but is possible only when all the intermediate nodes have knowledge of the network
topology.

Flooding is not practical for general kinds of applications. But in cases where high degree of
robustness is desired such as in military applications, flooding is of great help.

o Random Walk: In this method a packet is sent by the node to one of its neighbours
randomly. This algorithm is highly robust. When the network is highly interconnected, this
algorithm has the property of making excellent use of alternative routes. It is usually
implemented by sending the packet onto the least queued link.

Differences b/w Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithm

Basis Of Adaptive Routing Non-Adaptive Routing
Comparison algorithm algorithm
Define Adaptive Routing The Non-Adaptive Routing
algorithm is an algorithm algorithm is an algorithm that
that constructs the routing constructs the static table to
table based on the determine which node to send
network conditions. the packet.
Usage Adaptive routing The Non-Adaptive Routing
algorithm is used by algorithm is used by static
dynamic routing. routing.
Routing decision Routing decisions are Routing decisions are the static
made based on topology tables.
and network traffic.
Categorization The types of adaptive The types of Non Adaptive
routing algorithm, are routing algorithm are flooding
Centralized, isolation and and random walks.
distributed algorithm.

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 Complexity Adaptive Routing Non-Adaptive Routing
algorithms are more algorithms are simple.
complex.
3. Hybrid Algorithms
As the name suggests, these algorithms are a combination of both adaptive and non-adaptive
algorithms. In this approach, the network is divided into several regions, and each region uses a
different algorithm.
Further, these are classified as follows:
Link-state: In this method, each router creates a detailed and complete map of the network which is
then shared with all other routers. This allows for more accurate and efficient routing decisions to be
made.
Distance vector: In this method, each router maintains a table that contains information about the
distance and direction to every other node in the network. This table is then shared with other routers
in the network. The disadvantage of this method is that it may lead to routing loops.

Link State Routing

Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the knowledge of its neighborhood with
every other router in the internetwork.

The three keys to understand the Link State Routing algorithm:

Knowledge about the neighborhood: Instead of sending its routing table, a router sends the
information about its neighborhood only. A router broadcast its identities and cost of the directly
attached links to other routers.

o Flooding: Each router sends the information to every other router on the internetwork except its
neighbors. This process is known as Flooding. Every router that receives the packet sends the copies
to all its neighbors. Finally, each and every router receives a copy of the same information.
o Information sharing: A router sends the information to every other router only when the change
occurs in the information.
Link State Routing has two phases:
Reliable Flooding

o Initial state: Each node knows the cost of its neighbors.

o Final state: Each node knows the entire graph
Let's understand through an example:

In the above figure, source vertex is A.

a) Calculating the shortest path from A to F. Final table
S N D(B), D(C), D(D), D(E), D(F),
te P(B) P(C) P(D) P(E) P(F)
p
1 A 2,A 5,A 1,A ∞ ∞
2 AD 2,A 4,D 2,D ∞
3 ADE 2,A 3,E 4,E

58
 4 ADE 3,E 4,E
B
5 ADE 4,E
BC
6 ADE
BCF

• Distance vector: In this method, each router maintains a table that contains information about the
distance and direction to every other node in the network. This table is then shared with other routers
in the network. The disadvantage of this method is that it may lead to routing loops.
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
o The Distance vector algorithm is iterative, asynchronous and distributed.
o Distributed: It is distributed in that each node receives information from one or more of its
directly attached neighbors, performs calculation and then distributes the result back to its
neighbors.
o Iterative: It is iterative in that its process continues until no more information is available to
be exchanged between neighbors.
o Asynchronous: It does not require that all of its nodes operate in the lock step with each
other.
o The Distance vector algorithm is a dynamic algorithm.
o It is mainly used in ARPANET, and RIP.
o Each router maintains a distance table known as Vector.
Example :
Consider 3-routers X, Y and Z as shown in figure. Each router have their routing table. Every routing
table will contain distance to the destination nodes.

Consider router X , X will share it routing table to neighbors and neighbors will share it routing table
to it to X and distance from node X to destination will be calculated using bellmen- ford equation.
Dx(y) = min { C(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ? N

Gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks operating with different
transmission protocols. The most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3,
i.e. network layer of the OSI (open systems interconnection) model. However, depending upon the
functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI model. It acts as the entry – exit point

59
for a network since all traffic that flows across the networks should pass through the gateway. Only the
internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.

Features of Gateways
• Gateway is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that inflows or outflows from
that network.
• It forms a passage between two different networks operating with different transmission protocols.
• A gateway operates as a protocol converter, providing compatibility between the different protocols
used in the two different networks.
• The feature that differentiates a gateway from other network devices is that it can operate at any
layer of the OSI model.
• It also stores information about the routing paths of the communicating networks.
• When used in enterprise scenario, a gateway node may be supplemented as proxy server or firewall.
• A gateway is generally implemented as a node with multiple NICs (network interface cards)
connected to different networks. However, it can also be configured using software.
• It uses packet switching technique to transmit data across the networks.

Types of Gateways

On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two categories −
• Unidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in only one direction. Changes made in the
source node are replicated in the destination node, but not vice versa. They can be used as archiving
tools.
• Bidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in both directions. They can be used as
synchronization tools.
• Router:
• It is an interconnecting device that works at the physical, data link and network layer of OSI
reference model. It may connect LAN and WAN in the network and can pass or relay the packets
among them. It has access to the network or logical address. The following figure displays the router
acts as a station in the network.

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 •

• In this the routers are a member of more than one network simultaneously. They have links with two
or more networks and contain the addresses of the stations on all these networks. It receives the
packets from one connected network and passes them to a second connected network. If a received
packet contains the address of a node that is on some other network, the Router determines which of
its connected networks the best next relay point for that packet.
Bridge
• A bridge is a networking device that works in both the physical and data link layer in a network. This
devices can divide a large network into smaller segments and pass the frames between two originally
separated LANs. A bridge maintains a MAC address of various stations attached to it. When a
frames enters a bridge, it checks the address contained in the frame and compares it with a table of
all the stations on both segments.

• For Example, A-frame is sent from station A to station C. When this frame arrives at the Bridge, the
Bridge checks its table and blocks it from crossing into the lower segment as station C is in the upper
segment only. Thus, a frame is relayed to the entire upper segment and is not allowed to move to
lower segment. If the frame is to be transmitted from station A to station F, the Bridge will allow this
frame to pass through it and relay it to the entire lower segment.

•
• Following are the point-to-point comparison between Router and Bridge.
•

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 Sr. No Points of Router Bridge
differences
1 Function The main function is to route the The main function of Bridge is
packets and to reduce the to filter the packets and to
network problems. keep the traffic for each
segment separately.
2 Layers It is a hardware device that It is a hardware device that
works at the network, data link & works at the OSI model's data
physical layer of the OSI Model. link and physical layer.
3 Address The Router has access to the The Bridge has access to a
logical address or IP address of physical address or MAC
stations. address of stations.
4 Protocols RIP, OSPF, etc. these are some In Bridge, there are no
protocols that can be configured protocols to configure.
in the Router.
5 Connection It connects two or more networks The Bridge is used to extend
and routes packets between them. the existing network or divide
or large network into smaller
segments.
6 Routing Table The Router uses a routing table The Bridge does not use a
to store information. This table is routing table for storing
dynamic and is updated using information.
routing protocols.
7 Data Structure A router used graph data Bridge used tables data
structure. structures
8 Network In Router enables network In Bridge network
Segmentation segmentation. segmentation is disable.
9 Domain It works on more than single Bridge works on a single
broadcast domains. broadcast domain.
10 Transparency It is not transparent to the end It is transparent to the end
stations. stations and do not rely on the
protocol.
11 Efficiency Routing is more efficient. The Bridge has less efficiency
than the Router.
12 Ports It has more than two ports. It has only two ports.
13 Path Router devices can accommodate Bridge devices can
multiple paths. accommodate a single path.
14 Setup Difficult Easy
15 Cost Routers are relatively expensive Bridges are relatively
devices. inexpensive devices.
protocol gateways?
Protocol gateways, also known as protocol translators, are small non-descript devices that mainly function as
translators for various protocols and physical layers (i.e., Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and serial
lines). This allows machinery, sensors, actuators, and computers that operate industrial facilities such
as factories, dams, power plants, and water processing facilities to communicate with one another.
In an industrial facility, several devices function together in one seamless process. To do this, they must
effectively communicate or transmit information to one another. In an ideal scenario, all these devices use
the same protocol. However, such a homogeneous setup is not always possible given the variety of devices a
facility may need and the different manufacturers that provide them.
The process of creating industrial-internet-of-things (IIoT) environments and adapting for Industry 4.0
present protocol challenges because it merges operational technology (OT) and information technology (IT),
wherein traditional OT networks are connected to IT networks. These two networks do not use the same

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protocols, with OT communicating over serial cables and IT communicating through the Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
and mobile networks.
Protocol gateways help bridge the disparity in protocols in both scenarios. The diagram in figure 1 shows the
typical position of protocol gateways.

Figure 1. The typical position of a protocol gateway, at the bottom of the control network

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data
link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are
represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:

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Network Access Layer
o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same
network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by
the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive
at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data
into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link
layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater
than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel
over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the
receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various
devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts
the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process
the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in
the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and
to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems
back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route
the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network
congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
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 o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or
not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP
datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent
over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.
o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that
has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain
any ID of a data segment.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of
the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and
each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form
an original message.
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 o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the
application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor
cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with
the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over
the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a
Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are
rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-
mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-
mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a
host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the
system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at
the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting
the files from one computer to another computer.

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI model has been developed by ISO It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced
(International Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).
It is an independent standard and generic It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
protocol used as a communication gateway development of an internet. It is a communication
between the network and the end user. protocol that provides the connection among the
hosts.
In the OSI model, the transport layer provides The transport layer does not provide the surety for
a guarantee for the delivery of the packets. the delivery of packets. But still, we can say that it
is a reliable model.
This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.
In this model, the session and presentation In this model, the session and presentation layer
layers are separated, i.e., both the layers are are not different layers. Both layers are included in
different. the application layer.
It is also known as a reference model through It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
which various networks are built. For
example, the TCP/IP model is built from the
OSI model. It is also referred to as a guidance
tool.
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 In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides only connectionless
connection-oriented and connectionless service.
service.
Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and In this model, the protocol cannot be easily
can be easily replaced when the technology replaced.
changes.
It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.
OSI model defines the services, protocols, In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and
and interfaces as well as provides a proper interfaces are not properly separated. It is protocol
distinction between them. It is protocol dependent.
independent.
The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.
It provides standardization to the devices like It does not provide the standardization to the
router, motherboard, switches, and other devices. It provides a connection between various
hardware devices. computers.

What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards 802.3. The reason
behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and maintain, and allows low-
cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that are allowed.
Ethernet generally uses a bus topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer
and the data link layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with DLLs. In
order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

Although Ethernet has been largely replaced by wireless networks, wired networking still uses Ethernet
more frequently. Wi-Fi eliminates the need for cables by enabling users to connect their smartphones or
laptops to a network wirelessly. The 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard offers faster maximum data transfer rates
when compared to Gigabit Ethernet. However, wired connections are more secure and less susceptible to
interference than wireless networks. This is the main justification for why so many companies and
organizations continue to use Ethernet.
What is the Internet?
Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each other and to the
World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect billions of computer users
worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and other wireless and networking technologies.
At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data between computers
across the world.

It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency" (DARPA)
department of the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.
Why is the Internet Called a Network?
Internet is called a network as it creates a network by connecting computers and servers across the world
using routers, switches and telephone lines, and other communication devices and channels. So, it can be
considered a global network of physical cables such as copper telephone wires, fiber optic cables, tv cables,
etc. Furthermore, even wireless connections like 3G, 4G, or Wi-Fi make use of these cables to access the
Internet.
Internet is different from the World Wide Web as the World Wide Web is a network of computers and
servers created by connecting them through the internet. So, the internet is the backbone of the web as it
provides the technical infrastructure to establish the WWW and acts as a medium to transmit information
from one computer to another computer. It uses web browsers to display the information on the client, which
it fetches from web servers.

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The internet is not owned by a single person or organization entirely. It is a concept based on physical
infrastructure that connects networks with other networks to create a global network of billions of
computers. As of 12 August 2016, there were more than 300 crores of internet users across the world.

Now after understanding the basics, let us see how internet works?

When you turn on your computer and type a domain name in the browser search bar, your browser sends a
request to the DNS server to get the corresponding IP address. After getting the IP address, the browser
forwards the request to the respective server.
Once the server gets the request to provide information about a particular website, the data starts flowing.
The data is transferred through the optical fiber cables in digital format or in the form of light pulses. As the
servers are placed at distant places, the data may have to travel thousands of miles through optical fiber
cable to reach your computer.
The optical fiber is connected to a router, which converts the light signals into electrical signals. These
electrical signals are transmitted to your laptop using an Ethernet cable. Thus, you receive the desired
information through the internet, which is actually a cable that connects you with the server.
Furthermore, if you are using wireless internet using wifi or mobile data, the signals from the optical cable
are first sent to a cell tower and from where it reaches to your cell phone in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
The internet is managed by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) located in the
USA. It manages IP addresses assignment, domain name registration, etc.
The data transfer is very fast on the internet. The moment you press enter you get the information from a
server located thousands of miles away from you. The reason for this speed is that the data is sent in the
binary form (0, 1), and these zeros and ones are divided into small pieces called packets, which can be sent
at high speed.

Structure of the Internet

1. Internet Address:
Computers connected to the internet means that the systems are connected to computers’ worldwide
network. Therefore, each machine/device has its own or unique address. Addresses of the internet are in the
form “kkk.kkk.kkk.kkk,” where each “kkk” ranges from 0-256. This structure of the internet address is
known as an IP address (Internet Protocol). Fig. 1 describes the connection between two computers using the
internet. Both systems have unique IP addresses. However, the internet is a unique object between both
systems.

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 If a client connects the computer with the internet using Internet Service Provider (ISP), the client’s system
is allocated a temporary internet protocol address till the session client is operating. However, if someone
becomes part of the internet using a local area network (LAN), the client is probably assigned to a
permanent internet protocol. At the time of connection, the system will have a unique internet protocol
address. A handy program is named “Ping” to ensure the internet connection on the system; this provision is
available on all the Microsoft Windows operating systems and sometimes on a flavour of Unix OS.

2. Protocol Stacks and Packets

As the device is connected to the internet and retains a unique address. What is the procedure to
communicate the device with the system at another end? For the sake of understanding, we are considering
an example. As we discussed in Figure 1, one system retains an IP address, i.e., 173.196.95.98, and the
second system contains an IP address, i.e., 162.194.60.98. Suppose you want to send a message “Hello
Friend” to another computer via “Your computer”. The medium of communication will be the wire that
connects “Your computer” to the internet. Suppose you are using ISP facilities, then the message will be
communicated via the phone line of ISP. In such a case, the first message will be encrypted in digital form.
All the alphanumeric characters will be converted into an electronic signal. The electronic signal will be
delivered to the other computer and then again decrypted into the original form as received on the second IP
system. The convergence of messages from alphanumeric form to a digital signal and vice versa is
performed employing Protocol Stack that is part of each operating system, i.e., Windows, Unix, Android,
etc. The protocol stack applied in the domain of the internet is known as TCP/IP, as it is the primary
protocol used for communication.

Fig. 2 briefly describes the path framework related to that message from “Your computer” to another
computer.

Figure 2: Communication Path Framework

1. The message that needs to be sent is written in an application on “Your computer” it starts from the
top using the protocol stack and moves downward.
2. If the message is large, the stack layer breaks the message into smaller chunks so that data
management remains stable. The chunks of data are known as Packets.
3. The data from the application layer move towards the TCP/IP layer. The packet of the data is
assigned with a port number. In computers, various types of message applications are working at a
time. Therefore, it is essential to know which application is sending the message so that it needs to be
synced at the reception level (another computer) with the same application. Hence, the message will
listen on the same port.
4. After necessary processing at the TCP level, the packets move towards the IP layer. The IP layer
provides the destination layer where the message should be received. At this level, message packets
retain port number as well as IP address.

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 5. The hardware layer is responsible for converting alpha/numeric messages into a digital signal and
sending the message through the telephone’s path.
6. Internet services provider (ISP) is also attached to the internet, where the ISP router examines the
recipient’s address. The next stop of the packet is another router.
7. Eventually, the packets reach another computer. This time packets start from the bottom.
8. As the packets move upwards, the packets’ unnecessary data is removed that was helping to reach
the destination; this includes IP address and port number.
9. On reaching the stack’s top, all the packets are reassembled to form the original message sent by
“Your computer”.

3. Infrastructure of the Network:

It is clear from the discussion about how two computers at different locations interact with each other
employing the internet. How do computers send messages? How are packets transmitted and received at
both systems? How an alphanumeric message is converted into a digital signal and vice versa. Fig. 3 will
now briefly explain what resides in between all the layers?

Figure 3: Networking Infrastructure

Fig. 3 is the brief description of Fig. 1, where physical connection via telephone to ISP is easy to guess, but
it also requires some explanation. The ISP manages a pool of modems; this is handled by some device that
contains data flow from the modem pool to a spine or specific line router (usually a specialized one). This
configuration can be linked to a port server, as it offers network connectivity. Information on billing and use
is typically obtained here as well.
When the packets cross the phone framework and nearby ISP equipment, it is redirected to the ISP’s
mainline or infrastructure from which the ISP purchases bandwidth. The packets typically pass from here to
many routers, backbones, unique lines, and other networks to reach the target, the device with another
computer’s address.
For the users of Microsoft Windows and operators of Unix flavour, if you have an internet connection, you
can trace the packets’ path by using an internet program known as traceroute. Just like the PING command,
users can check the packet path in the command prompt. Traceroute prints all the routers, computer systems,
and various other entities related to the internet from the packet will travel and reach the actual destination.
The internet routers decide further communication of packets. Multiple packets are shown in Fig. 3; the real
cause of such routers is to understand the networking structures clearly.

The internet layer is a group of internetworking methods, protocols, and specifications in the Internet
protocol suite that are used to transport network packets from the originating host across network
boundaries; if necessary, to the destination host specified by an IP address. The internet layer derives its
name from its function facilitating internetworking, which is the concept of connecting multiple networks
with each other through gateways.
The internet layer does not include the protocols that fulfill the purpose of maintaining link states between
the local nodes and that usually use protocols that are based on the framing of packets specific to the link
types. Such protocols belong to the link layer. Internet-layer protocols use IP-based packets.

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A common design aspect in the internet layer is the robustness principle: "Be liberal in what you accept, and
conservative in what you send"[1] as a misbehaving host can deny Internet service to many other users.
The internet layer is a layer in the TCP/IP model that is responsible for transporting network packets
between nodes on different networks. It's also known as the network layer or IP layer.
The internet layer uses a combination of protocols and specifications to perform the following tasks:
• Routing: The internet layer routes packets across networks.
• IP addresses: The internet layer uses IP addresses to identify and locate network hosts.
• Packet delivery: The internet layer accepts and delivers packets for the network.
The internet layer includes the following protocols:
• Internet Protocol (IP): The main component of the internet layer, IP defines addressing systems for
network hosts.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Operates at the internet layer.
• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Operates at the internet layer.
The internet layer makes internetworking possible by allowing different IP networks to interwork with each
other
Here are some common internetwork problems and how to troubleshoot them:
• Hardware failures
Malfunctioning routers, switches, or network interface cards can cause network outages. These issues can be
caused by overheating, wear and tear, or physical damage. Regular maintenance and timely replacements
can help prevent hardware failures.
• Configuration errors
Misconfigured routing tables or incorrect access control lists can cause network device issues and disrupt
network connectivity.
• Network congestion
Too many people trying to access a network at the same time can cause network congestion. This is the most
common type of internet outage and is also the easiest to prevent.
• DNS issues
DNS issues occur when you are unable to connect to an IP address. This can make your site appear online to
you but offline to visitors.
• Intermittent connectivity
An unstable network connection that frequently disconnects or drops can disrupt tasks, hinder
communication, and lead to data loss.
• Physical connections
Check that all physical network connections are in place.
• IP configurations
Verify that devices have valid IP addresses, subnet masks, and default gateways configured.
• Traceroute
Run a traceroute to identify the route taken by data packets and pinpoint where the connection is failing.

Internet Standard?
Internet standards are fundamental to the global internet, which given the complex and diverse nature of the
systems and technologies on the internet attempts to prove how these systems can interact. These are
standardization patterns that are provided by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), which has worked
on its protocols for a long time and has a strict mechanism for revising and approving them.
These standards will facilitate web affinity to signal, security, and innovation. In this article, we will look
into the standardization process in Internet Standard, its importance, examples, etc.
An internet standard is a set of technical specifications, protocols, or guidelines that define how the internet
works. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) creates and publishes internet standards to ensure that
the internet is stable, efficient, and interoperable.
Internet standards are important because they:
• Enable communication: They allow users and devices to communicate seamlessly.
• Enable data formatting: They help organizations format data and processes effectively.
• Enable interoperability: They ensure that systems on the internet can work together.

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Internet standards are developed through consensus and rigorous review processes. They are achieved
through languages, schemas, message formats, and defining protocols

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