Introduction to Astrophysics

Instructor-
Golam Dastegir Al-Quaderi
Professor
Department of Physics, DU

1
 Physics of Stellar Spectra
• We have seen that the spectrum of light from
a star reveals information about the chemical
composition and temperature of the star’s
atmosphere.
• Many a times, the spectrum consists of that of
ions rather than neutral atoms or molecules.
• Temperature of the gas at the star’s outer
layer directly influences the ionization of the
atoms in that layer.
2
 Physics of Stellar Spectra
• To understand the physics of spectral lines,
two basic questions must be answered:
• A. In what orbitals are the electrons most
likely to be found?
• B. What are the relative numbers of atoms in
various stages of ionization?
• To answer these questions we need the
Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution and
Saha’s equation for ionization.
3
 Maxwell Boltzmann Velocity
Distribution
• For a classical (spinless) gas in local thermal
equilibrium, the number of gas particles, per
unit volume, having a given range of speeds
between 𝑣 to 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 is given by
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑁𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
3
𝑚 2
2 −𝑚𝑣 2 /2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= 4𝜋𝑁 𝑣 𝑒 𝑑𝑣
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇

4
 Maxwell Boltzmann Velocity
Distribution
• Here, 𝑁𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑁 = number of molecules
per unit volume with speeds between 𝑣 and 𝑣
+ 𝑑𝑣
• 𝑁 = total number of molecules in an
ensemble per unit volume.
• Thus, the fraction of molecules with speeds
between 𝑣 and 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣 is = 𝑁𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣/𝑁
• 𝑁𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣/𝑁 = Probability of a molecule to
have speed between 𝑣 and 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑣
5
 Maxwell Boltzmann Velocity
Distribution
• Maxwell-Boltzmann Speed Distribution
Function:

6
 Maxwell Boltzmann Velocity
Distribution
• Most Probable Speed: It is improbable for a
significant number of particles to have an
energy much greater or less than the thermal
energy 𝑘𝐵 𝑇.
• The distribution peaks when the speed of a
gas particle is equal to the most probable
speed:
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑚𝑝 = 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇/𝑚

7
 Maxwell Boltzmann Velocity
Distribution
• RMS Speed: The high-speed exponential “tail” of
the distribution function results in a somewhat
higher (average) root-mean-square speed:
3𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑚
• Average Speed: The average speed of the
8𝑘𝐵 𝑇
molecules will be 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋𝑚

8
 Maxwell Boltzmann Velocity
Distribution
• We have 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 > 𝑣 > 𝑣𝑝 since
3𝑘𝐵 𝑇 8𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
> >
Number of particles per

𝑚 𝜋𝑚 𝑚
unit volume per unit speed interval

.
9
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• The atoms of a gas gain and lose energy as
they collide.
• As a result, the distribution in the speeds of
the impacting atoms, produces a definite
distribution of energies of the atoms.
• Upon collision, the electron clouds of the
atoms (or molecules) get distorted and the
energy levels get shifted.

10
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Again as a result of the collisions, the
electrons in the atoms/molecules occupy
higher energy levels.
• Besides a distribution of kinetic energies, the
atoms themselves will have different energies,
their electrons being distributed among the
various available energy levels.
• At local thermodynamic equilibrium (TLE), this
produces a definite distribution of the
electrons among the atomic orbitals/levels.
11
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• This distribution of electrons is governed by a
fundamental result of statistical mechanics:
the Boltzmann distribution law or the
Boltzmann factor.
• Boltzmann Distribution Law: The Boltzmann
energy distribution law states that:
• The probability of finding a gas atom
/molecule in a particular energy state varies
exponentially as the negative of the energy
divided by 𝒌𝑩 𝑻 ,i.e. it varies as 𝒆−𝑬/𝒌𝑩𝑻
12
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution

• Thus, orbitals of higher energy are less likely

to be occupied by the electrons:
𝑃 𝐸 ∝ 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 is called the Boltzmann factor.
• Number Density in a State of Energy 𝐸:
• Let 𝑛𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑛𝐸 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 =number of molecules
per unit volume, in the energy interval
between 𝐸 to 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 ≡ (Number/Volume)
13
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• 𝑛𝐸 = number density per unit energy interval.
• From Boltzmann distribution, we get the number
density with specific energy 𝐸 is:
𝑛𝐸 𝐸 ∝ 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
• Singly Degenerate or Non-degenerate States:
• Suppose that, in each atom/molecule, there is
exactly/only one state with any specific energy 𝐸.
• Also assume that the total number of atoms/
molecules is fixed (say equal to 𝑁).

14
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Then the ratio of the number densities of
atoms/molecules in a state of energy 𝐸 to
that in the ground state of energy 𝐸0 is:
𝑛𝐸 𝐸 𝑛𝐸 𝐸 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= = −𝐸 /𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑒 −(𝐸−𝐸0)/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑛𝐸 𝐸0 𝑛0 𝑒 0 𝐵
⇒ 𝑛𝐸 𝐸 = 𝑛0 𝑒 −Δ𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where Δ𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝐸0 is the energy excess of the
ground state and 𝑛0 is the number density in the
ground state.

15
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• It is customary to measure energies using the
ground level as a zero point i.e. to take 𝐸0 = 0
• Then we have
𝑛𝐸 𝐸 = 𝑛0 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
• Relative Population in a State:
• Let 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑛𝐸 𝐸𝑖 𝑉 be the total number of
atoms/molecules with energy 𝐸𝑖 of the 𝑖-th level.
• Let, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑁𝑖 be the total population of
atoms/molecules in all levels in an ensemble.

16
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Then the relative population or the fraction of
atoms/ molecules in the 𝑖-th level is:
𝑁𝑖 𝑛𝐸 𝐸𝑖
= ∝ 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡
where 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 /𝑉 is the total number
density.
• At local thermodynamic equilibrium (at a
temperature 𝑇), the relative populations or the
distribution {𝑁𝑖 }, should be constant i.e. fixed.

17
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Hence, the total number of atoms/molecules in
the i-th level should be proportional to the total
number of atoms/molecules as well:
𝑁𝑖 ∝ 𝑁𝑒 −𝐸𝑖/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
• Effect of Degeneracy: If the 𝑖 -th level is
degenerate with degeneracy 𝑔𝑖 , we have a
further multiplicative factor of 𝑔𝑖 .
• Hence, the number of atoms/molecules in the 𝑖-
th level becomes:
𝑁𝑖 ∝ 𝑁𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

18
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Probability of Occupation:
• The probability of occupation of the 𝑖-th level can
now be re-written as:
𝑁𝑖
𝑃 𝐸𝑖 = ∝ 𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁
as expected because of degeneracy.
• Hence, the atomic orbitals of higher energy are
less likely to be occupied by the electrons (apart
from the effect of degeneracy):
𝑃 𝐸 ∝ 𝑔 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝐵 𝑇

19
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Let 𝑠𝑎 stand for a specific set of quantum
numbers that identifies a state of energy 𝐸𝑎
for a system of particles.
• For example, 𝐸𝑎 = −13.6 eV for the lowest
orbit or the ground state of the hydrogen
atom, which has the quantum numbers given
1
by 𝑠𝑎 = {𝑛 = 1, 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑠 = ± }.
2
• Similarly, let 𝑠𝑏 stand for the set of quantum
numbers that identifies a state of energy 𝐸𝑏 .

20
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Non-degenerate Case: For singly occupied states
(i.e. 𝑔 = 1), the ratio of the probability 𝑃(𝑠𝑏 ),
that the system (atom/molecule) is in state 𝑠𝑏 ,
to the probability 𝑃(𝑠𝑎 ) , that the system is in
state 𝑠𝑎 is :
𝑃 𝑠𝑏 𝑒 −𝐸𝑏 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= −𝐸 /𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑏 −𝐸𝑎 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑃 𝑠𝑎 𝑒 𝑎 𝐵
where 𝑇 is the common temperature of the
two systems (and 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑔𝑏 = 𝑔 = 1).

21
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• We consider the following cases.
• Case-1 𝐸𝑏 > 𝐸𝑎 :
• For 𝐸𝑏 > 𝐸𝑎 , (i.e. for the energy of the state
𝑠𝑏 greater than that, i.e. the energy, of the
state 𝑠𝑎 ), as the thermal energy 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
decreases toward zero (i.e. 𝑇 → 0 ), the
quantity −(𝐸𝑏 − 𝐸𝑎 )/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 → −∞.
• Thus we get,
𝑃 𝑠𝑏 /𝑃 𝑠𝑎 → 0
22
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• This is just what is to be expected if there isn’t
any thermal energy available to raise the energy
of an atom to a higher level.
• On the other hand, if there is a great deal of
thermal energy available (i.e., 𝑇 → ∞ ), then
− (𝐸𝑏 − 𝐸𝑎 )/𝑘𝐵 𝑇 → 0 and we get
𝑃 𝑠𝑏 /𝑃 𝑠𝑎 → 1
• Hence with an unlimited reservoir of thermal
energy, all available energy levels of the atom
should be accessible with equal probability.

23
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Case-2 𝐸𝑏 < 𝐸𝑎 :
• As 𝑇 → 0, − 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 → −∞ which gives:
𝑃 𝑠𝑎 /𝑃 𝑠𝑏 → 0
i.e. the atom will never go to the higher energy
level 𝐸𝑎 , as expected.
• As 𝑇 → ∞, we again get − 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝑏 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 → 0
𝑃 𝑠𝑎 /𝑃 𝑠𝑏 → 1
i.e. all available energy levels of the atom should
be accessible with equal probability.

24
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Degenerate Levels:
• We may have energy levels of the system as
degenerate, with more than one quantum
state having the same energy.
• Thus for example, if states 𝑠𝑐 and 𝑠𝑑 are
degenerate, then 𝐸𝑐 = 𝐸𝑑 but 𝑠𝑐 ≠ 𝑠𝑑 .
• For example, the ground state of the
hydrogen atom is two-fold degenerate with
the same energy of −13.6 eV for 𝑚𝑠 = ±1/2.
25
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• When taking averages, we must count each of
the degenerate states separately.
• To account properly for the number of states
that have a given energy, we define
𝑔𝑐 = the number of states with energy 𝐸𝑐
𝑔𝑑 = the number of states with energy 𝐸𝑑 .
• We call 𝑔𝑐 and 𝑔𝑑 as degeneracies of the
states 𝑠𝑐 and 𝑠𝑑 , respectively.
• In L-S coupling the degeneracies are the 𝑔
factors given by 𝑔 = 2𝐽 + 1
26
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• The ratio, of the probability 𝑃(𝐸𝑑 ), that the
system will be found in any of the 𝑔𝑑
degenerate states with energy 𝐸𝑑 , to the
probability 𝑃(𝐸𝑐 ), that the system is in any of
the 𝑔𝑐 degenerate states with energy 𝐸𝑐 , is
given by:
𝑃 𝑠𝑑 𝑔𝑑 𝑒 −𝐸𝑑 /𝑘𝐵𝑇 − 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= −𝐸 /𝑘 𝑇
= (𝑔𝑑 /𝑔𝑐 )𝑒
𝑃 𝑠𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑒 𝑐 𝐵

27
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Stellar atmospheres contain a vast number of
atoms, so the ratio of probabilities is
indistinguishable from the ratio of the number of
atoms.
• Thus, for the atoms of a given element in a
specified state of ionization, the ratio of the
number of atoms 𝑁𝑑 with energy 𝐸𝑑 to the
number of atoms 𝑁𝑐 with energy 𝐸𝑐 is:
𝑁𝑑 𝑃 𝑠𝑑
= = (𝑔𝑑 /𝑔𝑐 )𝑒 − 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝑐 𝑃 𝑠𝑐

28
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Partition Function:
• To remove the proportionality relation in the
formula for number of atoms/molecules in an
ensemble i.e. in 𝑁𝑖 , we need a constant of
proportionality that needs to be determined
from the conservation of probability.
• We have:
𝑁𝑖 ∝ 𝑁𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖/𝑘𝐵𝑇
⇒ 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑍 −1 𝑁𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
29
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Here 𝑍 may be a function of all the energy
levels 𝐸𝑖 , and degeneracies {𝑔𝑖 }, but not of
a single/particular energy level only.
• This is because, the fraction of particles will
depend, in general, on the distribution of
energy levels 𝐸𝑖 and their degeneracies {𝑔𝑖 }.
• The function 𝑍 is called the partition function
for the system: 𝑍 = 𝑍( 𝐸𝑖 , 𝑔𝑖 , 𝑇)
• It determines how particles are distributed or
partitioned among various energy levels.
30
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Determination of the Partition Function:
• We have the population in a level as:
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑍 −1 𝑁𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
• The total number of particles is (a constant):
𝑁= 𝑁𝑖
𝑖
• The above is equivalent to the statement that
any atom must be in one of the available energy
levels, among the all possible levels marked by 𝑖:
𝑁𝑖 /𝑁 = 1 ⇒ 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 ) = 1
𝑖 𝑖

31
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Hence we have:
𝑁𝑖 /𝑁 = 𝑔𝑖 𝑍 −1 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 1
𝑖 𝑖
1
⇒ 𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 1
𝑍 𝑖
⇒𝑍= 𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑖
• Approximate Partition Function: At sufficiently
low temperature, the lowest energy (i.e. 𝐸0 ) will
dominate i.e. 𝑍 ≈ 𝑔0 𝑒 −𝐸0 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ≈ 𝑔0

32
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Relative Occupancy of States: The relative
occupancy of the excited state 𝐸2 is given by:
𝑁2 𝑔2 𝑒 −𝐸2 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
=
𝑁1 + 𝑁2 𝑔1 𝑒 −𝐸1 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑔2 𝑒 −𝐸2 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
• Thus as the temperature increases, the
denominator becomes smaller and the relative
occupancy increases somewhat exponentially.
• The partition function for the system will be:
𝑍= 𝑔𝑖 𝑒 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ≈ 𝑔1 𝑒 −𝐸1 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑔2 𝑒 −𝐸2 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑖

33
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Thus high temperatures are required for a
significant number of hydrogen atoms to have
electrons in the first excited state.
Relative occupancy in state 2

34
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Example-2: For a gas of neutral hydrogen atoms,
at what temperature, will the numbers of atoms
having electrons in the ground state (𝑛 = 1) and
in the first excited state (𝑛 = 2) be equal?
• Solution-2: For the hydrogen atom, the
degeneracy of the 𝑛-th energy level is 𝑔𝑛 = 2𝑛2 .
• The ratio of the occupancies in the first excited
state to that in the ground state is:
𝑁2 𝑔2 −(𝐸 −𝐸 )/𝑘 𝑇
= 𝑒 2 1 𝐵
𝑁1 𝑔1

35
 Boltzmann Energy Distribution
• Solution-2 (Contd.): Thus we get,
𝑁2 2.22 − −13.6𝑒𝑉/22 − −13.6𝑒𝑉/12 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
=1= 2
𝑒
𝑁1 2.1
1
+13.6𝑒𝑉 4−1 /𝑘𝐵 𝑇
⇒1= 4𝑒
10.2𝑒𝑉/𝑘𝐵 𝑇
10.2𝑒𝑉
⇒𝑒 =4⇒ = ln(4)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
• Thus the required temperature yields
10.2𝑒𝑉 10.2𝑒𝑉/ ln(4)
𝑇= =
𝑘𝐵 ln(4) 8.673303 × 10−5 𝑒𝑉𝐾 −1
≈ 8.48 × 104 𝐾
36