Echo sounding

Echo sounding or depth sounding is the use of sonar for ranging,

normally to determine the depth of water (bathymetry). It involves
transmitting acoustic waves into water and recording the time
interval between emission and return of a pulse; the resulting time
of flight, along with knowledge of the speed of sound in water,
allows determining the distance between sonar and target. This
information is then typically used for navigation purposes or in
order to obtain depths for charting purposes.
Illustration of echo sounding using a
Echo sounding can also be used for ranging to other targets, such multibeam echosounder.
as fish schools. Hydroacoustic assessments have traditionally
employed mobile surveys from boats to evaluate fish biomass and
spatial distributions. Conversely, fixed-location techniques use stationary transducers
to monitor passing fish.

The word sounding is used for all types of depth measurements, including those that
don't use sound, and is unrelated in origin to the word sound in the sense of noise or
tones. Echo sounding is a more rapid method of measuring depth than the previous
technique of lowering a sounding line until it touched bottom.

History The MTVZA

sounder
German inventor Alexander Behm was granted German patent No. 282009 for the
received from
invention of echo sounding (device for measuring depths of the sea and distances and the Meteor
headings of ships or obstacles by means of reflected sound waves) on 22 July M2-2 satellite
1913.[1][2][3] Meanwhile, in France, physicist Paul Langevin (connected with Marie by an amateur
Curie and better known for his research work in nuclear physics) was recruited by station
French Navy laboratories at the beginning of World War 2 and conducted (then secret)
research on active sonars for anti-submarine warfare (using a piezoelectric
transmitter). His work was developed and implemented by other scientists and technnicians such as
Chilowski, Florisson and Pierre Marti. Though a fully operational échosondeur (sonar) was not ready for
use in wartime, there were successful trials both off Toulon and in the English Channel as early as 1920,
and French patents taken for civilian uses. Oceanographic ships and French high-sea fishing assistance
vessels were equipped with Langevin-Florisson and Langevin Marti recording sonars as early as the
mid/late 1920s.[4]
One of the first commercial echo sounding units was the Fessenden Fathometer, which used the
Fessenden oscillator to generate sound waves. This was first installed by the Submarine Signal Company
in 1924 on the M&M liner SS Berkshire.[5]

Technique
Distance is measured by multiplying half the time from the
signal's outgoing pulse to its return by the speed of sound in water,
which is approximately 1.5 kilometres per second. The speed of
sound will vary slightly depending on temperature, pressure and
salinity; and for precise applications of echosounding, such as
hydrography, the speed of sound must also be measured, typically
by deploying a sound velocity probe in the water. Echo sounding
is a special purpose application of sonar used to locate the bottom.
Since a historical pre-SI unit of water depth was the fathom, an
instrument used for determining water depth is sometimes called a
Diagram showing the basic principle
fathometer.
of echo sounding
Most charted ocean depths are based on an average or standard
sound speed. Where greater accuracy is required, average and
even seasonal standards may be applied to ocean regions. For high accuracy depths, usually restricted to
special purpose or scientific surveys, a sensor may be lowered to measure the temperature, pressure and
salinity. These factors are used to estimate more accurately the actual sound speed in the local water
column. This technique is often used by the US Office of Coast Survey for navigational surveys of US
coastal waters.[6]

Types

Single beam
A single-beam echo sounder is one of the simplest and most
fundamental types of underwater sonar. They are ubiquitous in the
boating world and used on a number of different marine robotic
vehicles. It operates by using a transducer to emit a pulse through
the water and listen for echos to return. Using that data, it's able to
determine the distance from the strongest echo, which can be the
seafloor, a concrete structure, or other larger obstacle.[7] A
fishfinder is an echo sounding device used by both recreational
and commercial fishers.

Multibeam beam shape of a single-beam

A multibeam echosounder (MBES) is a type of sonar that is used echosounder on a USV
to map the seabed. It emits acoustic waves in a fan shape beneath
its transceiver. The time it takes for the sound waves to reflect off
the seabed and return to the receiver is used to
calculate the water depth. Unlike other sonars
and echo sounders, MBES uses beamforming to
extract directional information from the returning
soundwaves, producing a swathe of depth
soundings from a single ping.

Common use
As well as an aid to navigation (most larger
vessels will have at least a simple depth sounder),
echo sounding is commonly used for fishing.
Variations in elevation often represent places
where fish congregate. Schools of fish will also Multibeam sonar is used to map the ocean floor
register.[8]

Hydrography
In areas where detailed bathymetry is required, a precise echo sounder may be used for the work of
hydrography. There are many considerations when evaluating such a system, not limited to the vertical
accuracy, resolution, acoustic beamwidth of the transmit/receive beam and the acoustic frequency of the
transducer.

The majority of hydrographic echosounders are dual frequency,

meaning that a low frequency pulse (typically around 24 kHz) can
be transmitted at the same time as a high frequency pulse
(typically around 200 kHz). As the two frequencies are discrete,
the two return signals do not typically interfere with each other.
Dual frequency echosounding has many advantages, including the
ability to identify a vegetation layer or a layer of soft mud on top
of a layer of rock.

Most hydrographic operations use a 200 kHz transducer, which is

suitable for inshore work up to 100 metres in depth. Deeper water
requires a lower frequency transducer as the acoustic signal of An example of a precision dual
lower frequencies is less susceptible to attenuation in the water frequency echosounder, the
column. Commonly used frequencies for deep water sounding are Teledyne Odom MkIII
33 kHz and 24 kHz.

The beamwidth of the transducer is also a consideration for the hydrographer, as to obtain the best
resolution of the data gathered a narrow beamwidth is preferable. The higher the operating frequency, the
narrower the beamwidth. Therefore, it is especially important when sounding in deep water, as the
resulting footprint of the acoustic pulse can be very large once it reaches a distant sea floor.

A multispectral multibeam echosounder is an extension of a dual frequency vertical beam echosounder in

that, as well as measuring two soundings directly below the sonar at two different frequencies; it
measures multiple soundings at multiple frequencies, at multiple different grazing angles, and multiple
different locations on the seabed. These systems are detailed
further in the section called multibeam echosounder.

Echo sounders are used in laboratory applications to monitor

sediment transport, scour and erosion processes in scale models
(hydraulic models, flumes etc.). These can also be used to create
plots of 3D contours.

Standards for hydrographic echo sounding A screen grab of the difference

The required precision and accuracy of the hydrographic echo between single and dual frequency
echograms
sounder is defined by the requirements of the International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO) for surveys that are to be
undertaken to IHO standards.[9] These values are contained within IHO publication S44.

In order to meet these standards, the surveyor must consider not only the vertical and horizontal accuracy
of the echo sounder and transducer, but the survey system as a whole. A motion sensor may be used,
specifically the heave component (in single beam echosounding) to reduce soundings for the motion of
the vessel experienced on the water's surface. Once all of the uncertainties of each sensor are established,
the hydrographer will create an uncertainty budget to determine whether the survey system meets the
requirements laid down by IHO.

Different hydrographic organisations will have their own set of field procedures and manuals to guide
their surveyors to meet the required standards. Two examples are the US Army Corps of Engineers
publication EM110-2-1003,[10] and the NOAA 'Field Procedures Manual'.[11]

See also
Acoustical oceanography
Alexander Behm – inventor
AUV
Bathymeter
Depth gauge
Fessenden oscillator
Fisheries acoustics
Hydroacoustics
Hydrographic survey
Sonar
Depth sounding
Underwater acoustics

References
1. Salous, Sana (2013). Radio Propagation Measurement and Channel Modelling (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=3Al4uqB66KUC&q=alexander+behm+echo+sounding&pg=SA3-PA
61). John Wiley & Sons. p. 424. ISBN 9781118502327.
 2. Xu, Guochang (2010). Sciences of Geodesy - I: Advances and Future Directions (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=RFMQd__GtSMC&q=alexander+behm+inventor+echo+sounding).
Springer Publishing. p. 281. ISBN 9783642117411.
3. Werner Schneider. "Alexander Behm - Der Erfinder des Echolots" (http://www.alexander-beh
m-echolot.de/). Retrieved 9 April 2014.
4. Lelong, Benoit. "Paul Langevin et la detection sous-marine, 1914-1929. Un physicien acteur
de l'innovation industrielle et militaire (Epistemologiques, 2001)" (https://www.academia.edu/
1182631).
5. "Fessenden Fathometer amplifier - Submarine Signal Company" (https://www.subchaser.or
g/fathometer). The Subchaser Archives. 20 March 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
6. NOAA Field Procedures Manual, Office of Coast Survey website
(http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/hsd/fpm/fpm.htm Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20110810095153/http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/hsd/fpm/fpm.htm) 10 August 2011 at
the Wayback Machine)
7. "A Smooth Operator's Guide to Underwater Sonars and Acoustic Devices" (https://blueroboti
cs.com/learn/a-smooth-operators-guide-to-underwater-sonars-and-acoustic-devices/). Blue
Robotics. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
8. "Fishfinders Guide" (http://fischfinder-echolot.com/) (in German). Retrieved 16 February
2017.
9. International Hydrographic Bureau (February 2008). "IHO Standards for Hydrographic
Surveys" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191705/http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho_pubs/sta
ndard/S-44_5E.pdf) (PDF) (5th Edition). Archived from the original (http://www.iho-ohi.net/ih
o_pubs/standard/S-44_5E.pdf) (PDF) on 8 October 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite
journal requires |journal= (help)
10. "EM 1110-2-1003 (01 Jan 02)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110720182750/http://140.19
4.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1003/toc.htm). Archived from the original (htt
p://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1003/toc.htm) on 20 July 2011.
Retrieved 9 June 2011., USACE publication EM 1110-2-1003.
11. [1] (http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/hsd/docs/Field_Procedures_Manual_May_2011.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110516143244/http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/
hsd/docs/Field_Procedures_Manual_May_2011.pdf) 16 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine,
NOAA Field Procedures Manual.

External links
Media related to Echo sounding at Wikimedia Commons

"How Echoes Tell Depth of Water Under Ship" Popular Mechanics Monthly, July 1930 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=T-QDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22
Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=-PA45) – drawing of details of early depth finders using
echoes
ELAC (1982) An Introduction to Echosounding. Honeywell-ELAC-Nautik GmbH, Kiel, 88 pp,
(pdf 27.5 MB) (http://hdl.handle.net/10013/epic.44286.d001)

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