ROCK CYCLE AND DENUDATION

1. Introduction to the Unit

Enduring understandings Changes in the landscape can be predicted by spatial and temporal
analysis of the interactions between physical and human systems
● Climate: affects type of weathering processes
● Landscape: plate boundaries, plate movement, geological makeup
of rock, type of rock
● Denudation is a process that changes the landscape gradually -
concept of TIME: human activity (e.g mining, deforestation) will
speed up/quicken denudation processes

Energy transfers drive physical processes that can shape the physical and
human landscapes

Essential questions What is the difference between weathering and erosion?

Is rock type a key determinant of the geomorphic landscape?

Generalisations / Systems interact.

macroconcepts - Human systems
- Physical systems

Change is inevitable in systems.

Change is linked to time. r

Questions What is a rock?

What are the characteristics of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks?

Why do rocks matter?

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 2. Introduction to rocks

What is a rock?
- Naturally formed aggregates of minerals that make up all of the Earth’s crust and the solid parts
of the mantle below
- Characteristics of a rock are influenced by:
- Minerals it is composed of
- Formation of the rock (igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary)
- Formed when minerals are compacted and consolidated together - pressed together to form a
firm, solid substance
- They make up the earth’s crust and are the building blocks of land forms

What are minerals?

- Minerals are solid chemical elements/compounds which are formed naturally in the earth
- They can be rare/precious - e.g diamonds, rubies, opals; they can also be more common - e.g
quartz, talc (used to make talcum powder)
- They normally grow as crystals under very particular conditions
- If several minerals occur together, they make up a rock

Analysing rock samples

Colour Terms used to describe: light / dark coloured

Defined by mineral content of rock

Grain size Coarse grains ≥ rice grain

Medium grains < rice grain; can be seen without magnifier
Fine grains cannot be seen without magnifier

Lustre The way a mineral / rock appears to reflect light

How brilliant / dull the material is

Terms used to describe: metallic, glassy, dull, pearly, greasy, silky, resinous

Layering The rock layers are sorted according to density and size of minerals; there is an
assortment of minerals within one strata

Is distinct, resembles kueh lapis

Present in sedimentary rock, formed by lithification, and sometimes in igneous rock

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 (rare, dependent on intervening processes)

Foliation A rock strata that is sorted according to minerals due to reaction to heat and pressure

Heat is exerted onto a piece of rock → as different minerals have different boiling
points and melting points, they are sorted out and thus form multiple rock bands →
each rock band only has a single kind of mineral in it

Wave-like lines

Foliated = minerals are sorted

Non-foliated = minerals are not sorted

Often associated with metamorphic rock, formed by metamorphism

Stratification General term for both foliation and layering

Refers to rock strata, i.e rock layers

Crystals Colour of crystals

Size of crystals
● Large grain
● Small grain

Can be seen without the use of magnifier

Hardness Tested by using the point of a steel nail to scrape the rock over a sheet of clean paper
- presence of sediments (scratched off from rock) on paper

Described as hard / soft; slightly hard/soft; rather hard/soft

Weight Measurable

Try not to use this as a method of comparison, since the size of the rock may affect
this and rocks do not have a constant weight

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 3. 3 main classes/types of rocks

Sedimentary All rocks exposed at the Earth’s surface are worn away by weathering (wind, rain,
(lithification) temperature changes) and erosion (rivers, glaciers, sea) → fragments worn away
/ dissolved from rocks are then transported to other places by gravity, wind,
glaciers, rivers and the sea. These fragments are called sediments. Sedimentary
rocks are formed from sediments, so often sand, pebbles and stones can be seen
in rocks → usually very colourful

Sediments will eventually be deposited to form a new layer. When new layers of
sediment are deposited on top of older layers, the weight compresses sediments,
making them stick together and eventually turn to rock (lithification - compaction
and cementation of sediments).

Sediment layers/strata are formed horizontally but it is common for the strata to
become tilted / folded after they are laid as a result of earth movements ⇒
layering is present in sedimentary rocks

Two types of sedimentary rock: clastic rocks and non-clastic rocks

1. Clastic rocks: made up of broken rock fragments stuck together. Subdivided

into different types based on:
- The size of the individual rock fragments
- How rounded the rock fragments have become
- What minerals make up the rock fragments
- The degree to which the particles have been sorted by
size
E.g a collection of fine clay sediments can build up on the bottom of a lake over a
long period of time, eventually forming a mudstone. On the other hand, a fast-
melting glacier might drop a random collection of sediment sizes in the same
place to form a breccia.

2. Non-clastic rocks: made up of sediment that was dissolved in water during

weathering or erosion and are deposited either because of a chemical reaction or
a biological process.
E.g chalk: As sea creatures with shells grow, they make their shells grow bigger
by extracting dissolved calcium carbonate from the water. When the animal dies
its shell sinks to the bottom of the ocean. Layer upon layer of these shells will
eventually build up to form a limestone such as chalk.

Is generally fairly soft → may break apart / crumble easily

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 Usually the only type of rock that contains fossils

Huge range of sedimentary rocks

E.g conglomerate, limestone

Metamorphic Formed under the surface of the earth from the metamorphosis (change) that
(metamorphism) occurs due to intense heat and pressure - metamorphism

Often have ribbon-like layers ⇒ foliation is present in metamorphic rocks

Two kinds of metamorphism: thermal/contact metamorphism and regional

metamorphism

1. Thermal/contact metamorphism: formed when rocks are exposed to high

levels of heat, e.g when magma intrudes into a rock on its way to the surface or
when lava runs over the top of another rock, and the heat is not enough to melt
the rocks but it is great enough to change some minerals into new ones. This
usually only occurs on a small scale near volcanoes or intrusive igneous rocks.
E.g marble is a hard metamorphic rock often used in buildings and homes.
However, before being exposed to heat, the same rock would have been a
limestone.

2. Regional metamorphism: when two continental plates collide, they squeeze all

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

the sedimentary rock from the bottom of the sea up above the surface to form
large fold mountains like the Himalayas. This process creates huge amounts of
pressure and heat which change more minerals than can be changed by heat
alone, thus forming more new metamorphic rock types. This can also cause some
rocks to arrange themselves into bands (e.g slate). This process can affect much
larger areas of rock

May have shiny crystals formed by minerals growing slowly over time on their
surface

E.g gneiss, marble

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

Igneous Formed when magma cools and hardens - vulcanism (igneous literally means
(vulcanism) ‘formed by fire’), very hard rocks
I. The magma cools inside the earth
II. The magma erupts onto the surface from volcanoes in the form of lava

They start off as molten mixtures of minerals (i.e magma) from the upper mantle
(10 - 70km below ground surface)
- Divergent (constructive) plate boundaries: the crust is very thin / heavily
cracked (hotspot), magma can easily escape from the mantle and ooze
out of the ground to form volcanoes
- Convergent (destructive) plate boundaries: subducting oceanic plate
melts and mixes with the mantle to produce magma with a different mix
of minerals. This magma is less dense than the surrounding rocks and
slowly moves towards the surface, eating its way through the overlying
rock. As the magma consumes more of the overlying rock, the quantity of
certain minerals, e.g silica, changes → this gives rise to a wider range of
igneous rocks

Two kinds of igneous rock: intrusive and extrusive

Intrusive igneous rocks:
- Formed by the solidification and cooling of magma (under the ground
surface)
- May later be exposed at the surface by erosion
- Coarse grained: cools slowly under the surface → crystal size increases
↔ grain size increases
Extrusive igneous rocks:
- Formed by the solidification and cooling of lava (above the ground
surface)
- AKA volcanic rocks
- Fine grained: exposed to different weather conditions → rapid cooling →
no crystals formed, rock looks shiny and glasslike ↔ smaller grains
- Generally tend to have darker colouration

Sometimes gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the cooling process →
leaves tiny holes and spaces in the rock

All igneous rocks are made up of only 8 different minerals, but there is a variety
of combinations that can occur as magma moves to the surface ⇒ a wide range of

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

different intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks

No layering, no foliation

- Acidic rocks are characterized by a high silica content, where quartz and
feldspars predominate. These rocks are usually light in color and low in
specific gravity (e.g. granite).
- Basic rocks have a lower silica content, and more iron and magnesium,
which yield mafic minerals (pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, olivine).

All igneous rocks are made up of only 8 different minerals, but there is a variety
of combinations that can occur as magma moves to the surface ⇒ a wide range of
different intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks

E.g basalt, obsidian

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 4. Weathering VS Erosion

Denudation

Weathering Erosion

Breaking down of rocks in situ → no movement of Breaking down of rocks

sediments, sediments remain in their original
location

E.g carbonation E.g aelion (when wind blows and erodes the rock)

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 5. Rock Cycle

- The Earth’s crust is made up of 65% igneous rocks, 27% metamorphic rocks and only 8%
sedimentary rocks
- Both sedimentary and metamorphic rocks started life as a different rock that has been recycled
and only igneous rocks appear to be ‘new’.
- However, if any rock is buried deep enough, e.g at the bottom of a collision plate
boundary, it will become hot enough to melt completely and form part of new igneous
rocks.
- Any rock can be absorbed into new igneous rock as part of the process of magma rising
to the surface at destructive plate boundaries
- In a series of continuous processes, all rock types can be converted into other rock types. This is
called the rock cycle. The main rock types are formed by a set of interlinking processes and
products that occur at / near the Earth’s surface. Although this process is continuous, it is quite
slow: many of the rocks currently found on Earth were formed between 100 and 300 million
years ago.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 6. WEATHERING

6.1 Chemical weathering

- The decomposition of rocks when minerals in the rocks react chemically with rainwater,
seawater, carbon dioxide and oxygen to form one or more new chemical compounds
- Change in chemical composition of the rock
- The chemical changes weaken the rocks → the rocks break down over time
- Alters the physical structure and chemical composition of the rock
- One or more new chemical compounds that are formed are fine-textured (e.g clay and
iron oxide)
- Most effective in hot, wet areas

1. Solution
- The more soluble minerals in rocks dissolve easily in water → when more and more of the
soluble minerals are dissolved, parts of the rocks crumble and fall off
- The hollows on the remaining rocks may make them appear like honeycombs

2. Carbonation
- Rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide from the air and the soil to form carbonic acid (a weak acid).
Carbonic acid is most effective in reacting chemically with limestone since the calcium carbonate
in limestone reacts with carbonic acid to form a new substance called calcium hydrogen
carbonate which is soluble. This weathering process is called carbonation.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
- Carbonation on the surface of well-jointed limestone produces a dissected limestone pavement.
It is the most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them. The enlarged and
deepened joints are called grikes. For example, a number of grikes near Malham in Yorkshire,
England, are half a metre wide and two metres deep. Between the grikes are irregular flat-
topped blocks called clints.
- Rainwater can seep through limestone joints and flow along bedding planes, reacting with the
calcium carbonate to form caves. When much of the carbon dioxide leaves the rainwater
dripping from the cave roof and moisture is also lost by evaporation, calcium carbonate is
precipitated on the roof to form icicle-shaped stalactites. The evaporation of water that has

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 dripped on the ground leaves behind calcium carbonate precipitates to form cone-shaped
stalagmites. A pillar is formed when a stalactite joins a stalagmite.
- These features can be found in Batu Caves, near Kuala Lumpur, and in the limestone caves near
Ipoh, Peninsular Malaysia. Some of these caves are used as temples and are popular tourist
attractions.
- Forms stalactites and stalagmites (which form pillars when they combine)
- Ideal conditions: moisture, darkness, cracks/pores in bedding planes

3. Hydrolysis
- Def: The chemical reaction between some of the minerals in rocks and rainwater
- Dominant chemical weathering process
- Responsible for chemical weathering to a great depth in hot, wet regions
- Most important in the formation of clay
- Minerals that are susceptible to hydrolysis - feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals - are found in
many rocks.
- E.g granite comprises largely of feldspar, mica and quartz. When hydrolysed, feldspar
and mica will change to clay that crumbles easily. The iron in mica is oxidised to become
reddish-brown iron oxide while the resistant quartz is unaltered and remains as sand.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

4. Oxidation
- Def: the chemical reaction between the minerals in rocks and oxygen in the air and water.
- Usually operates together with hydrolysis
- Iron is a commonly oxidised minerals. In most rocks, some iron can be found. Iron is oxidised to
form reddish-brown iron oxide which crumbles readily → oxidation is able to weaken rock
structure

5. Weathering by acid rain

- Caused by the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) in power stations, factors and vehicles.
The burning releases a large amount of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, which react with
water vapour, sunlight and oxygen to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These acids dissolve in
rainwater and then fall onto the earth’s surface as acid rain.
- Acid rain causes weathering of rocks
- E.g Taj Mahal, India: pits form on marble walls
- E.g Parthenon, Greece: corroded structure

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

6.2 Physical weathering

1. Frost shattering / freeze-thaw action

- Conditions conducive to frost shattering:

- Adequate supply of moisture
- Presence of joints, fractures, bedding planes or pore spaces in rocks
- Temperatures fluctuating around 0°C - e.g temperate climates

-
- (^^) This is an example of frost shattering at the joints of the rock in a mountainous area
- When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed strains the walls of the
joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen as the volume of water expands by 9%
when it freezes
- When the ice thaws, water can flow further into the rock. When the temperature drops
below freezing point and the water freezes again, the ice enlarges the joints further.
- Repeated freeze-thaw action weakens the rocks which, over time, break up along the
joints into angular pieces. The angular rock fragments gather at the foot of the slope to
form a talus / scree slope

-
- (^^) The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block disintegration. The
blocks of rocks that are detached are of various shapes depending on their rock
structure.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 - Ice crystals can also form in the pore spaces of rocks. They grow larger as they attract
water that has not frozen from the surrounding pores. The ice crystal growth weakens
the rock which, in time, break up. An example of rocks susceptible to frost action is
chalk, which has many pore spaces for the growth of ice crystals.
- Laboratory tests show that frequent daily freeze-thaw cycles are more conducive than
seasonal freeze-thaw cycles to frost shattering.

2. Insolation weathering / thermal expansion

- Supporters of insolation weathering believe it is a major physical weathering process in deserts.
Deserts have a large diurnal range of temperature. Day temperatures can rise up to 35°C or
higher due to the lack of cloud cover to reduce incoming solar radiation/insolation. Night
temperatures can go down to 10°C or lower because of the lack of cloud cover to prevent
outgoing terrestrial heat from escaping back to space.
- Exfoliation / onion peeling: Rocks expand when heated in the day and contract when they cool
down at night. However, the rocks are not completely heated. Only the outer parts heat up and
expand and cool down and contract. The repeated expansion and contraction of the outer parts
form cracks. Eventually the outer parts of these rocks peel off in layers. This type of weathering
is called onion peeling or exfoliation.

- Granular disintegration: Different coloured mineral grains in a rock expand at different rates
when heated. The darker minerals absorb more heat and thus expand more compared to lighter
minerals. The differential expansion causes stresses between adjacent grains and the rock will
disintegrate grain by grain. This is called granular disintegration.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 - There are views based on laboratory work that the importance of pure insolation weathering in
deserts has been overestimated. The experiments have shown that insolation weathering
becomes more noticeable when chemical weathering is also present in weakening the rock
structure. The episodic rain in deserts and the water drawn up from the ground by capillary
action can provide the moisture needed for chemical reactions in the rocks. The differing views
on the effectiveness of pure insolation weathering are still being debated.

3. Salt crystal growth

- Salt crystal growth in rocks can be found especially in arid regions (e.g deserts) where the
groundwater containing dissolved salts (e.g sodium sulfate) is drawn up to the surface by
capillary action.
- When the water evaporates, the salts are left behind as crystal in the pore spaces, cavities and
joints of the rocks. The salt crystals grow as more groundwater is drawn up and more
evaporation occurs. The salt minerals swell if they absorb water from subsequent rain and dew.
The build-up of crystals and their swelling set up stresses in the rocks. This weakens their
structure and they slowly break up. For example, sandstone will undergo granular
disintegration.

4. Hydration
- When the minerals in some rocks absorb water, they swell. The swelling generates stresses in
the rocks and thus weakens the rocks.
- Hydration is a physio-chemical process because as the minerals absorb water, their chemical
structure changes. For example, when anhydrous calcium sulfate absorbs water, it becomes
hydrated calcium sulfate (i.e gypsum)

5. Pressure release / unloading

- Intrusive igneous rocks (e.g granite) are formed deep beneath the Earth’s surface. They are
under tremendous pressure because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the
overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released.
The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause
fractures parallel to the rock surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

exposed rocks along the fractures.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

6.3 Biological weathering

- Can be both a physical process as well as a chemical process

1. Flora - roots of trees and plants

- When the roots of trees and plants grow in the cracks and joints of rocks, they exert pressure on
the cracks and widen and deepen the cracks. When trees are uprooted (massive uprooting of
trees during deforestation), they wrench the rocks apart
- This loosens the rock structure → enables other types of weathering to work on the rocks

2. Flora - decaying plants

- Humic acids from decaying plants react chemically with the minerals in rocks → weakens rocks,
causing them to decompose

3. Fauna - animals
- Burrowing animals, e.g rabbits, moles, make tunnels in the ground by prying open cracks and
joints in rocks, exposing the rocks to other types of weathering.
- The tunnels provide a channel for water to attack the rocks.
- Overgrazing → soil erosion → exposes underlying rocks to weathering

4. Fauna - respiration
- In the soil, respiration of living things e.g earthworms, insects and plant roots, increases the
amount of carbon dioxide in the soil. Carbon dioxide dissolves in groundwater to form carbonic
acid which accelerates carbonation.

5. Fauna - microorganisms

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

- Microorganisms and plants, e.g mosses and lichens, found on the damp surface of rocks produce
organic acids which attack rocks chemically

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 7. Factors affecting type and rate of weathering

1. Rock hardness
- Depends on the minerals that form the rocks and how the minerals are cemented together
- Most igneous rocks are hard because of their constituent minerals (e.g quartz) and because
there minerals are joined tightly together
- Many sedimentary rocks are softer because their minerals are joined by a soft cement, e.g iron
oxide and calcium carbonate
- The harder the rock, the more resistant it is to weathering
- One of the least important factors affecting weathering
- Almost all hard rocks have weaknesses in their structure / mineral composition →
makes them susceptible to weathering

2. Mineral composition
- Very important factor in influencing rock resistance to chemical weathering
- Some minerals, e.g quartz, are more resistant to chemical attack than other minerals, e.g olivine
and pyroxene
- A rock such as basalt which has a large proportion of olivine and pyroxene is more
susceptible to chemical weathering than granite, which has quartz as its major
constituent minerals
- The calcium carbonate of limestone is easily weathered by carbonation
- Has some effect on physical weathering
- Rocks with different coloured minerals are under stress because of the differential
expansion of the minerals when heated → weakens rock structure

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 - Dark rocks (e.g basalt) heat up faster and thus experience a greater stress upon
expansion than light-coloured rocks (e.g limestone) which reflect heat → dark rocks
weather faster physically

3. Grain size of rocks

- When rocks are of a similar mineral composition, those which are coarse-grained decompose
faster than those which are fine-grained
- E.g although granite and rhyolite have a similar mineral composition, granite is coarse-grained
while rhyolite is fine-grained. When feldspar is hydrolysed, larger gaps are found in granite than
in rhyolite. This weakens the rock structure in granite and the larger gaps also trap more water
for further chemical attack, causing coarse-grained rock to weather faster.

4. Lines of weakness in rocks

- Cracks and joints in rocks make them very susceptible to weathering
- These lines of weakness are used by agents of both physical and biological weathering - e.g
wedges of ice (frost-shattering - physical weathering) and roots of trees (biological weathering)
→ rocks are weakened and disintegrate
- When there are many cracks and joints in the rocks, more rock surface is available for chemical
attack by oxygen in water and acids (e.g humic, organic and carbonic acids)
- E.g in deep underground areas, chemical weathering proceeds along the joints when
rainwater enters jointed rocks (e.g granite). The unweathered rock is called a corestone.
When erosion removes the weathered material, the corestone is exposed. Several
corestones may pile together to form a tor.
- The more joints there are in rocks, the faster will be the rate of physical, chemical and biological
weathering

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

5. Relief

Type of weathering Flat land Steep slope

Chemical More effective: retains more water Less effective: water flows away from
which seeps through the soil and these slopes easily
acts on the underlying rocks
chemically

Physical Less effective: soil and weathered More effective: landslides and slumping1
material shield the underlying rocks happen quite frequently → enables frost
from physical weathering shattering and insolation weathering to
work on the exposed underlying rocks

6. Vegetation cover
- Facilitates chemical weathering
- Vegetation cover retains rainwater and keeps rocks in contact with water
- Humic and organic acids from plants attack rocks chemically
- Roots of trees and plants prise cracks and joints apart → exposing more rock surface to chemical
attack

1
A slump is a form of mass wasting that occurs when a coherent mass of loosely consolidated materials or rock
layers moves a short distance down a slope. Movement is characterized by sliding along a concave-upward or
planar surface.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

7. Human activities
- Enhances chemical weathering
- Emission of gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (air pollution) → these
gases are absorbed by rainwater to form acid rain which enhances chemical weathering
- When people build roads / extract minerals from the ground / make clearings for settlement
and cultivate the land, they break / dig out rocks → exposes rocks to weathering

8. Climate
Climate, particularly temperature and rainfall, has a great influence on both physical and chemical
weathering.

- Where temperatures fluctuate around freezing point (e.g in the mountains in temperate
countries)
- Frost shattering in rocks occurs
- The growth of ice crystal in the pore spaces of the rocks creates stresses within the
rocks → causes rocks to disintegrate over time
- Where there is a large diurnal range of temperatures (e.g in deserts)
- Insolation weathering (exfoliation + granular disintegration) → rocks weather physically
because of stresses set up in the outer parts
- Where rates of evaporation are high
- Salt crystal growth in rocks weakens them → rocks break up
- Salt crystals grow as water drawn up from the ground by capillary action evaporates →
leaves more salts behind
- High temperatures, heavy rainfall (tropical equatorial climates)
- Promote chemical weathering
- Rate of chemical reactions is more or less doubled for each increase in
temperature of 10°C

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 - Water is needed for chemical weathering processes e.g hydrolysis, carbonation
and oxidation
- Encourage biological weathering
- Conducive to quick + dense vegetative growth
- Chemical weathering is predominant in hot, wet areas (e.g tropics). In general, it is also
more active than physical weathering in humid temperate areas because the
evaporation rate is low and vegetation cover keeps the soil moist → enables chemical
reactions to occur

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 8. Weathering in tropical regions

8.1 Humid tropical region

● High mean annual precipitation
● High mean annual temperature

Chemical weathering
● Water is an essential agent for rock decay through processes such as carbonation, hydrolysis
and oxidation
● High temperatures promote rapid chemical weathering because the speed of chemical reactions
approximately doubles with every increase of 10°C
● Rock decay is predominant in humid tropical areas such as the equatorial and tropical monsoon
areas
● Climate is conducive to rapid growth of vegetation and bacteria → dense vegetation cover keeps
the ground moist → encourages rock decay

Biological weathering
● Climate is conducive to rapid growth of vegetation and bacteria
● Release of carbon dioxide from the respiration of plant roots and acids from bacterial action and
the decay of the vegetation
● The roots of trees and plants grow in the cracks and joints of rocks, enlarging them until the
rocks finally disintegrate

The prolonged action of weathering, especially chemical and biological weathering, has led to the
development of very thick regolith (weathered material) beneath the land surface; it is as deep as 100m
in some parts of West Africa. The depth of the weathered material from even very resistant acid igneous
rocks sometimes exceeds 30m in hot, wet areas.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

Evidence of weathering in some road cuttings in tropical areas

Evidence Implications

Pieces of rocks of different sizes strewn around Detached physically from the parent rock

A rather big rock can be seen jutting out of the It is a corestone that has remained unweathered
soil while the surrounding rock has been weathered
along the joints

Granite is weathered and clay is produced Hydrolysis of feldspar and mica. When granite is
weathered, feldspar and mica, two of its mineral
constituents, change to clay while quartz, a
resistant mineral constituent, is left behind as
sand.

Reddish-brown colour on weathered rocks Oxidation of iron, found in most rocks, to iron
oxide

Roots of trees extending into the joints of rocks, Biological weathering

prising them apart

8.2 Arid tropical region

1. Physical weathering
There are 2 major types of physical weathering in the deserts.
● Insolation weathering: exfoliation and granular disintegration
● Salt crystal growth
Insolation weathering
● Although being challenged, its effectiveness cannot be dismissed completely.
● Rocks disintegrate because alternate day expansion and night contraction of the outer parts of
the rocks set up stresses in them ⇒ exfoliation
● The differential expansion of the different coloured minerals in the rocks also causes stresses
which weaken the rocks ⇒ granular disintegration
Salt crystal growth
● Water containing salts is drawn up the cracks and joints in rocks by capillary action
● When the water evaporates, the salts are left behind
● Their growth is potent enough to break the rocks up

2. Chemical weathering
● Advection fog at the coast
● Episodic rainfall
● Dew
The above provide enough moisture to bring about some chemical weathering in desert rocks.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei

 9. Weathering in temperate regions

9.1 Chemical weathering

Most of the major chemical weathering processes also occur in temperate regions. For example,
● Hydrolysis: feldspar in granite is hydrolysed
● Carbonation: calcium carbonate in limestone is attacked by carbonation (especially when water
at 0°C can hold double the amount of carbon dioxide it can at 30°C)
● Oxidation: iron in most rocks is oxidised
However, due to the lower annual rainfall and temperatures, chemical weathering does not work as
quickly in the hot and wet tropical regions, thus the regolith that develops is much shallower.

9.2 Biological weathering

There is biological weathering, especially in those areas which are warmer and experience a moderate
rainfall. Such climate promotes the growth of vegetation.
● The roots of plants and trees widen lines of weakness in rocks
● Humic acids from decaying vegetative matter and carbon dioxide from the respiration of roots
cause rocks to decay

9.3 Physical weathering

Where temperatures fluctuate around freezing point, such as in the mountains,
● Ice wedges
● Growth of ice crystals
Are physical weathering processes that take place.

9.4 Factors
Seasonal changes in rainfall and temperatures also influence the rate of weathering. For example, in
countries with a Mediterranean climate, chemical weathering occurs at a moderate pace in the mild and
wet winter but is much slower in the dry summer.

In general, chemical weathering is more active than physical weathering in temperate areas because the
vegetation cover and low evaporation keep the soil moist, a condition that favours chemical reactions.

notes by: Mei Fei Fei