Module F: Sampling

Question: Can we recover a continuous-time signal x(t) from regular sam-

pling xs [k] = x(kT )?

T
2
1
t
2 2
1
2

Question: Is the recovered signal unique?

Answer: No in general!
But if we know the signal x(t) is band-limited, then with sufficient samples,
we can!

1
 Sampling by Impulse Train

P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t)
x(t) ⇥

Figure 1: Diagram of impulse train sampling system.

The above diagram (system) described impulse train sampling.

The time-domain representation of various signals:
2
x(t)
xp (t)
1
T t
2 1 1 2 3
1

2
Impulse Train Sampling: Frequency Domain Analysis

P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t)
x(t) ⇥

In frequency domain, we have:

1
Xp (j!) = P (j!) ⇤ X(j!) (1)
2⇡
Note that p(t) is periodic with period T .
P
Therefore, p(t) = 1 k= 1 ak e
jk!s t
, where
Z
1 T /2 1
ak = p(⌧ )e jk!s ⌧ d⌧ = .
T T /2 T
2⇡
P1
As a result P (j!) = T k= 1 (! k!s ).
Replacing this in (1), we get:
1
X 1
Xp (j!) = X(j(! k!s )).
T
k= 1

3
 Bandlimited Signals

Define the bandwidth of a signal x(t) to be the smallest !M > 0 such that:

X(j!) = 0 for |!| > !M .

1

!
!M !M

If !M < 1 we call this signal a bandlimited signal.

P
So if !s > 2!M , for Xp (j!) = T1 1k= 1 X(j(! k!s )) we get:
1
T

!
2!s !s !M !M !s 2!s

How to recover x(t)?

4
 Optimal Recovery

If x(t) is a band-limited signal and !s > 2!M , then x(t) can be recovered
by (ideal) low-pass filtering of sampled signal xp (t).
For perfect recovery, we need to have Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!).
P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t)
x(t) ⇥ Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!) xr (t)

2!M is called the Nyquist-rate (of signal x(t)).

5
 Sampling Theorem (Shannon-Nyquist)

Suppose that x(t) is a band-limited signal with bandwidth !M . Then x(t)

can be recovered from the samples x(kT ) for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . if 2⇡
T =
!s > 2!M . This can be achived by impulse train sampling and recovery
system with Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!).

P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t)
x(t) ⇥ Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!) xr (t)

6
 Question

Let x(t) be a signal band-limited to the interval [-20kHz, 20kHz].

What condition should the sampling period T satisfy to avoid aliasing and allow
reconstruction of the signal?
1 3
a. T < 20 ⇥ 10 sec
1 3
b. T < 40 ⇥ 10 sec
⇡ 3
c. T < 20 ⇥ 10 sec
⇡ 3
d. T < 40 ⇥ 10 sec

7
 Aliasing

Overlapping copies of X(j(! k!0 )) is called aliasing.

1
T

!
!s !s

P1
In this case, what would be Xp (j!) = k= 1 X(j(! k!0 ))?
Therefore, in order not to have aliasing we need to have: !s > 2!M .

8
 Exercise

What is the bandwidth !M of cos(t)?

Determine Xp (j!), Xr (j!), and xr (t) for !s = 2!M .

9
 Reconstruction after Impulse Train Sampling

A naive approach would be to do linear interpolation.

P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t)
x(t) ⇥ Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!) xr (t)

T sin( T⇡ t)
In TD: hr (t) = ⇡t

Therefore,

xr (t) = xp (t) ⇤ h(t)

" 1 #
X
= x(nT ) (t nT ) ⇤ h(t)
n= 1
1
X
= x(nT ) [ (t nT ) ⇤ h(t)]
n= 1
X1 1
X T sin( T⇡ (t nT ))
= x(nT )h(t nT ) = x(nT )
n= 1 n= 1
⇡(t nT )

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 Time Domain View of Reconstruction Process

P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t)
x(t) ⇥ Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!) xr (t)

P1 T sin( T⇡ (t nT ))
xr (t) = n= 1 x(nT ) ⇡(t nT )

This is a linear combination of time-shifted sinc functions!

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 Zero-Order-Hold (ZOH) Sampling

Since creating an ideal impulse train and implementing an ideal low-pass filter
is not possible, in practice, we often do Zero-Order-Hold (ZOH) sampling.
In ZOH sampling, the sampled signal xs (t) holds the value of x(t) at kth
sampling time for T seconds, i.e.,

xs (t) = x(kT ) for t 2 [kT, (k + 1)T )

2 T
x(t)
xs (t)
1

2 1 1 2 3

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 ZOH Sampling and Perfect Recovery

ZOH sampling can be viewed as series interconnection of impulse train sam-

pling and an LTI system with the impulse response h0 (t) = rectT /2 (t T2 ).
P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t) h0 (t) xs (t)

x(t) ⇥ Hr (j!) xr (t)

The main question is that if !s > 2!M , then can we find a recovery system
Hr so that xr (t) = x(t)?
For perfect recovery, the system in blue box should be the ideal low-pass
filter Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!).

13
 ZOH Sampling and Perfect Recovery

ZOH sampling can be viewed as series interconnection of impulse train sam-

pling and an LTI system with the impulse response h0 (t) = rectT /2 (t T2 ).

P1
p(t) = k= 1 (t kT )

xp (t) h0 (t) xs (t)

x(t) ⇥ Hr (j!) xr (t)

For perfect recovery, the system in blue box should be the ideal low-pass
filter Hr (j!) = T rect!s /2 (!).
Therefore, for perfect recovery, we need to have:
!T
Hr (j!) = ej!T /2 rect!s /2 (!).
2 sin(T !/2)

Note that the first zero of sin(T!!/2) occurs at !1 = 2⇡ T = !s . Since,

sin(T !/2)
rect!s /2 (!s ) = 0, the zeros of ! are not going to be problematic
in the above fraction.

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 First Order Hold Sampling

Corresponds to linear interpolation of the impulse train samples.

15
 Under-Sampling and Aliasing

Let x(t) = cos(!0 t). We vary !s by choosing !s = 6!0 , 3!0 , 1.5!0 , 1.2!0 .

16
 Under-Sampling and Aliasing Continued

When !s = 6!0 , 3!0 , the reconstructed signal xr (t) = x(t).

17
 Under-Sampling and Aliasing Continued

When !s = 1.5!0 , 1.2!0 , the reconstructed signal xr (t) = cos((!s !0 )t) 6=

x(t).
As !0 increases relative to !s , the frequence of output decreases. Look up
Wagon-Wheel E↵ect.
When !s = !0 , the output is constant.
Phase reversal: If x(t) = cos(!0 t + ), then xr (t) = cos((!s !0 )t ).

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 DT Processing of CT Signals

xd [n] = x(nT ) yd [n] = y(nT )

xc (t) C\D Conversion DT System Hd (ej⌦ ) D\C Conversion yc (t)

How to process a CT signal using discrete-time processors?

1. Convert x(t) to xd [n] by C/D conversion (with sampling period T )
2. (design and implement) Filter xd [n], Xd (ej⌦ ) in discrete-time with hd [n],
Hd (ej⌦ ) to get desired yd [n], Yd (ej⌦ ).
3. Convert yd [n] to y(t) by D/C conversion (with sampling period T ).

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 DT Processing of CT Signals

xd [n] = x(nT ) yd [n] = y(nT )

xc (t) C\D Conversion DT System Hd (ej⌦ ) D\C Conversion yc (t)

The discrete-time sequence xd [n] = xc (nT ).

What is the relationship between Xc (j!) and Xd (ej⌦ )?
We use ! to denote frequency in continuous-time FT and ⌦ to denote
frequency in discrete-time FT.

20
 DT Processing of CT Signals

P
CT Sampling - Perspective 1: xp (t) = xc (t)p(t) = 1n= 1 x(nT ) (t nT )
and
1
1 X
Xp (j!) = Xc (j(! k!s ))
T
k= 1

j!nT
CT Sampling - Perspective 2: On the other hand (t nT ) !e and
hence: 1
X
Xp (j!) = x(nT )e j!nT
n= 1

DT Sampling: xd [n] = x(nT ) for n and hence

1
X
j⌦ j⌦n
Xd (e ) = x(nT )e
n= 1

Conclusion:
1
j⌦ 1 X
Xd (e ) = Xp (j⌦/T ) = Xc (j(⌦/T k!s ))
T
k= 1

Converting xp (t) to xd [n] scales the time-axis by 1/T . Consequently, in the

frequency domain, Xd (ej⌦ ) is obtained by scaling Xc (j!) by factor T , i.e.,
⌦ = T !.

21
 DT Processing of CT Signals

xd [n] = x(nT ) yd [n] = y(nT )

xc (t) C\D Conversion DT System Hd (ej⌦ ) D\C Conversion yc (t)

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DT Processing of CT Signals

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