INEERING 4, waleR ENGI =e oe ghee (no tillage)—In which cecceeeeee ee Y jllage no tillagey ich new crops are plant i , é uw without any Prior tillage or seed bed prentalias ee te ues on previous rl I. yiches ro of M yatural __Grass and Trees 1. eel , 1 synthetic _resins, asphalts, latex, plastic, polythene and Bitumen . petroleum -Asphalt in water 7 ConventionalHay and Straw ~ inorganic Stones 6 organie—Tree branches, leaves, leaf litter, grasses and weeds «covet rating : gil Soil cover rating (SCR) % = —>— yeight of soil splashed from bare land ght of soil splashed under cover wei patterns ef isstudied by de itive time. ‘Advanced patter! soil has high capaci Delayed pattern—T! riving the rainfall intensity histogram, that is drawn between rainfall intensity jcumul wi ‘ . a n—If an intense rainfall take place at beginning of the storm, when ity to absorb the water, the storm pattern is referred as advance pattern. he runoff potential of the storm is being less whereas the opposite J. : of advance pattern 1S called as delayed pattern. Lz Intermediate pattern—The intense rainfall occurs at the middle of the storm period. _A. Uniform pattern- _The occurrence of intense rainfall throughout storm period at uniform rate, Classification re Clas: Rate (mm/hr) Very slow Less than 1.30 Slow | Moderate flow | eS] - | Moderate Very Rapid More than 250 Teracing —— isan Cras : : we! th engineering soil conservation practice used to control the soil erosion in highly sloped= LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEER Ie Types of terraces 1. Diversion Terrace : It is used to intercepting the overland flow from hilly areas, (a) Mangum type—It is constructed by taking soil on both sides of the embankmen, (b) Nichols type—It is formed by taking the soil from side of upslope of the embankmeny only (c) Board-based terrace—-It is constructed with embankment and channel Occupying a width of about 15 m (d) Narrow based terrace—It is only 3-4 m wide 2. Retention Terrace ; It is level terrace, by making storage on hill sides. sed particulary when water is required to conseray 3. Bench Terrace : It is constructed in form of alternate series of shelves and + ‘sets useq to cultivate the steep slopes. at Terrace Classification é‘ 1. Bench terrace : The platform like construction which are constructed along the contour of the sloping land. (A) Classification on the kasis of, ‘purpose of use (2) Hill wpe bench terrace—It is used in hilly areas, have reverse slope towards hill used in high rainfall area. (b) Irrigated type bench terrace—-It is also known as level bench terrace and generally adopted in irrigated conditions. (©) Orchard type bench terrace—t is constructed in the form of narrow strips and widely used for orchard purposes. (3) Classification on the basis of slope of bench (a) Level bench terrace—It consists of level top surface. Generally used in the areas which receive medium rainfall, and have highly permeable soils. (b) Bench terrace sloping outward—It is adopted in low rainfall areas with permeable soil. (c) Bench terrace sloping inward- soils. 2. Broad base terrace : It is defined as a surface chi which is formed across the land slope. (a) Graded terrace- from the land. Als into the outlet. -It is adopted in heavy rainfall and less permeable annel or embankment type construction It is also known as channel type terrace, drain excess runoff water } removes excess surface runoff with a non-erosive velocity and drains (b) Level terrace—It is most suitable in low to m joderate rainfall regions are constructed for conserving and controlling the soil erosion :soll WATER ENGINEERING lope and horizontal Spacing b mee io ‘yetween land sl ~-.. 369 yeti etwer 4 Land Slope (%) en terraces 1-4% | ~— SPHCING Between Terraces (m) a 210 m — ~ 4-6 % - — —_—— | 180 m ae 6-12 % oo af 150 m aes 12-18 % a ——— ee 120 m than 18 % a More e 0m qn of Bench Terrace ing of Bench Terrace : It is the vertical distance between two Successive bench terraces, Ss Vi= 03($42) 2 Spacing for graded terrace 1, Spac Note VI=aS+b where, 17 = vertical distance from the slope of the bottom of first terrace, feet S = average land slope, % a = constant depends upon geographical location b = constant for erodibility and cover condition (i) Vertical interval for batter slope 1 : 1 Ws Y= 00-5 (ii) Vertical interval for batter slope 1 : 1/2 _ _2WS = s00-8 2. Width of Bench Terrace 200 D “Ts Where, W” = width of terrace (m); D = depth of cut (m); S = slope (%) . Peak Runoff Rate from the Upstream Bench Terrace ca, LW peak = 360° 4 ~ 10000 length of terrace, m; W = width of terrace, m; ha Where, A = drainage area of terrace, ha ' Earth Work per Hectare (2) For level bench terraces a E,, = 1250 VI = 12.50 WS 7A aN WAR MANAGEMENT NNER (b) For inward sloping bench terrace Ey, = 1250 VI= 12.50 W(S + 8) ‘© inward or outward slope of the bench: (c) For outward sloping bench terrace Ey, ~ 1250 VI= 12.50 W(S~ 8) S. Total Length of Te.race per Hectare 0000 L 1 HI 6. Area Lost in Bench Terrace (a) When batter slope is 1:1 AL = 1 5+100 (b) When batter slope is hy AL = 309 . Ss S * 100 Where, £,, = earth work per hectare, m? width of terrace, m; S = land slope, % inward or outward slope of the bench, % ‘otal length of terrace per hectare HI = horizontal interval, m: A, = area lost in bench terracing Slope classification |, Flat to gently sloping: <7° 2, Moderately sloping : 7° — 15° 3. Strongly sloping : 15°- 20° 4. Very strongly sloping : 20° — 25° 5. Steep : 25° — 30° 6. Very steep : > 30° Soil Depth Classification 1. Very shallow : < 20 em 2. Shallow : 20 - 50 cm 3. Moderately deep : 50-90 em 4. Deep : > 90 cm © The California type bench terrace is called plutorican type. _& The broad base terraces are constructed across the slope. © The half-moon structure is used for sheet water harvesting, © The pheratic lines intersect to u/s of earthen dam at 90°, Bunding It is an engineering soil conservation measure used for retaining the water creating obstruction and thus control erosion. When they are constructed on contour of the area called as contour bund and when a grade is provided to them, they are known as graded bund, Type of Bunds , 1. Contour bund—It is constructed exactly on contour or with permissible deviation from the contour.soll. A ENGINCERING ihe land. ¢ col convenient bits. supp! . ; pain to the maximum required, Marginal bund pound ° nd—It is formed at extreme end. side DU nds of the contour b und, running a jemental bund—It is constructed between two contour bi --+.-2 232 long the slope of qreral bund— It is constructed between two side bund: centration of water at one side and also to break along the slope for preventing eak the length of contour bund into nds so as to limit the horizontal —It is formed at the margin points of the w: " river to their fatershed, road, and |, road, i hi ghoulder bund—It is formed at the outer ; 6S he terrace and also to provi edge of the terraces to hold the runoff over th top of the s provide the stability to the terrace system. r the Name of Bund Contour band ~~ Side bund Supplementary bund ~~ Marginal bund Shoulder bund At field boundary Constructed exactly on contour Extreme end of contour bund Between two side bunds along the slope Between two contour bunds Terraced land (bench) classification of Bunding System 4) Contour bunding : The bunds are passing through the points of equal elevation of the land is defined as contour bunding or level terrace. These are suitable in area where annual rainfall less than 700 mm and slope less than 6%, \W Narrow based contour bunding—Constructed for crossing of farm implements. 2) Broad base contour bunding—It does not create hindrance in farming operations. (8) Graded bunding : It is also referred as channel terrace used in the areas having rainfall greater than 700 mm per year. Normally, 0.1-0.5 % grade are, provided. 1 ntour bunding isnot recommended on the land slopes less than 2 % or on the slopes greater than 8 %: (1) Narrow base graded bunding (2) Broad base graded bunding Design Specification of Bund 1. Spacing of the bund y= +b a Wa) For the areas of heavy rainfall 308 =" +60 Wes —(b) For the areas having low rainfall VI 308 +60 2 =o > a a =» LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING Manis Where, 1’ = vertical interval between two successive bunds, m S = land slope, % 4a, b= constants depends upon rainfall characteristics of the area X= rainfall factor = Infiltration and crop cover factor Horizontal distance of the bund (HD) Where, x = horizontal di: ance between two successive bunds, m S = side slope of bund; R, = 24 hour excess rainfall, cm - Ramser formula Cox formula Height of the bund (h) . Length of contour bund (L) - Total Earth work (E,) bund construction ae Feta oss scion area of bund | Area lost due to contour bunding a) a Ay 3 base width of contour bund) Bunding practice is most suitable for land slope ranges between 2- 10%. Buffer strip cropping is the strips of the grass and or legumes crop, the ground, are placed in between contour strips. Kanna bunding is the most commonly used measure to control wind erosion in western Rajasthan, Kanna bunds are Jaid at spacing of 20 to 25 m. Contour bunding is suitable for low rainfall areas (<600 mm) and for permeable soils having slope of less than 6 percent. Contour bunds are not suitable for that completely cover allow soils having a depth of less than 7.5 cm. The deep black soil and also very shallow soil having depths less than 7.5 cm are not usefull for bund constructioncu WER ENNEIND, glee are also known as waste wei yer is weit weirs do not cover th sul a ei ie land so they can é qual) desired place in the bund Surplus Welrs are classified into clear een eeated atlet, Brass outlet, cut outlet and prefabricated structures, ele o 8. ‘ trenching ito" r i a i . om “the one of the practice used asa Soil conservation measure to intercept th ff i sof contour trench are used in the range of I:1 to 0.5:1, pelthe runoft The : ches are excavated with a longitudinal bed grade. d trenches—The staggered trenches for shorter length compared to the graded ‘These trenches are arranged in staggered form. “ «sl 7 maate dent di ded trenches—These trenches are identical to the graded terrace except that the graded 3, stagger © enches: water Ways and Diversions Design Parameters of Grassed Waterways— 1, Size of the waterway Q=AxV Where. Q = expected maximum runoff rate 4 = cross sectional area of waterways V = velocity of flow 3, Shape of waterway ‘Shape | Area (A) |Wettedperimeter (P) | Hydraulic radius (R) | Top width (7) bd + 2d? | Trapezoidal | bd + =a | b+ 2de n be2dlie= | 24 t+ 8d? ed 4 Paele |3 3 oy) 15a ord 4 oa Triangular co 3. Velocity of flow Cover condition Sparse grass cover Good grass cover Sod of excellent cover where, 2 = Manning’s roughness coefficientLAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING © Grassed waterways are the natural or manmade water courses covered with erosion resistant Brasses used to dispose surface water from the area. © Grassed waterways are designed for 10 yeats recurrence interval. It acts as outlet for terraces and graded bunds . © The values of thumb rule ratio or ration of the catchment area to cultivated area varies from 1:5 to 1:40. Water Harvesting Water harvesting is the process by which rain water is collected to supplement the various demands like irrigation, drinking ete Thumb Rule Ratio Catchment area ___Crop water requirements x Desig Cultivated area ~ Design rainfall x Runoff coefficient iciency factor Water Harvesting Techniques based on 1. Sources of water available 2. Required water storage duration 3. Intended use of harvested water Classification of Water Harvesting Techniques 1. Roof Harvesting—For domestic purposes 2. Runoff Harvesting (A) Short Term Storage 1. Contour bunds—This bund hold the flowing surface runoff through the area surrounded space of two adjacent bunds. The height of contour bund ranges from 0.30-1 m and length varies from 10m to few hundred meters. 2. Semi-circular hoop—This type of structure consists of an earthen embankment constructed in the shape of semi-circle. The height of hoop ranges from 0.1-0.5 m and radius varies from 5-30 m. 3. Trapezoidal bunds—These type of structure consists of an earthen embankment constructed in the shape of trapezoidal. The height of trapezoidal bund ranges from 0.3-0.6 m and radius varies from 40-160 m. 4. Graded bunds—tt is constructed on the land slope ranges from 0.5-2 % and height of graded bund ranges from 0.3-0.6 m. 5. Rock catchment—The exposed rock surface used for collecting runoff water into a part as depressed area. 6. Ground catchment—In which large area of ground is used as catchment for runoff yield (B) Long Term Storage (1) Dugout Ponds—Vhese are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground surface. Ponds are limited to those areas which have land slope less than 4 % and where water table lies within 1.5-2 m depth from ground surfacei 3 _ drrig colt WATER ENGINEERING mbankments Type Reservoirs—These are constru around the valley or depression of the catchment, gation dam—To store the surface runoff for irri ri gating the crops. silt detention dam—To detain the silt load coming area into depressed part and simultaneously to Rene Tunoff from the catchment : = : © water, High level bund. Dams are located at the head of the valley t tank or pond. Used to irrigate the areas lying below it, form a shape of water Farm pond—Ponds are constructed to multi : urpos iT i vestock and fish production, Purpose objectives such as for irrigation, liv water harvesting pond—Pond may be considered as water harvest , 5 ‘ater harvestin| percolation dam—Damns is constructed 8 pond. at th ad wi the percolation loss. valley head without the provision of checking Flood Water Harvesting» piverting to graded bund—Runoff water diverted to the area c : an 0 fa ty constructing the diversion structures. Deore) erased bunds Gheck dam—The small rock or concrete check dams are constructed across the river or depression to check the flow and allowing for the infiltration into the alluvium under the bed. sand dam—Water harvesting by use of sand dam consists of constructing a dam across the valley or depression for reducing: velocity of water mixed with sand. Subsurface dam—It consists of vertical barriers which are constructed across the valley. down the bed. . Flood control reservoir—The reservoirs constructed at suitable sites for controlling the flood. Dyland Verses Rainfed Farming Constitwent (mm) Dryland Farming Rainfed Farming == == TS 800, = sure availability to the crops | Shortage | Enough - 5s) < 200 days [S200 days ’ “sowing season (days) “owing regions ‘Arid and semi arid, uplands of sub humid and humid regions Humid and sub humid regions “pping system “saints ‘am Pond Single crop or Intercropping Wind and water erosion Intercropping or double cropping Water erosion Farm 7 7 ‘orig i ponds are small tank or reservoir like constructions are constructed for the purpose of he fac ee — “ surface runoff generated from the catchment area.—E OO LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEERIg Types of Farm Ponds on the basis of Methods of Construction: 1. Embankment type—Farm ponds are constructed across the stream or water course, 2. Excavated or dug out type—Farm ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the ground relatively in level areas. Types of Farm Ponds on the Basis of Sources of Water Available for Feeding |. Spring or creck fed ponds—Vhese are generally found in hilly areas, where natural crecks or springs are available to supply the water. 2. Off-stream storage ponds—These are constructed in the side of ephemeral streams jn which water flows seasonally. Components of Farm Ponds: 1. Pondage or storage area 2. Earthen embankment 3. Mechanical spillways 4, Emergency spillway Pond Capacity: 1. Trapezoidal rule van(Ate 2 2. Simpson’s rule or Prismoidal formula H V => [2 * area of odd contours + 4 = area of even contours] Where, V = volume of water stored; H = contour interval A), Ap, Ag...=area of contours 3. Height of settlement — (1-2) (1+e) Where, S = height of settlement, m; e, = void ration before consolidation, 2 = void ration after consolidation; Y = depth of soil being consolidated, m 4. Top width dam. xY¥ W= 1.105 H!? + 0.91 Where, W’ = top width of the dam, m; H = maximum height of the dam, m 5. Volume of Earthwork y=1(4t4) 2 Where, V = volume of earthwork, A, & Ay = end areas of the cross-sections, m? 1. © distance between two cross section, m 6. Volume of excavation Ve axteee xDWATER ENGINEERING all /olume of excavation, m3 Wott e eee 37 A = area of excavation at the round B = area of excavation at the mi-depth pot C = area of excavation at the by ottom of th D = average depth of the Pond, m “Pond f farm i i average depth of Pond in humid regi = it o wens deh of am pond region 2.4-2.8 m, in semi-arid region 4-4.8 m «In farm pond, the probable water loss throu, The large livestock like cattle require 1 acr Tike sheep require | acre feet/year per 750 @ The diffe is 60 cm wheres mid-depth Point, m2 igh evaporation and seepage is 10 % e feet/year ; head rence. in elevation between the spillway crest and the maximum pond surface oe Per 75 head and small livestock gathen Dam : dam may be defined as an obstruction or a barrier constr jy 10 retain water for making big water body behind, wally Types of Earthen Dam: lucted across the river, stream or 1. Rock fill dam—The earth materials are excavated from the burrow pits and transported to the construction site by means of suitable earth moving machines and for proper compaction compacted by mechanical roller in uniform thickness layers. 2, Hydraulic fill dam—To construct the hydraulic fill dam, the earth materials are excavated, transported and placed at construction site by hydraulic flumes. Types of Rocked Fill Dam: 1. Homogeneous type—A homogeneous type earthen dam is made of only one kind of material except material used for slope protection. 2. Zoned type—The zoned type earth fill dam is made of more than one fill materials. In this dam impervious core is flanked at centre by impervious material and a pervious zone or layer is also formed around the impervious material. A Diaphragm type—The entire section of embankment is constructed using the pervious material like sand, gravel or rock and a thin diaphragm is placed at the centre of the dam section. ‘sign of Earthen Dam |. Top width (W)— H W => +3 [for very low height (#)] W =0.55VH +0.2H [for dam lower than 30m height (1)] W= 1.65 (H+ 1.5)1/3 [for dam higher than 30 m height (H)) Lp 7 board—tt may be defined as the vertical distance between the top of the embankment d water level in the reservoirs”SS 378 . LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT T ENGINEER, 1 Normal free Board : It is defined as the difference in elevation between the top of thy embankment and the normal reservoir. 2. Minimum free board : \t is defined as the difference in elevation between the top of the embankment and the maximum water level in the reservoir. Types of Freeboard Free board _Nentical distance between top dam and water level in reservoir - Normal free board “Vertical distance between top dam and normal reservoir level Minimum free board Vertical distance e between en! top ‘dam and m maximum reservoir level | Maximum free board | | Vertical distance between top dam and m minimum reservoir level 3. Cutoff trench—The function of cutoff trench in earth fill dam to reduce the loss of stored water in the reservoirs from the seepage flow through the foundation and its abutment. The cutoff trench should be 1 m deep into continuous stratum below the foundation. W=h-d Where, W’ = bottom width of cutoff trench, h = reservoir head above the ground surface, d = depth of cutoff trench below the ground surface. |\ASide Slopes for Preliminary Design of Earth Dams Type of Material Upstream slope Downstream slope Homogenous well graded material 25:1 21 Homogenous coarse silt - 3:1 23:1 Homogenous silty clay or clay Height less than 15 m 25:1 2 Height more than 15 m 3:1 25:1 Sand or sand and gravel with clay core | 3 25:1 Downstream Drainage System in Earthen Dam 1. Toe drains—It is used in the homogeneous type earthen dams to prevent sloughing action at the downstream toe of the dam. . Horizontal blanket—It is widely used in the earthen dams of moderate height for downstream drainage work, . Chimney drains—Normally used in higher homogeneous dams. Also used to prevent the problems of stratification and horizontal flow of seepage water as observed in case of horizontal blanket. . Filter—Filters are also provided to solving the problem of downstream drainage in the earthen dam. x » =irate 379 cas iydraulic failures I « overtopping of the dam height ) Wave action towards ws side of the dam {c) Toe erosion (a) Gullying seepage failures (a) Piping (b) Sloughing al failures siructur (a) Upstream and downstream failures due to formation of excessive pore pressure. (b) Upstream failure due to sudden drawdown in the reservoir water level. ic) Downstream failure at the time of full reservoir. @) Foundation slide. (¢) Failure due to spreading, earthquake, unprotected side slope, burrowing animals and water soluble materials. Analysis 1, Seepage rate through isotropic soil qubxhx te Na 2 Seepage rate through non-isotropic soil IK, ig Where, = head drop between two equipotential lines q = discharge passing through the flow channel of flownet = coefficient of permeability in x-direction of the actual field of anisotropic soil K, = coefficient of permeability in y-direction of the actual field of q anisotropic soil N= total number of flow channels in the flownet Nj = total number of drop in the entire flow net © For an embankment height of 5 m, the nature of foundation materials is not important. © When embankment is constructed by drag line method then settlement can go upto 20-25%. @ Vey ‘Wie i i Vertical distance between designed water elevation and the elevation of embankment ‘op is called net free board. Verical distance between rest of mechanical spillway and the top of embankment is Called gross free board Core a fo trench for core wall construction is dug along the centre line of the dam atleast 60 " deep into the sub-soil ° ©a LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEER © ‘The minimum width of core wall is kept about 120 cm at the bottom with a side slope 1:1 © The side slope is used for average quality material is 3:1 and 2:1 towards upstream ang downstream side for 15 m dam height. © The width of berms should ranges between 1-3 m. © The free board ranges from 60-75 cm is added to the height of dam after settlement, © The side of the dam where water is stored to form a pool of water is known as upstream side, while other side of dam is known as downstream side. © In diaphragm dam, the horizontal thickness of diaphragm at any elevation should be less than 10 m or less than the height of embankment. If the thickness of diaphragm is equal to or greater than 10 m then the dam is said to be zoned type dam © The width of core at the top of dam is generally kept 3 m and height of core should be atleast | m above the maximum water level in the reservoir to prevent seepage due to capillary action. Retaining Wall It is a wall constructed to maintain unequal level of ground surface by its sides or to support a soil mass. Or a wall built to retain the earth or water behind it. ~~ © Retaining wall or retaining structure is used for maintaining the ground surfaces at different elevations on either side of it. © The material retained or supported by the structure is called backfill which may have its top surface horizontal or inclined. © The position of the backfill lying above a horizontal plane at the elevation of the top of a wall is called the surcharge, and its inclination to the horizontal is called surcharge angle B. 1. Back fill—When earth is retained by the retaining wall to make the ground surface higher for some requirement then this side of retaining wall is called back fill. 2. Aboutment—A retaining wall, when used to support the load of the bridge or culvert and also to retain the earth simultaneously is called as abutment. Types of Retaining Wall: 1, Masonry type—Retaining walls when constructed by using the stone blocks or bricks as masonry material. 2. Semi-gravity type—Retaining wall requires a greater toe to increase the base width of the wall. 3. Cantilever type—Retaining wall consists of a base slab and a vertical slab which are joined together near the toe or near the heel or middle the base. It is economical upto the height of 6 m. |. Counterfort type—When height exceeds 6 m then at the place of cantilever type, counterfort type retaining walls are preferred. . Buttressed wall—It is similar to counterfort type, only difference is that the buttressed wall has counter fort in front of the wall. S nwRING soll WA TER ENGINEE comet il be of 3 all bridge may be of 3-4 spans wi a small Brice spans with the length of span not more than 3 m is known as ett al’ rypes of Culvert— ", Pipe culvert : It is used for very small dai of road or railway. nage work passing through the embankment Box culvert = It is preferred for construction especially ii cially in | iti larger spans. pecially in loose soil condition and for Areh culvert : The construction of super structure in the form of arches. Slab culvert + These are constructed for a span of maximum 2.5 m in width v Beam and slab culvert : Its layout is similar to the big grider bridge. @ Culvert are constructed to cross the small distributary, the span length may vary about 4.5 m. (erts are constructed, in case of railway track, the maximum span length is kept about hould not exceed this limit. in the culvert is to retain the earth materials behind it and also sav e 76 mand s! @ Wing wall flood water all intermediates supports between the abutment in culvert. aining wall, the eccentricity e soil against @ Piers are @ Avoid the possibility of development of tension in masonry reti should always be less than or equal to 0/64 retaining wall, the horizontal pressure acts at the distance of H/3 from base. ein nomical to construct for the height of 6 m. 6 The cantilever type retaining walls are eco ¢ Inaculvert the maximum number of span is 5-7. soil Loss Estimation Models 1. Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE) 6 It was developed by Weischemeir and Smith (1965). It was developed to predict the soil loss from field size of small areas. 6 USLE equation does not estimate sediment yield directly. © USLE is most sensitive to change in the value of crop management factor. A=RKLS.CP | soil loss (t/ha); R = rainfall factor or erosivity index L = length of slope factor = crop management factor Where, 4A = average annual K = soil erodibility factor; S = the steepness factor; Cc P = conservation practice factor F A : ‘actors Associated with USLE Equation an Rainfall factor (R) + It is refers to rainfall erosivity index (ED) which express the ability infall to erode the soil particles from the unprotected field. EJ is determined by multiplying the KE of e ‘ of the storm to the maximum 30 minute intensity for that storm. . Soil erodibility factor (K) t It is determined for the land with 9 % siope and 22 m length: ~——382, Ae S (SED Where. K ~ soil erodibility factor; 4p = observed soil loss S = slope factor; SEI = total rainfall erosivity index 3. Length and steepness of slope factor (LS): © It has direct relation with the soil loss and i of the slope length (1°), © Length and steepness of slope factor combinely 1 as the ratio of soil loss from a field having specific steepness and I soil loss from fallow land. VE ee L 2. LS =~= (0.76 + 0.53 S + 0.076 S°) 100 @ tis approximately equal to the square root amed as topographic factor and is defined length of slope to the Where, Z = slope length, ft; 5 = percent land slope MKS system is-(45) [65.41 sin20 + 4.58 sin + 0.065] Where = slope length, m; © = angle of slope m = variable depends upon the steepness of land slope Revised slope steepness factor for the USLE LS = 65.41 sin2@ + 4.58 sinO + 0.065 Slope steepness factor For slope length shorter than 4m S= 3.0 (sin 6)°8 + 0.56 For slope length longer than 4 m and S <9 % S= 10.8 sin @ + 0.03 For slope length longer than 4 m and S29 % S= 16.8 sin 6 — 0.05 4. Crop management factor (C): @ It is defined as the expected ratio of soil loss from a cropped land under specific crop to the soil loss from a continuous fallow land, provided that the soil type, slope and rainfall conditions are identical. © It represents the combined effect of cover crop sequences, productivity level, length of growing season, tillage practices, residue management and the expected time distribution of erosive rain storm with respect to planting and harvesting date. 5. Conservation practice factor (P) : It is defined as the ratio of soil loss for a given conservation ractice to the soil loss, obtained from up and down the slope. Application of USLE 1. It predicts the soil loss.OIL WATER ENGINEERING \ c 2, It helps in selection of the agricultural s r 3, It provides recommendations on crop ima ina i si von of USLE ‘Bement practices to be used, is empirical. Mathematically ; i 1. Itis emp! cally it does not illustrate the act i _ Ir predicts average annual soil loss, tual soil loss erosion process. . It does not compute gully erosion, 4, It does not compute sediment deposition, modified USLE }. It was developed by Williams in 1975, It can compute sediment yield either monthly or seasonal _ It is modified by replacing the rainfall energy factor ‘ith, runoff factor. Y= 95 (Q.9,)°5° Kiscp where, Y= sediment yield for an individual storm, tonnes Q = volume of runoff, acre-feet; g > Ip gevised USLE ® It can compute sheet and rill erosion. | @ The value of erodibility ranges from 0.10 to 0.45 in RUSLE. ® The measure improvement in RUSLE is the revision of iso-erodent map. @ The value of crop management factor (c) can vary from about zero for well protected soil and 1.5 for a finely tilled and ridged surface. Revised USLE 2 = peak flow rate, feet?/sec A=R.K.L.S. (PLU. CC. SC. SR). P Improvement in crop management factor (C) C = PLU. CC. SC. SR Where, PLU = prior land use sub factor; CC = crop canopy sub factor SC = surface cover sub factor; SR = surface roughness sub factor Standford Sediment Model it consist of overland flow and channel flow as input parameters and sediment removed from 4ill slopes by overland flow and sediment derived from rill, gully and channel erosion are accounted output parameters. STEHLIK Method Stehlik devised an equation for predicting the annual rate of soil loss in 1975. Stehlik equation has more importance to change in the rainfall factor and less importance to "ange in the soil erodibility. Stehlik equation is most sensitive to the variations in the degree of slope steepness.\ LAND AND WAT! ER MANAGEMENT ENGINEE RING SLEMSA Model © The Soil Loss Estimation Model for South Africa (SLEMSA) developed by Elwell (1978) is a new approach to soil loss estimation. ; © The SLEMSA model offers advantages of low cost and maximum use of scarce data, N= D.G.P.S.L.O0 Where, = mean annual soil loss, mm/year D ~ climatic factor, mm/year G = petrological factor P = erodibility of soil S = slope steepness L = slope length factor O = vegetation factor G, P. S, L, O factors are dimensionless. USLE is not used when slopes are steeper than 20 %. The rainfall erosivity index (R) is A map containing the line of equal erosivity index is called iso-erodent map. The typical width of strip cropping ranges from 30-100 m. USSR has developed techniques of broad base terrace to control erosion. Runoff coefficient is the ratio of runoff to rainfall. When rainfall duration is less than the time of concentration then runoff is less than peak runoff rate and when rainfall duration is greater than time of concentration then no effect on peak runoff rate. Central Arid Zonal Research Institute is located at Rajasthan (Jodhpur). The USLE is an empirical model. The USLE estimates the soil loss in the unit of tonnes/ha/year. The SLEMSA model was developed for African countries. Elwell model predicts annual soil loss and developed for South Africa. The MUSLE was develops by Williams. The MUSLE predicts the sediment yield storm wise. They factor-PLU of RUSLE depends on biomass existing in the soil. The WEPP model was developed by Laflen et al. 1997. The EUROSUM model was developed by Morgan et al 1999. The KINROS model was developed by Woolhisar et al. 1990. The value of soil loss tolerance for the soils with greater depth, permeable and we drained, is about St/acre/year. The SDR (sediment-delivery ratio) of a watershed is less than 1. ® On increasing the slope length twice, the increasing soil loss is by 1.4 times. @O6¢¢660%9% ©6666 6 OHHH HO ©cu WATER ENGNG 12+" Capability Classification fined as a system under which lands ar ifi ; 1 Fe the yield e classified as per their potential ability to veloped by United State Department of Soil Conservation Service e js the potential ability of f vsapability 8 ” y of the land for use in speci i e & ment practices Pecified ways or with some specified manage! . d Pharaeiarielll . is defined as the land characteristics which have adverse effects on potential 385 y was de itation ae of the land. and capability classification land slope, soil depth and liable t9 flooding are the permanent jimitations: ~ at — jn Land capability classification soil nutrient and drainage impedence are the temporary jimitations: — : ¢ jand capability classification is based on the permanent land limitations. e Land capability sub classes includes e, w; s, c classes, defines erosion, wetness, soil limitations and climatic limitations, respectively. @ The classification recognizes the whole land into eight classes from class I to VIII, in which class | tO IV are suitable for cultivation, while V to VIII are unsuitable for cultivation ity unit is the groupiny of.one or more individual soil mapping uni containing and limitations. ¢@ Land capability unit is the constraint for classifying the land aci the land. land Capability Sub-classes |, Sub-class (e)—The word ‘e’ refers to erosion problem. water based limitations. cording to the capability of 2. Sub-class (w)—The word ‘w’ refers to a 3, Sub-class (s)--The word +s’ refers to soil limitations. 4. Sub-class (c)-—The word *c” refers to climatic limitations. land Use Capability Classification |. Class |The land falling under is very good in all aspect. 2. Class {Land with gentle’slope, moderate depth, subject to occasional overland flow, may require drainage facility; have moderate risk of damage. adopted for cultivation adopting lillage practices. 3. Class IMI —1t is moderately good for cultivation, with moderately slope and there should ve intensive use of erosion-control practices to control the erosion and drainage facility. Class IV—Soil is rich in fertility, steep slopes subject to severe erosion, very severe damage ‘ es be kept for pasture Class V-—It is kept under pasture and/o} ‘ “. cover from destroyed. lass VI-L_and is used for grazing and forestry, grazing should be regulated to preserve ‘he plant cover, r forestry but grazing should be regulated to preventLAND iD WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING 7, Class VIL—It i i Fi " It is not only unsuitable for cultivation but also have severe limitations to y: ‘or grazing or forestry. 7 8. ele is very tough, not suitable for wood land or grazing, and suitable for wilg . atershed conversion: © The Land Capability sub-classes are 4. ® The classification based on the effective soil depth is divided in 5 classes. “© The land gradient under steep slope varies from 4.5-7.5. © Soil colour is influenced by amount of proteins in the soil. 4 Colour Notation for Land Use Capab Classes _Land capability class Colour notation Raa 1 Light green Dark green Orange Vil Vul Sedimentation and Reservoir Sedimentation © Sediment is a fragmented material originated either from chemical or physical disintegration of rocks. © Land use and soil type, catchment size, climate and rainfall affect the sediment yield. and use and sore 2 Factors affecting the Sediment Yield: 1. Land use and soil type 2. Catchment size 3. Climate and rainfall Mores of Sediment Loads— 1. Contact load—It is the material rolled or slide along the stream bed in continuous contact with the bed. 2. Saltation load—It is the material bouncing along the bed or moving directly or indirectly by the impact of bouncing particles with each other. ; 3. Suspended load-—It is the material either from moving in suspension form with the fluid or collected in or computed from the samples. 4, Bed load—It is that part of sediment load which moves on or near the stream bed. © The mechanics of sediment transportation in a stream flow is described by Gilbert. otsoll. WATER ENGINEERING wee 387 q “Fon of Bed Load 8 an |. Du boys formula 3, Mayer Peter’s formula 5, Schoklitsch formula 2. Shield’s formula 4. Chang formula oad sampler get |, Basket type sampler 2, Tray or pan type sampler 3, pressure difference type sampler is of suspended Sediment |, Gravimetric methods 2, Hydrometric methods ‘sification of Suspended Sediments: |, Fine sediment- Particles size is less than 0.075 mm in diameter 2, Medium sediment- Particles size ranges from 0.075 to 0.20 mm in diameter 3, Coarse sediment- Particles size is more than 0.2 mm in diameter. Affecting the Pattern of Sediment factors 1. Slope stream 2. Reservoir shape 3. Length 4. Construction and operation 5, Size of sediment 6. Capacity inflow and inflow pattern 7. Vegetal growth 8. Sediment load 9. Outlets 10. Sediment-reservoir ratio Prediction of Sediment Distribution 1. Area increment method 2, Area reduction method 3. Elevation of sedimént accumulation methods 4. Trigonometric method The ‘Du Boys formula’ computes the rate of sedim @ The Chang formula estimates bed load transport. © The sediment content is more in the stream water during initial flood, so this phase of flood water is not adviced to be collected into the reservoir. © Deposited sediment is removed by excavation, dredging and sluicing with hydraulic or mechanical ‘agitator, The number of sediment sample: atleast 3 ‘The reservoir sedimentation does not get affected by wind erosion. e capacity given for sedimentation is called dead storage. ent transport from stream flow. to be taken from a stream flow width of 30 m should be © In reservoir the storag © The Joglekar method is associated to predict the annual rate of sedimentation. =wen w= = LANDAND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGIN Grassland Farming oe Thing Ivis one of the most domine ing and economical practice to hold the soil against eros) ; entering the soils regarding their fertility status provided, developed and managed. ls al & In India about 3 % of total land is engaged under pasture farming which is too less, it sho ; be atleast 10 to 15 % cither for controlling the erosion or forage for cattle feed Q © The climax Vegetativi in excellent condition of range varies from 75-100 % and in Po condition of range varies from 0-25 %. na © Grazing is defined as grassland suitable for pasturage. © Grazing intensity is expressed in terms of number of animals/ha or acre 1. Range land It is referred to the natural grassland 2. Pasture land- It is the artificially established grassland. Types of Grazing ‘ 1. Deferred grazing : Periodically adopted 2. Continuous grazing : Grazing without intermittent break over piece of grassland 3. Rotational grazing : Grazing in a order of sequence 5 4. Deferred-cum-rotational grazing : Grazing aims to achieve both the objectives deferred and rotation in the operation. Desertification It refers to land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas due to anthropic activities. © The share of soil degradation at global level due to water erosion is about 56 % and due to wind erosion is about 15 %. © Globally the highest percentage of land degradation is in North America. © Between two adjacent rills the length of overland flow is approximately half the distance between them. Watershed The watershed or drainage basin or catchment or drainage area refers to the area drained by a stream in such a way that all flow originating in that area is discharged through a single outlet. Or Watershed is hydrologic entity, in which hydrologic cycle completes. Property | Small watershed Large watershed “Size | Less than 100 acres | Exceeds 100 acres Land use | Significant to small watershed Not effective “Intense rainfall Causes rapid peak oe Not rapidly Roughness of soil Less overland flow when surface Precidental effect on channel flow roughness is more __, —_____++—— —_ Ziaeel storage | Overland flow is more predominant __—— Channel flow is predominanta of Watershed rhe size of watershed has significant effect on the function of watershed. watershe shape e: : a the common shapes of watershed are square, rectangular and triangular. atershed shape is generally expressed by the t rhe 2 'y lerms form factor and ci : te ompactness «are two types of watershed's shape, in which one is fan shape and other is fern Ther e Tet phe fan shape watershed produce peak rate of runoff very early, than the fern | shape shapes une index (Sy) # The watershed shape can be described by “shape index” given as: , : 27 a a? , form Factor : It is defined as the ratio of average width to the axial length (Z) of the sotershed Form factor = 4 c « campaciness Coefficient : Iti ss cect of watershed to the circumference agacircle, whose area 1s equal to th ‘the watershed. B: Compactness ratio = === 2A ~ 6, Drainage Density: ¢ [tis the ratio of the total channel length in the watershed to the total watershed area. @ Awatershed having greater drainage density includes formation of peak runoff, and vice- versa. 7 Drainage Density = 7 inear Aspects of Drainage Networks A linear aspect of drainage network includes the analysis of stream order, stream length and eagh of overland flow. 1 |, Stream Order : It is dimensionless term, when a low order stream joins higher order stream segment, the higher order stream remained as it is. The highest order stream is also called as trunk stream through which all discharge of watershed passes to the outlet. 1. Law of Stream Number : It is the number of stream segment of each order form an inverse seometric sequence with the order number. Ny = REM Ww here, N, = number of stream segment of order w R, = bifurcation ratio; k = order of trunk segment 3. Bitureati tel Ratio ; It is the ratio of number of stream segment of a given order to the of segment of next higher order. PP nmePeUETIETTRTSRTERISRSERSEERE = ~< AMO AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGNEEAN Nu+t 4, Length Ratio : It is the ratio of mean length stream segment of a given order to the Mean length of stream segment of next lower order. Re L, ut 5. Law of Stream Length : It is the mean length of stream segment of each successive order of the basin tends to approximate a direct geometric sequence. Rat x Rt! Where, 1, = average length of stream segment 6. Length of Overland Flow : It is the one-half of the reciprocal of the drainage density (Dp. 1 2a Areal Aspects of Drainage Basin An areal aspect of drainage basin includes law of stream areas, relation of area to the stream length, to the discharge, basin shape. 1, Total Area of Basin : It is defined as the total area projected on a horizontal plane contributing to the overland flow to the stream segments of given order plus all tributaries of lower order. 2. Area Ratio : It is the ratio of mean length stream segment of a given order to the mean length of stream segment of next lower order. Rp== Ay-1 3. Law of Stream Areas : State that, the mean basin areas of stream of each order approximate a direct geometric sequence. 4, = 4, x Re! Where, 4, = mean area of basin of order ‘uv’ 4, = mean area of the first order basin; R, = area ratio 4. Relation between Basin Area and Stream Length : . L=m-x A" Where, L = stream length; 4 = basin area; m, n = constant. 5. Relation between Drainage Area and Discharge Q=s« A" Where, £ = discharge; A = basin area; J, m = constant 6. Basin Shape : It is also referred as the shape of outline of watershed or drainage basin. Form factor, circulatory ratio and elongation ratio defines the basin shape. (a) Form Factor—It is the ratio of basin area to the square of the basin length introduced by Horton (1932).,wee eee eee ae Where, Ry~ form factor, dimensionless; A y= basin area, km2 1, = basin length, km (b) Circulatory Ratio—\t is the ratio of basin area (A,) to the area of circle (A,) having equal perimeter as the perimeter of drainage basin introduced by Miller (1935). It is dimensionless and its value ranges from 0.6 to 0.7. R — AW A where, Ly, = maximum basis length Where, 4, = basin area; 4, = area of circle. (c) Elongation Ratio—\t is the ratio of diameter of a circle which has same area as the basin to the maximum basin length introduced by Schumm (1956). The value of elongation ratio varies from 0.6 to 1,0, for the region of Very low relief, it is close to 1,0 and for the area having strong relief its value ranges from 0.6 to 0.8. RX 4. (d) Drainage Density—t is defined as the ratio of total length of all stream segments within specified basin to the basin area introduced by Horton (1932). k N Ay Where. Dz = drainage density; L,, = length of stream segment; Au = basin area K & N= trunk order of stream segment and total number of streams (e) Constant of Channel Maintenance (C) : It is defined as inverse of drainage density (D,) introduced by Schumm (1956). It is used to describe the morphological property of drainage basin. (f) Stream Frequency : It is the number of stream segments per unit basin area introduced by Horton (1932). Where, F = stream frequency, km! 4, N, = total number of stream segments of all orders A, = basin area of the trunk order Relief Aspects of Drainage Basins 1. Relief—it is the elevation difference between the reference; points located in the drainage basin. 2. Maximum Relief— It is the elevation difference between highest and lowest points.392 LAND AND WATER MANY SONSIING asin outlet and the highest 3. Maximum Basin Relief It is the elevation difference between bi Point located on the perimeter of basin. distance (L) on which relieg 4. Relief Ratio (R,)—-It is the ratio of relief (#4) to the horizontal was measured. A Die) 7%. Relative Retief tt is the ratio of maximum basin relief (| H Rip p increases as thei i » Channel Slope-tn drainage basin, the average slope of channel segments inci order increases. H) and basin perimeter (P), x 100 2 5y= 5px Re Where, S, = average slope of channel of order ‘u’: Si * RE! = average slope of channel of order R= slope ratio 7. Main Stream Slope Factor—It is defined as slope of a uniform channel with the length equal to the longest water course and equal travel time. 8. Ruggedness Number—It is the product of relief (H) and drainage density (D,) which is dimensionless term, Ruggeddness number = H. Dy 9. Ground Slope—it is taken as twice of the ruggedness number. Ground Slope = 2H . Dy 10. Geometric Number—tt is the ratio of ruggedness number and ground slope. Hypsometric Curve ie Me “@ Hypsometric curve shows the relationship between relative height (h/H) and relative area (a/A) of drainage basin. ® Hypsometric curve is dimensionless term. ® The slope of hypsometric curve is likely to change with the stages of basin development, ‘© Hypsometric curve is used for determination of hydrologic variables such as precipitation or evaporation with respect to altitudes, ‘® Hypsometric curve is used for prediction of snow depth and its water equivalent at different altitudes over the basin area. Stages of Basin Development 71. Inequilibrium Stage—tt is referred as young stage, which reveals that the basin is under development. Hypsometric curve for this stage is located at the top. ~ 2. Equilibrium Stage—t is the mature (steady state) stage of basin development. Hypsometric curve for this stage is positioned in the middle. 3. Monadnock Phase—It occurs, when isolated bodies of resistant rock from prominent hills are found above the subdued surface, In this case distorted hypsometric curve is resulted.| _ SOIL WATER ENGINEERING “tershed Management implies the judicious use o: vee smn don ith ii tt ot te oe ees ural resources and for the well- steps of Watershed Management (1. Recognition of problem Analysis to determine the cause of the problem Sea ot atermatve solutions for the objectives formulated to solve the problem . Application of selected solution Protection and improvement of works, which have already been implemented Watershed Management Phases! 1. Recognition phase 2. Restoration phase . Protection phase 4, Improvement phase Classification of Watershed Models Peak discharge model weun a A. Calibrated models B. Uncalibrated models 2. Single-event hydrograph models A. Design storm B. Actual storm 3. Watershed (continuous) multiple-event models A. Actual record B. Synthetic record B Joint probability models © Horton overland flow describes the tendency of water to flow horizontally across land surfaces when rainfall has exceeded infiltration capacity and depression storage capacity. Horton overland flow is most commonly encountered in urban construction sites and rural dirt roads, where vegetation has been stripped away, exposing bare dirt. © Benefit cost ratio for watershed should be minimum 1.5:1. © Watershed deterioration is caused due to faulty use and mismanagement practices. © Delineation of watershed can be performed by reconnaissance survey study of toposheets and areal photography. @, The lines representing equal slope are iso-tangents or iso-sines. © Ratio of ruggedness number to the ground surface slope is called geometric number. ©@ A fan shaped drainage basin results the hydrograph with narrow base width and high peaks. A fern shaped drainage basin results the hydrograph with broader base width and lower peaks. © The shaped of resulting hydrograph from a drainage basin which is skewed towards outlet is wide base width with lower peak. © ‘The shaped of resulting hydrograph from a drainage basin which is skewed op| the outlet have narrow base width with higher peak. posite toON 394 LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEER Hg -@ For land management point of a view, a convenient size of a watershed may be 509 1, 1000 ha, @ For agricultural point of view, on an average a size of 2000 ha is considered reasonable © Soil Conservation in Catchment of River Valley Project was objected to treat the catchmen, area for reducing silt production rate and subsequent siltation of reservoir and to improve the productivity of catchments by checking soil erosion. Key Points © The highly wind erosion affected state (India) is Gujrat. © The CSCRD & TC, Dehradun was established on 20th September 1954. © The soil conservation center Agra (CSCRD & T) was established on Ist October 1957, © In India, the total numbers of Soil Conservation Regions are 10. © DPAP refers to Drought Prone Area Programme. RDP stands for Rural Development Programme. FPAP stands for Flood Prone Area Programme. Drought prone areas Programme was started in 1973 as in integrated area development programme Desert Development Programme was initiated in 1977-78. Geomorphological analysis is the systematic description of watershed’s geometry and its stream channel system to measure the linear aspects of drainage network, aerial aspects of drainage basin and relief aspects of channel network. ©. Values of bifurcation ratio is from 2 to 4. @ Constant of channel maintenance is the inverse of drainage density. © Hypsometric analysis of watershed is carried out to develop the relationship between horizontal cross-sectional area of watershed and the elevation. © The artificial neural network has recently been used in a variety of hydrologic studies including rainfall-runoff modelling. © District Rural Development Agencies (DRDA) are district level development execution and monitoring agencies created under the Indian Societies Registration Acts. © DRDA constitutes a Watershed Development Advisory Committee chairmanship of the Chief Executive Officer of Zilla Parishad/Project Director of the DRDA. © Crop rotation is component of polyculture. ‘@ The reduction in the peak of outflow hydrograph than the inflow hydrograph due to storage made in the reservoir or stream is known as attenuation. © Brown ratio is sensible heat flux to latent heat flux. @ Climatology is a science which studies the weather’s pattern over the time and space. ‘The two depths associated with the same energy values are referred to as alternate depth. @ Cropping index is the number of crops grown in a particular field per year. © Depletion is defined as continuous withdrawal of water from the surface or ground water reservoirs or basins at the rate greater than the replenishment. ® Dry spell is a period, when atleast 15 consecutive days there is no rainfall, e004ee solL WATER ENGINEERING wee IS Dry land farming is the practice in which water is not supplied for the irrigation but whatever rainfall taking place or moisture present in the soil is utilized by the crop. @ Dune isa mound or ridge formed by loose sands piled by up by wind. @ Effluent is the discharge from domestic, industrial and municipal waste collection system @ Fallow land is a land which kept idle for one or more growing seasons to kill the weeds or making the soil richer regarding moisture content and nutrient status. @ Marshy land is a deteriorated land which is affected by periodic wetting or continually flooding with the surface not deeply submerged. © Mellow soil is easily worked or penetrated with tillage tools. @ Nomogram is a graph which consists of three parallel lines representing a scale related to each other. ® The depth after hydraulic jump is called sequent depth. @. Virgin flow is also‘called actual or true runoff defined as flow of water in natural condition. @ Bouyocos suggested that erodibility is proportional to the ration of percentage of sand, silt and clay. © Shelterbelt is longer barrier than wind break. @ The rain has 256 times more kinetic energy than runoff. ® Delayed pattern of rainfall causes higher runoff peaks. “©. Drop inlet spillway has dual purpose of gully control as well as flood control. © Morgan described design procedure of parabolic shaped grassed waterways. © Gully erosion occurs when a natural water course is displaced from its state of metastable equilibrium. © At critical depth no hydraulic jump would occur. © In chute spillway flow occurs at supercritical velocities. © Drainage gallery is provided in order to relive the uplift pressure exerted by the seeping water. © The hydrostatic pressure intensities at the heel and the toe should be taken equal to their respective hydrostatic pressure. @ Scouring of soil particles from river section during runoff flow is the phenomenon of abrasion. @ Detachment of sol particle by flowing water varies as square of its velocity. Transportation ability of flowing water varies as fifth power of its velocity. © Sheet erosion is also termed as attrition @ Double row bush wood check dam are used to control the gullies of depth about 6 m. @ Height of netting dam used for gully control is located at about 60 cm or more. © Weir formula is used to design the inlet section of drop structure. © The average annual Elsg if India is 496. © A good design of water harvesting structure, the storage or spread area for water collection should be 1/8" to 1/5" of catchment area. © Crop rotation is growing of selected crops of different kinds in a regular order in a given field is known as crop rotation.396. LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT ENGINEE © Relief is the elevation difference between any reference point of the catchment and the outlet @ For cultivation bank should not exceed 14° slope for use of sma should be 8.5° for large size machines. 1 machines otherwise jt ® @ e In normal soil erosion soil loss is zero. ‘The'size of contour ttéiich varies froit!"1000-2500 ern? in low rainfall and graded bunds are useful Contour bunds are recommended for the areas of in areas of medium-high rainfall. ° \ Rainfall mainly affects the soil erosion by its property i © The interflow causes piping action based erosion. @ The base flow causes bank erosion. Drainage density of watershed affects more to the SCS method computes storm-wise runoff depth. Peak segment phase of runoff hydrograph causes mor ure can also be used for water storage along with gully control Wooden jacks are stream bank erosion control. intensity. gully erosion. ¢ soil erosion. Drop inlet spillway struct Weir formula is used for inlet design of drop spillway. A sloughing is associated with unstable bank slope. Undermining type of failure is very common in perennial streams O° rivers. The low vanes are used for bank erosion control and sediment deposition. Torrent is the strong water current. The interface between land and stream is called riparian zone. @ KE > 25 index method developed for Asia and El39 method for USA. © The unit of soil erodibility factor is ton/ha/mJ/mm. @ The runoff plot consists of multi-slot divisor. @ The Thailimedes is automatic stage level recorder. @»The multi-slot divisors are used for measuring runoff and soil loss from runoff plot. @ Coshocton wheel is sampler used for collecting sediment samples from runoff plot. © The extent of total desert in India is about 20.7 mha. basin area from the map and Chartometer measures the stream- ©6009 9O% The Planimeter measures the length. Important Relationships Acoustic recorder Arid zone Bench terrace Chartometer Stream length Chute spillway Measurement of kinetic energy One station on every 30000 km? Hilly areas 7 Suitable slope more than 3 mMeasuring the slope angle One station on every 1 lakh km? Critical height ig¢ Lake evaporation CA oa = Flood peak area relationship > 5 to 10 years highest rainfall Suitable slope less than 3 m Flood peak area relationship Soil Rainfall | Inertia force to pressure force Discharge of rectangular weir Inertia force to gravity force _10 years recurrence interval jore than 7.5 mm/hr One station on every 50000 km? Relationship between monthly runoff and rainfall ‘Trace to 2.5 mm/hr |. 2 33 years recurrence interval | Lake evaporation ip cropping ia force to surface tension force