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Ok-CIEN-30084 Geotechnical- Engineering

BS Civil Engineering (Polytechnic University of the Philippines)

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CIEN 30084

ENGR. BAILEY JOHN E. BANDIOLA

ENGR. JOSEPH RANIEL A. BIANES
ENGR. RAMIR M. CRUZ
DR. MANUEL M. MUHI
ENGR. KENNETH BRYAN M. TANA
ENGR. RUFFA A. SAMONTEZA
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Course Title : GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Course Code : CIEN 30084
Course Credit : 4 Units, (3 Hrs Lecture & 3 Hrs Laboratory)
Pre-Requisite : Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

The Overview:
Soil Formation ad Identification, Engineering properties of soils, Fundamental aspects of soil
characterization and response, including soil mineralogy, soil-water movement, effective stress,
consolidation, soil strength, and soil compaction. Use of soils and geosynsynthetics in
geotechnical and geo-environmental applications. Introduction to site investigation techniques,
Laboratory testing and evaluation of soil composition and properties.

This course covers fundamental concepts on geotechnical engineering that includes soil bearing
capacity, lateral earth pressure, and slope stability. It also deals with design and analysis of
foundation utilizing principles learned in Reinforced Concrete Design with emphasis on design of
shallow and deep foundations.

Course Objectives
At the end of this course, the students will be able to:
• Apply basic mathematics, science, and engineering principles to solve engineering
problems.
• Calculate the stresses transferred to underlying soils applied by the super structural loads.
• Deal with the estimation of compressibility and settlement properties of soils for shallow
foundation footings design.
• Design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data
• Be familiar with soil mechanics tests and determine which test is needed in designing civil
engineering projects and/or solving engineering problems.
• Use word processors in writing and finishing lab report.
• Use soil laboratory equipment properly.
• Demonstrate the ability to work in groups.

Course Grading System

Class Standing 70%

• Quizzes
• Attendance
• Recitation/Group Dynamics
• Projects/Assignments/Seatwork/Special Report

Midterm / Final Examinations 30%

100%

Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = FINAL GRADE

2

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Lesson 1 | Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the students will be able to:
• Define Soil Mechanics.
• Explain the Origin of Soil Mechanics.
• Differentiate the four (4) basic soil types.
• Explain how the soil is being transported.

Course Material
Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the behavior of
soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a
heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand, and
gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter. Along with rock mechanics, soil
mechanics provides the theoretical basis for analysis in geotechnical engineering, a subdiscipline
of civil engineering, and engineering geology, a subdiscipline of geology. Soil mechanics is used
to analyze the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are
supported on or made of soil, or structures that are buried in soils. Example applications are
building and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and buried pipeline systems. Principles of
soil mechanics are also used in related disciplines such as engineering geology, geophysical
engineering, coastal engineering, agricultural engineering, hydrology, and soil physics.

Origin

The primary mechanism of soil creation is the weathering of rock. All rock types (igneous
rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock) may be broken down into small particles to create
soil. Weathering mechanisms are physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological
weathering, as well as Human activities such as excavation, blasting, and waste disposal, may
also create soil. Over geologic time, deeply buried soils may be altered by pressure and
temperature to become metamorphic or sedimentary rock, and if melted and solidified again, they
would complete the geologic cycle by becoming igneous rock.

Physical weathering includes temperature effects, freeze, and thaw of water in cracks, rain, wind,
impact, and other mechanisms. Chemical weathering includes dissolution of matter composing a
rock and precipitation in the form of another mineral. Clay minerals, for example can be formed
by weathering of feldspar, which is the most common mineral present in igneous rock.

The most common mineral constituent of silt and sand is quartz, also called silica, which has the
chemical name silicon dioxide. The reason that feldspar is most common in rocks, but silica is
more prevalent in soils is that feldspar is much more soluble than silica.

Silt, Sand, and Gravel are basically little pieces of broken rocks.
According to the Unified Soil Classification System, silt particle sizes are in the range of 0.002
mm to 0.075 mm and sand particles have sizes in the range of 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm.

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Gravel particles are broken pieces of rock in the size range 4.75 mm to 100 mm. Particles larger
than gravel are called cobbles and boulders.

Soil is relatively thin surface layer of the Earth’s crust consisting of mineral and organic matter
that is affected by agents such as weather, wind, water, and organisms.

In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties of a soil are dedicated
primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles and hence the rock from which is derived.

Soil is the most misunderstood term in the field. The problem arises in the reasons for which
different groups or professions study soil.

Soil scientists are interested in soils as a medium for plant growth. So, soil scientists focus on the
organic rich part of the soil horizon and refer to the sediments below the weathered zone as parent
material. Classification is based on physical, chemical, and biological properties that can be
observed and measured.

Soils engineers think of a soil as any material that can be excavated with a shovel (no heavy
equipment). Classification is based on the particle size, distribution, and the plasticity of the
material. These classification criteria more relate to the behavior of soils under the application of
load – the area where we will concentrate.

Soil mechanics deal with the determination and analysis of forces that act on a soil mass. It is
a relatively new engineering discipline having been developed only in the 1940's. It seeks to
understand how a soil responds to being exposed to an engineered works or to being used in the
works as a construction material.

'Geotechnical Engineering' is a new term used to describe soils engineering within the realm
and knowledge of geologic processes. Geotechnical engineering is concerned mainly with
foundations and basic soil engineering properties pertaining to slope stability, retaining walls,
open pit mines, etc.

Soil Transport
Soil deposits are affected by the mechanism of transport and deposition to their location. Soils
that are not transported are called residual soils — they exist at the same location as the rock
from which they were generated. Decomposed granite is a common example of a residual soil.

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The common mechanisms of transport are the actions of gravity, ice, water, and wind. Wind-blown
soils include dune sands and loess. Water carries particles of different size depending on the
speed of the water, thus soils transported by water are graded according to their size. Silt and
clay may settle out in a lake, and gravel and sand collect at the bottom of a riverbed. Wind-blown
soil deposits (aeolian soils) also tend to be sorted according to their grain size. Erosion at the
base of glaciers is powerful enough to pick up large rocks and boulders as well as soil; soils
dropped by melting ice can be a well graded mixture of widely varying particle sizes. Gravity on
its own may also carry particles down from the top of a mountain to make a pile of soil and
boulders at the base; soil deposits transported by gravity are called colluvium.

The mechanism of transport also has a major effect on the particle shape. For example, low
velocity grinding in a riverbed will produce rounded particles. Freshly fractured colluvium particles
often have a very angular shape.

Activity/Assessment
1. Illustrate the geologic rock cycle and explain each of its phases.
2. In your own words, briefly explain the importance of studying soil mechanics and its impact
to a building structure.
3. Sketch completely and accurately the process of how a soil is being transported.

Lesson 2 | Soil Properties and Composition

Learning Objectives

At the end of this Lesson, the students will be able to:

• Identify the particles making up the soil.
• Differentiate and Explain the different phases of Soil.
• Discuss the different properties of soil and phase relationship.
• Solve problems related to physical properties of soil.

Course Material

One of the common mistakes committed by a non-soil engineer is thinking that the term soil
referred to the solid particle of the soil only. In fact, The term soil refers to the combination of the
solids, liquids, and gaseous particles making up the soil.

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Soil phase describes the percentage by volume and weight of the constituent members of the
soil, namely solids, liquids, and air. Each of these constituents are represented on a two-part
phase diagram as shown below:

Physical Properties of Soil

1. Void Ratio (e) – the ratio of the volume of the voids to the volume of solid.
2. Porosity (n) – the ratio of the volume of the voids to the total volume of soil.
3. Degree of Saturation (S) – the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of the voids. Note
that degree of saturation must be in percent.
4. Water Content / Moisture Content (ω) – the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solid.
It is present in percent form.
5. Unit Weight – the weight of soil per unit volume.
a. Moist / Wet / Bulk Unit Weight (γm) – the weight of moist soil per unit volume.
b. Dry Unit Weight (γd) – the weight of solid in the soil per unit volume.
c. Saturated Unit Weight (γsat) – the weight of saturated soil per unit volume.
Saturated define as the voids is fill up with water.
d. Submerged / Effective / Buoyant Unit Weight (γ’) – due to the buoyant principle it
is define as the effective weight of soil under submerged condition per unit volume.

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e. Zero Air Void Unit Wieght @ Dry State. (γ zav) – dry unit weight of soil under zero
air void condition. Zero air void means saturated state.
6. Air content (AC) – Volume of air in the voids.
7. Air Void (AV) – volume of air in the soil.

The total volume of a given soil sample can be expressed as:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑎

Where:

Vs = volume of soil solids

Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water in the voids
Va = volume of air in the voids

Assume that the weight of air is negligible, the total weight of the sample as:

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤
where:

Ws = weight of soil soilds

Ww = weight of water

Phase Relationships:

The water content or moisture content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of soil
solids, i.e.

Ww
w=
Ws

The degree of saturation or saturation ratio (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the total
volume of void spaces, i.e.

𝑉𝑤
𝑆=
𝑉𝑣

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The degree of saturation can range between the limits of zero for a completely dry soil and one
(or 100%) for a fully saturated soil.

The void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil solids, i.e.

𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠

The porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil, i.e.

𝑉𝑉
𝑛=
𝑉

As V = VV + Vs , void ratio and porosity are interrelated as follows:

𝑛
𝑒=
1−𝑛
and
𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒

The specific volume (v) is the total volume which contains a unit volume of solids, i.e.

𝑉
𝑣= = 1+𝑒
𝑉𝑠

The air content or air void ratio (A) is the ratio of volume of air to the total volume of soil, i.e.

𝑉𝑎
𝐴=
𝑉

The bulk unit weight (γ) of a soil is the ratio of the total mass to the total volume, i.e.

𝑀
𝛾=
𝑉

The specific gravity of the soil particles (G s) is given by

𝑀𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝐺𝑠 = =
𝑉𝑠 𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑤

where ρs is the particle density.

Other important relationships are listed below:

𝐺𝑠 𝑤 = 𝑒𝑆

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𝑒 − 𝐺𝑠 𝑤
𝐴= ; 𝐴 = 𝑛(1 − 𝑆)
1+𝑒
𝐺𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒
𝛾= 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤

For a completely dry soil (S = 0):

𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑒

For a completely saturated soil (S = 1):

𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾
1+𝑒 𝑤

The relative density (ID) is used to express the relationship between the in-situ void ratio (e), or
the void ratio of a sample, and the limiting values e max and emin representing the loosest and
densest possible soil packing states respectively. The relative density is defined as:

1 1
−
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑
𝐼𝐷 = =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 1
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

Thus, the relative density of a soil in its densest possible state (e = e min) is 1 (or 100%) and in its
loosest possible state (e = emax) is 0.

Sample Problem 1:

A soil sample weighs 14.46 N and has a volume of 0.000991 m3. The specific gravity is 2.65. The
volume of air is 0.000167 m3. Find the dry unit weight of the original soil sample (kN/m3).

Solution:
VOLUME (m3) WEIGHT (N)
0.000167 AIR 0

Vw WATER Ww

Vs SOIL Ws

0.000991 14.46

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From the relationship on the volume of soil solids, water and air:
Vs + Vw + Va = 0.000991 m3
Vs + Vw + 0.0000167 = 0.000991
Vs + Vw = 0.000824 → eq. 1

From the relationship on the weight of soil solids and water (weight of air is negligible):
Ws + Ww = 14.46 N → eq. 2

Remember that the unit weight of a certain object is the ratio of its weight to the volume;
hence, the weight in terms of its volume is:
W
γ = → W = γV
V
Ws = γs Vs ; Ww = γw Vw

Also, remember that the specific gravity of a certain object is the ratio of the unit weight of
the object to the unit weight of water, since the object is soil, the unit weight of soil in terms
of specific gravity is:
γs
Gs = → γs = Gs γw
γw

Substituting the weight of soil solids and the weight of water in terms of their volume to
equation 2, yields to:
Gs γw Vs + γw Vw = 3.25
2.65 (9810)(Vs ) + (9810)Vw = 14.46
25996.5Vs + 9810Vw = 14.46 → equation 2

Solving the two equations simultaneously, we have:

Vs = 0.000394 m3 ; Vw = 0.000430 m3

To solve for the dry unit weight of the soil sample:

Ws 2.65(9.81)(0.000394)
γd = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑
VT 0.000991

Sample Problem 2.

A mold having a volume of 0.10 ft3 was filled with moist soil. The weight of the soil in the mold
was found to be 12.00 lb. The soil was oven-dried and the weight after drying was 10.50 lb. The
specific gravity of solids was known to be 2.70. Determine the water content, void ratio, porosity,
degree of saturation, total unit weight, and dry unit weight.

Solution:

1. The water content is:

Ww Wwet − Wdry 12.0 − 10.5
w= = = = 0.1429 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟗%
Ws Wdry 10.5

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2. The void ratio can be computed by:

Gs γw
γd =
1+e
Gs γw
e= −1
γd
The dry unit weight is:
Wdry
γd =
V
10.5 lb
γd =
0.10 ft 3
γd = 105 lb/ft 3
Therefore:
2.70 × 62.4
e= −1
105
𝐞 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟓
3. The porosity in terms of the void ratio is:
e
n=
1+e
0.605
n= = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟕
1 + 0.605
4. The degree of saturation can be computed by using the formula:
Gs w = eS
Gs w
S=
e
2.70 × 0.1429
S= = 0.6380 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟖𝟎%
0.605
5. The total unit weight is:
W
γ=
V
12 lb
γ= = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭 𝟑
0.10 ft 3
6. The dry unit weight was already solved in 2:
𝛄𝐝 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭 𝟑

Sample Problem 3.

One cubic meter of wet soil weighs 19.80 kN. If the specific gravity of soil particles is 2.70 and
water content is 11%. Find the void ratio, dry unit weight, and degree of saturation.

Solution:

1. The void ratio can be computed by:

Gs + Gs w
γ= γw
1+e
W Gs + Gs w
= γw
V 1+e

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19.80 kN 2.70 + 2.70(0.11)

= × 9.81
1 m3 1+e
𝐞 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟓
2. The dry unit weight is:
γ
γd =
1+w
19.80
γd =
1 + 0.11
𝛄𝐝 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟒 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑
3. The degree of saturation can be computed by:
Gs w = eS
Gs w
S=
e
2.70(0.11)
S=
0.485
𝐒 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑

Activity/Assessment
Direction: Solve the following problems completely. Show your complete solution. No Solution,
no credit points.

1. From the following data of a soil sample:

Sample size 3.81 cm dia. × 7.62 cm ht.
Wet weight = 1.668 N
Oven-dry weight = 1.400 N
Specific gravity = 2.70

Determine the water content (%), dry unit weight (kN/m3), bulk unit weight (kN/m3), void
ratio, and the degree of saturation (%).

2. The porosity of a soil sample is 35% and the specific gravity of its particles is 2.70.
Calculate its void ratio, dry unit weight, saturated unit weight, and the submerged unit
weight.

3. A soil sample with a grain specific gravity of 2.67 was filled in a 1000 ml container in the
loosest possible state and the dry weight of the sample was found to be 14.75 N. It was
then filled at the densest state obtainable and the weight was found to be 17.70 N. The
void ratio of the soil in the natural state was 0.63. Determine the density index in the natural
state.

4. The dry unit weight of a sand sample in the loosest state is 13.34 kN/m3 and in the densest
state, it is 21.19 kN/m3. Determine the density index of this sand when it has a porosity of
33%. Assume the grain specific gravity as 2.68.

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5. The mass specific gravity of a fully saturated specimen of clay having a water content of
30.5% is 1.96. On oven drying, the mass specific gravity drops to 1.60. Calculate the
specific gravity of clay.

Lesson 3 | Soil Classification

Learning Objectives

At the end of this Lesson, the students will be able to:

• Differentiate and Explain the different types of soil.
• Understand and Perform the particle size distribution of soil using sieve analysis and
Hydrometer Analysis.
• Explain the different soil classification systems and Classify the soil based on them.
• Solve problems related to soil classification.

Course Material

Foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, towers, dams, oil tanks generally requires
the knowledge of the behavior and stresses related deformability of the soil that will support the
foundation system and the geological conditions of the soil under consideration. Structural
designers must have a thorough knowledge of the geology of the area where the structure must
be constructed especially the origin and the nature of the soil stratification and groundwater
conditions.

These are inherent physical characteristics in a soil that are derived as a function of the genesis
of the soil and that determine its behavior under a stress, when it is used as a resource, or as a
foundation in an engineered works. A significant understanding of the following fundamental soil
properties is required by all geotechnical engineers.

Soil Type
Soils are divided into 2 groups based on the ability of a soil mass to hold together by itself
(cohesive) and those having no ability, or strength, to hold together by itself (cohesionless) and
an additional type which is the organic.

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1. Cohesive Soils: these soils generally contain a sufficient clay content to effectively 'glue'
the mass together. As such, they also have the ability to be molded or shaped. This
property of being molded is called 'plasticity' and describes the ability of the soil to be
rolled into thin rods 3.0 mm diameter without breaking. These soils have internal strength,
can be compacted and compressed, and generally are suitable for foundation materials
under optimum moisture conditions. Most fine-grained soils have some cohesion and are
usually composed of significant amounts of silt and/or clay.

2. Cohesionless Soils: these soils have no strength of or in their own. There is usually a
complete absence of clay or fine particles from which cohesion is derived. Sand and
gravel are good examples of cohesionless soils. However, if sandy or gravely soils are
geologically or structurally confined, they can exhibit strength properties, but the strength
is due to the confinement, not the material itself.

3. Organic soil: they are typically spongy, crumbly, and compressible. This type of soil is
undesirable for use in supporting structures.

Cohesionless Soils

Cohesive Soil

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Organic Soil

Grain Size Classification

1. Coarse – grained (also referred to as granular soil)
a. Gravel
b. Sand

2. Fine-grained
a. Silt
b. Clay

Grain Size Analysis

The grain size distribution of coarsed soil is generally determined by means size of sieve analysis.
For a finer grained soil, the grain size distribution can be obtain by means of hydrometer analysis.
A sieve analysis is conducted by taking a measured amount of dry, well pulverized soil and
passing it through a stack of progressively finer sieve with a pan at the bottom.

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Mechanical Analysis of Soils

Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles present in a soil, expressed
as a percentage of the total dry weight. Two methods generally are used to find the particle-size
distribution of soil: (1) sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter, and (2)
hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.

Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressively
smaller openings. U.S. standard sieve numbers and the sizes of openings are given in the table
below.

Sieve Sieve
Opening (mm) Opening (mm)
No. No.
4 4.75 35 0.500
5 4.00 40 0.425
6 3.35 50 0.355
7 2.80 60 0.250
8 2.36 70 0.212
10 2.00 80 0.180
12 1.70 100 0.150
14 1.40 120 0.125
16 1.18 140 0.106
18 1.00 170 0.090
20 0.85 200 0.075
25 0.710 270 0.053
30 0.600

These are the steps in performing sieve analysis:

1. Determine the mass of soil retained on each sieve (i.e. M 1, M2, …, Mn) and in the pan
(i.e. Mp).
2. Determine the mass of the soil: M1 + M2 + … + Mi + … + Mn + Mp = ∑M.
3. Determine the cumulative mass of soil retained above each sieve. For the i th sieve, it is
M1 + M2 + … + Mi.
4. The mass of soil passing the ith sieve is ∑M – (M1 + M2 + … + Mi).
5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is
∑M − (M1 + M2 + ⋯ + Mn )
F= × 100
∑M

Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated (step 5), the calculations are plotted on semi-
logarithmic graph paper with percent finer as the ordinate (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening
size as the abscissa (logarithmic scale). This plot is referred to as the particle-size distribution
curve.

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A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a
given soil:
1. Effective size (D10) – this parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve
corresponds to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.

2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) – the parameter is defined as

D60
Cu =
D10
Where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

3. Coefficient of gradation or coefficient of curvature (C c) – the parameter is defined as

D30 2
Cc =
D60 × D10
4. Sorting coefficient (SN) – this parameter is another measure of uniformity and is generally
encountered in geologic works and expressed as
D75
So = √
D25
The sorting coefficient is not frequently used as a parameter by geotechnical engineers.

The particle-size distribution curve shows not only the range of particle sizes present in a
soil, but also the type of distribution of various-size particles. Such types of distributions are
demonstrated in figure. Curve I represent a type of soil in which most of the soil grains are the
same size. This is called poorly graded soil. Curve II represents a soil in which the particle sizes
are distributed over a wide range, termed well graded. A well-graded soil has a uniformity
coefficient greater than about 4 for gravels and 6 for sands, and a coefficient of gradation between
1 and 3 (for gravels and sands). A soil might have a combination of two or more uniformly graded
fractions. Curve III represents such a soil. This type of soil is termed gap graded.

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Hydrometer Analysis
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a
soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending on their
shape, size, and weight, and the viscosity of the water.

Methods of determining the Percent of gravel, sand, silt & Clay

1. AASHTO Classification System – The AASHTO system of soil classification was
developed in 1929 as the Public Road Administration Classification System. It has
undergone several revisions. With the present version proposed by t he Committee on
Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type Roads of the Highway
Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M1245).

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The AASHTO classification in present use is given below. According to this system, soil
is classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1,
A-2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% pass through the no. 200 sieve. Soils of
which more than 35% pass through the no. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-
5, A-6, and A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. The classification
system is based on the following criteria:
a. Grain Size
i. Gravel: Fraction passing the 75mm (3in) sieve and retained on the no. 10
(2mm) U.S. sieve.
ii. Sand: Fraction passing the no. 10 (2mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the
no. 200 (0.075mm) U.S. sieve.
iii. Silt and Clay: Fraction passing the no. 200 U.S. sieve.
b. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a
plasticity index of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions
have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
c. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75mm) are encountered, they are
excluded from the portion of the soil sample from which classification is made.
However, the percentage of such material is recorded.

This soil classification is given by the table below.

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2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) – Each soil is given a 2-letter classification
(e.g. SW). The following procedure is used.
a. Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
b. Suffix depends on %fines
if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P
if %fines > 12% suffix is either M or C
if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used

To determine if W or P, calculate Cu and Cc

𝐷60 𝐷30 2
𝑐𝑢 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑐 =
𝐷10 𝐷60 × 𝐷10
Where:x% of the soil has particles smaller than Dx

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3 otherwise use P

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3 otherwise use P

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This soil classification is given by the table below.

3. United States Department of Agriculture Textural Classification (USDA) – In general

soils contain a wide range of particle sizes. Some means of describing the characteristics
of soils with different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

This soil classification is given by the table below

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4. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) – The Massachusetts Institute of

Technology has developed their own soil classification system. However, in the field of
engineering, the other three (3) classification system are widely used.
Sample Problem 1:

A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of 500 grams was shaken through a nest of sieves and
the following results are obtained:
Sieve No. Opening (mm) Mass retained (grams)
4 4.75 0.0
10 2.00 14.8
20 0.85 98.0
40 0.425 90.1
100 0.15 181.9
200 0.075 108.8
Pan ––– 6.4

Determine the effective size (mm), the uniformity coefficient, and the coefficient of curvature.

Solution:
Opening Mass retained Cumulative mass
Sieve No. % finer
(mm) (grams) retained
4 4.75 0.0 0.0 100.00
10 2.00 14.8 14.8 97.04
20 0.85 98.0 112.8 77.44
40 0.425 90.1 202.9 59.42
100 0.15 181.9 384.8 23.04
200 0.075 108.8 493.6 1.28
Pan ––– 6.4 500.0 0.00
Total mass 500.0

1. Effective size:
Solution 1: Using a particle size distribution curve (gradation curve), plot the computed
value for %finer and the opening.

For more info and sample plot, Watch:

[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o5fTAuwSGRE
[2] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYsAU8PkiAE
Solution 2: Solve for the diameter that corresponds to 10% finer:
We can use Mode 3-4 of our calculator to interpolate the value:
x y
0.15 23.04
0.075 1.28
Press AC and then 10x̂ = 0.099 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐦
2. To solve for the uniformity coefficient, solve for D 60:
Approximate the diameter that corresponds to 60% finer in your particle size distribution
curve.

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Solution 1: By the definition, the uniformity coefficient is:

D60 0.45
Cu = = = 𝟒. 𝟓
D10 0.10

Solution 2:
Using Mode 3-4 of calculator:
x y
0.85 77.44
0.425 59.42
Press AC and then 60x̂ = 0.435 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝐦𝐦

3. To solve for the coefficient of curvature, solve for D30:

Approximate the diameter that corresponds to 30% finer:

Solution 1: By the definition, the coefficient of curvature is:

D30 2 0.182
Cc = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐
D60 × D10 0.45 × 0.10
Solution 2: Using Mode 3-4 of Calculator:
x y
0.425 59.42
0.15 23.04
Press AC and then 30x̂ = 0.183 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝐦𝐦

Sample Problem 2:

For a given soil, the following are known:

Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70 Liquid limit = 33
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30 Plastic limit = 12
Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System. Give the group symbol and the group
name.

Solution:
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30% (less than 50%, coarse-grained soil)
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 70% (more than 50%, sandy soil)
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 30% (more than 12% passing, SM or SC)
PI = 33 – 12 = 21 (Plasticity index greater than 7)
The soil is classified as SC.

Sample Problem 3:
The grain-size analysis for a soil is given next:
Sieve No. Opening (mm) % passing
4 4.75 94
10 2.00 63
20 0.85 21
40 0.425 10

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60 0.25 7
100 0.15 5
200 0.075 3
Given that the soil is non-plastic, classify the soil by using the Unified Soil Classification System.
Solution:

Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 3% (less than 50%, coarse-grained soil)
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve = 94% (more than 50%, sandy soil)
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve = 3% (less than 3%, SW, SP)
Compute Cu and Cc:
D60 D30 2
Cu = ;C =
D10 c D60 × D10
Use Mode 3-4 to interpolate the value for 30% finer and 60% finer:
x y
2.00 63
0.85 21
Press AC and then 30x̂ = 1.0211 ≈ 1.00 mm and 60x̂ = 1.8814 ≈ 1.88 mm
1.88
Cu = = 4.424 (not greater than 6)
0.425
1.002
Cc = = 1.25 (between 1 and 3)
1.88 × 0.425
The soil is classified as SP, since it does not meet both requirements of SW.

Activity/Assessment
Direction: Solve the following problems completely. Show your complete solution. No Solution,
no credit points.

1. Classify the following soil using the U.S. Department of Agriculture textural classification
chart.

Particle-size Distribution (%)

Soil Sand Silt Clay
A 20 20 60
B 55 5 40
C 45 35 20

2. The following laboratory test results for Atterberg limits and particle-size distribution (sieve
analysis) were obtained for the soil.
Sieve No. % passing
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 80
No. 10 (2.00 mm) 60
No. 40 (0.425 mm) 30
No. 200 (0.075 mm) 10
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit 31
Plastic Limit 25

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Classify the soil according to the AASHTO Classification System.

3. The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:

Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 100
Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 80
Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 58

The liquid limit and plasticity index of the soil are 30 and 10, respectively. Classify the soil
by the AASHTO Classification system.

Lesson 4 | Soil Tests and Indices

Learning Objectives

At the end of this Lesson, the students will be able to:

• Understand and Perform tests to determine the specific gravity of soil solids.
• Understand and Perform tests to determine the consistency of soil.
• Understand and Perform the different testing methods used to determine the Liquid Limit.
• Explain Soil Compaction.
• Solve problems related to soil tests and indices.

Course Material

Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Pycnometer Test

First, the weight of the empty pycnometer is determined (W1) in the dry condition. Then the sample
of oven-dried soil, cooled in the desiccator, is placed in the pycnometer and its weight with the
soil is determined (W2). The remaining volume of the pycnometer is then gradually filled with
distilled water or kerosene. The entrapped air should be removed either by gentle heating and
vigorous shaking or by applying vacuum. The weight of the pycnometer, soil and water is obtained
(W3) carefully. Lastly, the bottle is emptied, thoroughly cleaned, and filled with distilled water or
kerosene, and its weight taken (W4).
With the aid of these four observations, the grain specific gravity may be determined as follows:

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From the readings, the weight of solids Ws = W2 – W1, from (a) and (b)
Weight of water = W3 – W2, from (b) and (c)
Weight of distilled water = W4 – W1, from (a) and (d)
Therefore, Weight of water having the same volume as that of soil solids = (W 4 – W1) – (W3 – W2).

By definition, and by Archimedes’ principle,

weight of soil solids

Gs =
weight of water of equal to that of solids
(W2 − W1 )
Gs =
(W4 − W1 ) − (W3 − W2 )
(W2 − W1 )
Gs =
(W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 )
Ws
Gs =
WS − (Ws − W4 )

Where Ws = dry weight of the soil

Sometimes it is modified to:

Ws (GwT )
Gs =
Ws − (W3 − W4 )

Consistency of Soil
• Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of firmness of a soil.

• Consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly affected by the water content of the soil.

• A gradual increase of the water content may transform a dry soil from solid state to
semisolid state to plastic state and after further moisture increase into a liquid state.

• The water content at the corresponding junction points of these states are known as the
shrinkage limit, the plastic limit and the liquid limit, respectively.

• Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils

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Where SL = Shrinkage Limit; PL = Plastic Limit; and LL = Liquid Limit

Atterberg Limit

Liquid Limit Tests

Cassagrande Device Fall Cone Method

Cassagrande Device
Flow Index, If

𝜔1 − 𝜔2
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑁
log (𝑁2 )
1

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Liquid Limit, LL
𝑁 tan 𝛽
𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝑁 ( )
25

Where:
ωN = corresponding moisture content
N = number of blows
tanß = 0.121 (note: not all soil)

Fall Cone Method

Liquid Limit, LL
2∆𝜔
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 −
𝑀
log ( 𝑀2 )
1

Consistency Limits – Definitions

‘Liquid limit’ (LL) is defined as the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil is just about
to pass from the plastic state into the liquid state. At this limit, the soil possesses a small value of
shear strength, losing its ability to flow as a liquid. In other words, the liquid limit is the minimum
moisture content at which the soil tends to flow as a liquid.

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‘Plastic limit’ (PL) is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil tends to pass from the
plastic state to the semi-solid state of consistency. Thus, this is the minimum water content at
which the change in shape of the soil is accompanied by visible cracks, i.e., when worked upon,
the soil crumbles.

‘Shrinkage limit’ (SL) is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the soil tends to pass from
the semi-solid to the solid state. It is that water content at which a soil, regardless, of further
drying, remains constant in volume. In other words, it is the maximum water content at which
further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in volume of the soil mass, the loss
in moisture being mostly compensated by entry of air into the void space. In fact, it is the lowest
water content at which the soil can still be completely saturated. The change in color upon drying
of the soil, from dark to light also indicates the reaching of shrinkage limit.

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The shrinkage limit is

𝑆𝐿 = 𝜔𝑖 (%) − ∆𝜔 (%)
or
m1 − m2 V1 − V2
SL = − ρw
m2 m2
Where:
m1 = mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test (g)
m2 = mass of the dry soil in the pat (g)
V1 = initial volume of the soil in the pat (cm 3)
V2 = volume of the oven-dried soil pat (cm3)
ρw = density of water (g/cm 3)

Another parameter that can be determined from a shrinkage limit test is the shrinkage ratio, which
is the ratio of the volume change of soil as a percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding
change in moisture content, or
m2
SR =
V2 ρw
It can also be shown that
1
Gs =
1 SL
−
SR 100

‘Plasticity index’ (PI) is the range of water content within which the soil exhibits plastic properties;
that is, it is the difference between liquid and plastic limits.
PI = LL − PL

‘Shrinkage index’ (SI) is defined as the difference between the plastic and shrinkage limits of a
soil; in other words, it is the range of water content within which a soil is in a semisolid state of
consistency.
SI = PL − SL

‘Consistency index’ or ‘Relative consistency’ (CI) is defined as the ratio of the difference
between liquid limit and the natural water content to the plasticity index of a soil:
LL − ω
CI =
PI

‘Liquidity index (LI)’ or ‘Water-plasticity ratio’ is the ratio of the difference between the natural
water content and the plastic limit to the plasticity index:
ω − PL
LI =
PI
Obviously,
CI + LI = 1

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The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index and may be written as
w1 − w2 w1 − w2
FI = =
N2
log (N ) log N2 − log N1
1
Where:
w1 = moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N 1 blows
w2 = moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N 2 blows

Activity of clay, Ac

𝐴𝑐 = 𝑃𝐼/𝜇

Soil Compaction
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted field dry
unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either
the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction, which can be
expressed as

γd(field)
R(%) = × 100%
γd(max−lab)

Also, relative compaction in terms of relative density is

Ro
R(%) =
1 − Dr (1 − R o )

Where:
γd(min)
Ro =
γd(max)

Suitability Number

3 1 1
𝑆𝑁 = 1.7√ + +
(𝐷50 )2 (𝐷20 )2 (𝐷10 )2

Sample Problem 1:
In a specific gravity test with pycnometer, the following observed readings are available:
Weight of the empty pycnometer = 7.50 N
Weight of pycnometer + dry soil = 17.30 N
Weight of pycnometer + dry soil + water filling the remaining volume of the pycnometer =
22.45 N
Weight of pycnometer + water = 16.30 N
Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids, ignoring the effect of temperature.

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Solution:
The given weights are designated W1 to W4 respectively.
Then,
The weight of dry soil solids:
Ws = W2 − W1 = 17.30 − 7.50 = 9.80 N
Neglecting temperature effects, the specific gravity of soil solids is given by:
Ws 9.80
Gs = = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖
(
Ws − W3 − W4 ) 9.80 − 22.45 − 16.30)
(

Sample Problem 2:

In a specific gravity test, the weight of the dry soil taken is 0.66 N. The weight of the pycnometer
filled with this soil and water is 6.756 N. The weight of the pycnometer full of water is 6.3395 N.
The temperature of the test is 30°C. Determine the grain specific gravity, taking the specific gravity
of water at 30°C as 0.99568.

Solution:
Weight of dry soil taken, Ws = 0.66 N
Weight of pycnometer + soil + water, W3 = 6.576 N
Weight of pycnometer + water, W4 = 6.3395 N
Temperature of the test, T = 30°C
Specific gravity of water at 30°C (GwT ) = 0.99568
By the formula,
Ws ∙ GwT 0.66 × 0.99568
G= = = 2.69876 ≈ 𝟐. 𝟕𝟎
Ws − (W3 − W4 ) 0.66 − (6.576 − 6.3395)

Sample Problem 3:

In a specific gravity test, the following observation were made:

Weight of dry soil: 1.04 N
Weight of bottle + soil + water: 5.38 N
Weight of bottle + water: 4.756 N

Determine the specific gravity of soil solids. If, while obtaining the weight 5.38 N, 3 ml of air
remained entrapped in the suspension, determine the percentage error.

Solution:
1. Neglecting temperature effects,
Ws
Gs =
Ws − (W3 − W4 )
In this case, Ws = 1.04 N; W3 = 5.38 N; W4 = 4.756 N:
1.04
Gs = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟎
1.04 − (5.38 − 4.756)

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2. If some air is entrapped while the weight W3 is taken, the observed value of W3 will be
lower than if water occupied this air space. Since W 3 occurs with a negative sign in the
equation in the denominator, the computed value of G would be lower than the correct
value.
Since the air entrapped is given as 3 ml, this space, if occupied by water, would have
enhanced the weight W3 by 0.03 N.
1.04
Correct value of G = = 2.694
1.04 − 5.41 − 4.756)
(
The percentage error is:
2.694 − 2.50
%error = × 100 = 𝟕. 𝟐𝟏%
2.694

Sample Problem 4:
The following data were obtained during an in-situ unit weight determination of an embankment
by the sand-replacement method:
Volume of calibrating can = 1000 ml
Weight of empty can = 9 N
Weight of can + sand = 25 N
Weight of the sand filling the conical portion of the cylinder = 4.5 N
Initial weight of sand-pouring cylinder + sand = 54 N
Weight of cylinder + sand, after filling the excavated hole = 41.4 N
Wet weight of excavated soil = 9.36 N
In-situ water content = 9%

Determine the in-situ unit weight and the in-situ dry unit weight.
Solution:
1. Sand-replacement method of in-situ unit weight determination:
Weight of sand filling the calibrating can = (25 – 9) = 16 N
Unit weight of sand = (16 N)/ (1000 cm 3) = 0.016 N/cm3
Weight of sand filling the excavated hole and conical portion of the sand pouring cylinder
= (54 – 41.4) = 12.60 N
Weight of sand filling the excavated hole = (12.6 – 4.5) = 8.10 N
Volume of the excavated hole:
8.10 N
V= = 506.25 cm3
0.016 N/cm3
Weight of excavated soil = 9.36 N

In-situ unit weight,

9.36 N
γ = = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟗 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑
506.25 cm3

2. In situ-dry unit weight:

γ 18.49
γd = = = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟗𝟔 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑
1 + w 1 + 0.09

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Activity/Assessment
Direction: Solve the following problems completely. Show your complete solution. No Solution,
no credit points.

1. A field density test was conducted by core-cutter method and the following data was obtained:
Weight of empty core-cutter = 22.80 N
Weight of soil and core-cutter = 50.05 N
Inside diameter of the core-cutter = 90.0 mm
Height of core-cutter = 180.0 mm
Weight or wet sample for moisture
determination = 0.5405 N
Weight of oven-dry sample = 0.5112 N
Specific gravity so soil grains = 2.72

Determine the dry unit weight (kN/m3), void ratio, and degree of saturation (%).

2. The liquid limit of a clay soil is 56% and its plasticity index is 15%. What is the plastic limit of
the soil?
3. A soil has a plastic limit of 25% and a plasticity index of 30. If the natural water content of the
soil is 34%. Determine the liquidity index and the consistency index.
4. The Atterberg limits of a clay soil are: Liquid limit = 75%; Plastic limit = 45%; and Shrinkage
limit = 25%. If a sample of this soil has a volume of 30 cm3 at the liquid limit and a volume
16.6 cm3 at the shrinkage limit. Determine the specific gravity of solids, shrinkage ratio, and
the volumetric shrinkage.
5. The maximum and minimum dry densities of a sand were determined in the laboratory to be
1682 kg/m3 and 1510 kg/m3, respectively. In the field, if the relative density of compaction of
the same sand is 70%. Determine the relative compaction and dry density in the field (kg/m3).
6. The backfill material for a vibroflotation project has the following grain sizes: D 10 = 0.11 mm,
D20 = 0.19 mm, D50 = 1.3 mm. Determine the suitability number.

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Lesson 5 | Permeability of Soil

Learning Objectives

At the end of this Lesson, the students will be able to:

• Explain the flow of water through soil.
• Understand and Perform the different permeability used for coarse-grained and fine-
grained soil.
• Solve for the equivalent permeability of soil with respect to the direction of water flow.
• Explain the flow of water on a confined and unconfined aquifer.
• Solve problems related to permeability of soil.

Course Material

Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water can flow
from points of high energy to points of low energy. The study of the flow of water through
permeable soil media is important in soil mechanics. It is necessary for estimating the quantity of
underground seepage under various hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems involving the
pumping of water for underground construction, and for making stability analyses of earth dams
and earth-retaining structures that are subject to seepage forces. One of the major physical
parameters of a soil that controls the rate of seepage through it is hydraulic conductivity, otherwise
known as the coefficient of permeability

From fluid mechanics, we know that, according to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head at a point
in water under motion can be given by the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads, or

where h = total head

u = pressure
ᵥ = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
ᵧw = unit weight of water

Note that the elevation head, Z, is the vertical distance of a given point above or below a datum
plane. The pressure head is the water pressure, u, at that point divided by the unit weight of water,
gw. If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water through a porous soil medium, the term
containing the velocity head can be neglected because the seepage velocity is small, and the
total head at any point can be adequately represented by

Figure shows the relationship among pressure, elevation, and total heads for the flow of water
through soil. Open standpipes called piezometers are installed at points A and B. The levels to
which water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are known as the piezometric

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levels of points A and B, respectively. The pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical
column of water in the piezometer installed at that point.

The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by

The hydraulic gradient within the length L is a dimensionless parameter and is defined as the rate
of change in total head (or head loss) over the length L:

∆h
i=
L

In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity of water through saturated
soils, which may be expressed as
v = ki

where v is the velocity (discharge velocity or superficial velocity) and k is the coefficient of
permeability of the material. The quantity of water that flows in a unit of time through an area of A
or flow rate as:
q = kiA

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The seepage velocity (interstitial velocity) can be expressed as:

v
vs =
n

Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil— the
constant-head test and the falling-head test. A brief description of each follows.

Constant-Head Test
A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in figure. In this type of
laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of head
between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period. After a constant flow rate
is established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a known duration.

Constant Head Permeability Test:

Lq
k=
hAt
where:
L = length of the specimen q = volume of water collected
h = head of water in the sample A = cross-sectional area of the sample
t = duration of water collection

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Falling-Head Test
A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in figure. Water from a
standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head difference h1 at time t = 0 is recorded, and water
is allowed to flow through the soil specimen such that the final head difference at time t = t2 is h2.

Falling Head Permeability Test:

aL h1
k= ln ( )
At h2

where:
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
L = length of the soil specimen
t = duration of water collection
h1 = initial head of water in the standpipe
h2 = final head of water in the standpipe

Equivalent coefficient of permeability:

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Horizontal Direction:
∑ kh
k Heq =
∑h
k1 h1 + k 2 h2 + k 3 h3 + ⋯ + k n hn
k Heq =
h1 + h2 + h3

Vertical Direction:
∑h
k Veq =
h
∑
k
h1 + h2 + h3 + ⋯ + hn
k Veq =
h1 h2 h3 h
+ + + ⋯ + kn
k1 k 2 k 3 n

Unconfined Aquifer:

r
q ln (r2 )
1
k=
π(z2 2 − z1 2 )

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Confined Aquifer:

r
q ln (r2 )
1
k=
2πt(z2 − z1 )

Sample Problem 1:
For the test arrangement shown in the figure, calculate the
volume (liters) of water discharged in 20 minutes. The cross-
sectional area of the soil is 4000 mm2 and k = 4.0 mm/s.

Solution:
From the formula:
𝑉𝐿
𝑘=
ℎ𝐴𝑡
Where: 𝐿 = √(300 + 2252 = 375 𝑚𝑚
2

𝐻 = (375 + 225) − 150 = 450 𝑚𝑚

𝐴 = 4000 𝑚𝑚 2
𝑇 = (20 × 60) = 1200 𝑠𝑒𝑐

(𝑉)(375)
4=
(450)(4000)(1200)
𝑉 = 23040000 𝑚𝑚 3
𝑉 = 23.04 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

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Sample Problem 2:

A deposit of cohesionless soil with a permeability of 3

× 10–2 cm/s has a depth of 10 m with an impervious
ledge below. A sheet pile wall is driven into this
deposit to a depth of 7.5 m. The wall extends above
the surface of the soil and a 2.5 m depth of water acts
on one side. Determine the seepage quantity per
meter length of the wall (cm3/s).

Solution:
1. From the formula:
Nf cm 100 cm 4
Q = kH = (3 × 10−2 ) (2.5 m × )
Nd s 1m 14
𝟑⁄
𝐐 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟗 𝐜𝐦 𝐬

Sample Problem 3:

In a falling head permeability test, head causing flow was initially 50 cm and it drops 2 cm in 5
minutes. How much time (minutes) required for the head to fall to 25 cm?

Solution:
By falling head permeability test:
aL h1
k= ln ( )
At h2
aL 50
k= ln ( ) − (1)
A(5) 48
aL 50
k = ln ( ) − (2)
At 25
Equating the two equations:
aL 50 aL 50
ln ( ) = ln ( )
A(5) 48 At 25
50
5 ln (25)
t= = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟗 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
50
ln ( )
48

Activity/Assessment

1. The discharge of water collected from a constant head permeameter in a period of 15 minutes
is 500 ml. The internal diameter of the permeameter is 5 cm and the measured difference in
head between two gauging points 15 cm vertically apart is 40 cm. Calculate (a) the coefficient
of permeability (mm/s), (b) If the dry weight of the 15-cm long sample is 4.86 N and the specific
gravity of the solids is 2.65, calculate the seepage velocity (mm/s).

2. A glass cylinder 5 cm internal diameter and with a screen at the bottom was used as a falling
head permeameter. The thickness of the sample was 10 cm. With the water level in the tube

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at the start of the test as 50 cm above the tail water, it dropped by 10 cm in one minute, the
tail water level remaining unchanged. Calculate the value of k (cm/s) for the sample of the
soil.

3. A horizontal stratified soil deposit consists of three layers each uniform in itself. The
permeabilities of these layers are 8 × 10–4 cm/s, 52 × 10–4 cm/s, and 6 × 10–4 cm/s, and
their thickness are 7, 3 and 10 m respectively. Find the effective average permeability of the
deposit in the horizontal and vertical direction (mm/s).
4. An unconfined aquifer is known to be 32 m thick below the water table. A constant discharge
of 2 cubic meters per minute is pumped out of the aquifer through a tube well till the water
level in the tube well becomes steady. Two observation wells at distances of 15 m and 70 m
from the tube well show falls of 3 m and 0.7 m respectively from their static water levels. Find
the permeability of the aquifer (mm/s).

5. A riverbed consists of a layer of sand 8.25 m thick overlying impermeable rock; the depth of
water is 2.50 m. A long cofferdam 5.50 m wide is formed by driving two lines of sheet piling to
a depth of 6.00 m below the level of the riverbed, and excavation to a depth of 2.00 m below
bed level is carried out within the cofferdam. The water level within the cofferdam is kept at
excavation level by pumping. If the flow of water into the cofferdam is 0.25 m3/hr per unit
length, what is the coefficient of permeability of the sand (m/s)?

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Lesson 6 | Stresses in Soil

Learning Objectives

At the end of this Lesson, the students will be able to:

• Explain the different stresses experienced by soil.
• Understand the effect of seepage flow to the stresses experienced by soil.
• Solve problems related to stresses in soil.
• Define the importance of soil bearing capacity in foundation design
• Understand concepts in determining soil bearing capacity
• Apply fundamental formulas in computing soil bearing capacity

Course Material

If the unit weight is constant with depth,

𝛔 = 𝛄𝐳
Where:
σ = total vertical stress
γ = unit weight of soil
z = depth under consideration

If the soil is stratified, with different unit weights for each stratum, σ v may be computed
conveniently by summation:
𝛔𝐯 = ∑𝛄 ∙ ∆𝐳

‘Neutral stress’ is defined as the stress carried by the pore water and it is the same in all directions
when, there is static equilibrium since water cannot take static shear stress. This is also called
‘pore water pressure’ and is designated by u. This will be equal to γ w∙z at a depth z below the
water table:
𝐮 = 𝛄𝐰 ∙ 𝐳

‘Effective stress’ is defined as the difference between the total stress and the neutral stress; this
is also referred to as the intergranular pressure and is denoted by:
𝛔′ = 𝛔 − 𝐮

The effective stress has influence in decreasing the void ratio of the soil and in mobilizing the
shear strength, while the neutral stress does not have any influence on the void ratio and is
ineffective in mobilizing the shearing strength.

Thus the ‘Effective Stress Principle’ may be stated as follows:

• The effective stress is equal to the total stress minus the pore pressure.
• The effective stress controls certain aspects of soil behavior, notably compressibility and
shear strength.

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For a situation where the water table is at the ground surface, the conditions of stress at a depth
from the surface will be as follows:

𝛔 = 𝛄𝐬𝐚𝐭 ∙ 𝐳
𝐮 = 𝛄𝐰 ∙ 𝐳

Therefore, the effective stress is:

𝛔′ = 𝐳(𝛄𝐬𝐚𝐭 − 𝛄𝐰 ) = 𝛄′ ∙ 𝐳

Therefore, the effective stress is computed with the value of the buoyant or effective unit weight.

In the case of upward seepage:

If the rate of seepage and thereby the hydraulic gradient gradually are increased, a limiting
condition will be reached, at which point

σ = zγ′ − icr zγw = 0

where icr = critical hydraulic gradient (for zero effective stress)

Under such a situation, soil stability is lost. This situation generally referred to as boiling, or a
quick condition.

Thus,

G +e Gs − 1
( s )
γ′ 1 + e γw − γw γw Gs − 1
icr = = = 1+e =
γw γw γw 1+e

For most soils, the value of icr varies from 0.9 to 1.1, with an average of 1.

On the other hand, the seepage force is express as:

Seepage force = iγw

The height of capillary rise can be express by the formula

C
h= (Hazen, 1930)
eD10
where:
D10 = effective size
e = void ratio
C = a constant varies from 10 to 50 mm 2
The pore water pressure in the zone of capillary rise can be computed by:

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S
u = −( )γ h
100 w
where:
S = degree of saturation, in percent
Sample Problem 1:

A layer of saturated clay 4 m thick is overlain by sand 5 m deep, the water table being 3 m below
the surface. The saturated unit weights of the clay and sand are 19 and 20 kN/m3, respectively;
above the water table the dry unit weight of the sand is 17 kN/m 3. Find the total stress, pore water
pressure, and effective stress at the bottom of the clay layer.

Solution:
1. Total Stress at the bottom of clay layer:
𝜎 = 17(3) + (20)(2) + (19)(4) Sand:
𝝈 = 𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂 Yd = 17 kN/m3
Ysat = 20 kN/m3
2. Pore water stress at the bottom of clay layer:
𝑢 = (9.81)(2) + (9.81)(4) = (9.81)(6)
𝒖 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟖𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂

3. Effective Stress at the bottom of clay layer: Clay:

𝜎 ′ = 17(3) + (20 − 9.81)(2) + (19 − 9.81)(4) Ysat = 19 kN/m3
𝝈′ = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Alternate solution:

𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
𝜎 ′ = 167 − 58.86
𝝈′ = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Sample Problem 2:

Consider the upward flow of water through a layer of sand in a

tank as shown in the figure. For the sand, the following are given:
void ratio (e) = 0.52 and specific gravity of solids = 2.67.
Calculate the effective stress at points A and B. What is the
upward seepage force per unit volume of soil?

Solution:
1. Effective Stress at Point A:
𝜎 = (9.81)(0.7) + (20.59)(1)
𝜎 = 27.46 𝑘𝑃𝑎

For the height of water at point A:

ℎ 1.5 1.5
= ; ℎ= (1)
1 2 2

𝑢 = 9.81[(0.7 + 2) + (ℎ )]

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1.5
𝑢 = 9.81 [(0.7 + 2) + ( ) (1)]
2
𝑢 = 24.03 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
𝜎 ′ = 27.46 − 24.03
𝝈′ = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂

2. Effective Stress at Point B:

𝜎 = (9.81)(0.7) + (20.59)(2)
𝜎 = 48.05 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑢 = 9.81[(0.7 + 2) + 1.5]
𝑢 = 41.20 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
𝜎 ′ = 48.05 − 41.20
𝝈′ = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂

3. Upward Seepage force per unit volume of soil:

𝐺𝑠 − 1 2.67 − 1
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = =
1+𝑒 1 + 0.52
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = 1.10

ℎ 1.5
𝐼= =
ℎ2 2
𝐼 = 0.75

Since the hydraulic gradient is not yet on the critical level, use I=0.75.
𝐼𝛾𝑤 = 0.75 (9.81)
𝑰𝜸𝒘 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑

Activity/Assessment

1. The bottom of the lake consists of soft clay with a thickness of more than 15 m. The average
water content of the clay is 40% and the specific gravity of soils may be assumed to be 2.65.
The depth of the water in the lake is 6 m. Compute the total stress, effective stress, and pore
water stress at a depth of 15 m below the bottom of the lake.

2. A uniform soil deposit has a void ratio 0.6 and specific gravity of 2.65. The natural ground
water is at 2.5 m below natural ground level. Due to capillary moisture, the average degree of
saturation above ground water table is 50%. Determine the total stress, effective stress, and
pore water pressure at a depth of 6 m.

3. A 5-m depth of sand overlies a 6-m thick layer of clay, the water table being at the surface;
the permeability of the clay is very low. The saturated unit weight of the sand is 19 kN/m3 and

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that of the clay is 20 kN/m 3. A 4-m depth of fill material of unit weight 20 kN/m 3 is placed on
the surface over an extensive area. Determine the effective vertical stress at the center of the
clay layer immediately after the fill has been placed, assuming this to take place rapidly and
the effective vertical stress at the center of the clay layer many years after the fill has been
placed.

Academic Integrity
Cheating, plagiarism and other forms of intellectual dishonesty are absolutely prohibited under
the PUP Rules and Regulations. You are covered by these rules. In the events of infractions, you
will be expelled and dishonorably discharged from the University. Please be advised accordingly.

Online Materials:

For Geotechnical Engineering 1 Lecture

[1] https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLzBZ3hmMnx1KUOu8ZQItF7J2Stdo0tjhG

For Geotechnical Engineering 1 Laboratory

[2] https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9gC9b3b4pMvoQ4Sj8imonJgfDW2GxPTF

Stresses in A Soil Mass

A. STRESS CAUSED BY A POINT LOAD

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BOUSSINESQ THEORY FOR A POINT LOAD

WESTERGAARD ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A POINT LOAD

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B. VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A LINE

LOAD

C. VERTICAL STRESS CAUSDE BY A STRIP

LOAD (finite width and infinite slope)

D. VERTICAL STRESS CAUSED BY A

LINEARLY INCREASING LOAD (finite width and infinite length)

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E. VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER

OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED CIRCULAR AREA

F. VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CORNER

OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR AREA

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G. VERTICAL STRESS BELOW THE CENTER OF A RECTANGULAR AREA

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H. INFLUENCE CHART FOR VERTICAL

PRESSURE (NEWMARK’S INFLUENCE CHART)

A. APPROXIMATE METHODS

a. 2:1 Method

b. 60º Approximation

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Sample Problems:
7. A concentrated load of 1650 kN rests on the ground surface at coordinates (0,0,0). Determine
the net stress increase at the following points:
a. Point A – directly below the point load at a depth of 5m
b. Point B – at coordinates (3,4,5)

Use Boussinesq and Westergaard Analysis.

(31.51, 21.12)
(5.57, 3.3)
8. A line load and a point load are resting on the ground level as shown. Calculate for the net
stress increase at point A using Boussinesq Analysis. (3.4)

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9. Refer to the figure below.

Given: q1 = 100kN/m, q2 = 200 kN/m
x1 = 3m, x2 = 3m, z = 3m
Determine the vertical stress increase at point A. (11.46)

10. A 3.0m high embankment is to be constructed as shown. Determine the stress increase at
P1. (49.81)

11. A circular ring type foundation for an overhead tank transmits a contact pressure of 300 kN/m 2
is founded at a depth of 2.5 m. The outer diameter of the footing is 10m and its inside diameter is
6m. Compute the vertical stress on the centerline of the footing due to the imposed load at a depth
of 7.5m below the ground. Neglect the effect of footing depth on the vertical stress. (67.32)
12. The 6m x 9m rectangular foundation shown carries a uniform load of 325 kPa.
a. Compute for the net stress increase at point A. (138.905)
b. Compute for the net stress increase at point B. (85.28)
c. Determine the total vertical at point A if the underlying soil has a unit weight of 17.45
kN/m3. (243.61)

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13. Using Newmark’s Influence chart, solve for the stress increase at point A in problem no. 12.
(140.4)

14. A 4m x 5m rectangular footing resting at ground level carries a uniform load of 550 kPa.
Compute the vertical stress increment at a depth of 8.0m below the ground surface.
a. Use 2:1 Approximation Method (70.51)
b. Use 60̊ Approximation Method (58.36)

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Lesson 7 | Compressibility of Soil

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• Discuss the fundamental principles for estimating the consolidation settlements of soil
layers under superimposed loadings.

Course Materials:
Soil settlement due to loading is divided into three categories.
a. Immediate settlement – caused by the elastic deformation of dry, moist and saturated
soils without any change in the moisture content.
b. Primary consolidation settlement – a result of volume change in saturated cohesive
soils due to the expulsion of water from the voids.
c. Secondary consolidation settlement – result of plastic realignment of soil fabrics
commonly observed in saturated cohesive soil (clay).

Two definitions of clay based on stress history:

a. Normally Consolidated Clay – if the present effective stress is the maximum pressure
that the soil was subjected to in the past.
b. Overconsolidated Clay – if the present effective stress is less than the maximum past
effective stress that the soil has been subjected to.

Notations:
Po = present effective stress (σ’)
Pc = preconsolidation pressure – the maximum past effective stress

SETTLEMENT DUE TO PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION

where:
S = settlement of clay
H = thickness of soil layer
Δe = change in the void ratio after load application

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eo = initial void ratio of soil

For Normally consolidated clays that exhibit a linear e – log P relationship,

where:
Cc = compression index
Cc = slope of the e – log P curve (Virgin
Compression curve)
For Normally consolidated clay:

For Overconsolidated clay:

a. When Po + ΔP < Pc

b. When Po + ΔP > Pc

where:
Cs = swell index
Cs = slope of the Laboratory Rebound curve

COMPRESSION INDEX, Cc:

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SWELL INDEX, Cs:

SETTLEMENT DUE TO SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

where: = eo-Δe
Ss = secondary consolidation settlement H = thickness of clay layer
Cα = secondary compression index t1, t2 = time
ep = void ratio at the end of primary
consolidation

TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

Coefficient of compressibility, av

Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

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Coefficient of consolidation, cv

where:
k = hydraulic conductivity of clay
Time factor, Tv

where:
t = time
Hdr = drainage height
Hdr= H → if one-way drainage
Hdr= H/2 → if two-way drainage
Degree of consolidation, Uz

where:
uo = initial excess pore water pressure
uz = excess pore water pressure at any time t
Average degree of consolidation, U

where:
St = settlement of the clay at time t S = ultimate settlement of the clay from
primary consolidation

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CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT UNDER FOUNDATIONS

where:
ΔPt, ΔPm, ΔPb = are the stress increase at the top, middle and bottom of the clay layer,
respectively.
IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

where:
Si = immediate settlement
p = net pressure applied
B = width of the foundation (diameter of a circular footing)
μ = Poisson’s ratio
E = Modulus of Elasticity of soil
Ip = non dimensional influence factor
m1 = length/width of foundation

TOTAL FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT

ST = S + S s + Si → Eq. 25

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Sample Problems:
1. For a clay layer in the field, the following are given:
H = 7.5’
Po = 0.7 ton/ft²
Po + ΔP = 2.5 ton/ft²
The relationship between e and P (log scale) for the clay is shown below. (5.625 “) e0 = 0.92

Calculate the expected settlement due to primary consolidation.

2. The points on the e vs log P curve for a normally - consolidated clay have the following
coordinates:
Point 1: e1 = 0.7 P1 = 2089 psf
Point 2: e2 = 0.6 P2 = 6266 psf
If the average effective stress at the midheight of the 20’ thick clay layer is 3133 psf, determine
the expected settlement due to primary consolidation for the clay layer if it is subjected to an
induced uniform load of 3340 psf acting on the ground surface. (9.56”)
3. The soil profile shown carries a uniformly distributed load of 75 kPa applied at the ground
surface. Use Cs = 1/5 Cc.
Determine the settlement of the clay layer due to primary consolidation considering the
following cases:
a. The clay is normally consolidated (0.242m)
b. If Pc = 205 kPa (0.0484m)
c. If OCR = 1.6219 (0.0764m)

4. A normally consolidated clay in the field has the following properties:

Compression index = 0.26

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Initial void ratio (eo) = 0.85

Effective stress at the middle of the clay layer = 136 kPa
Average increase in vertical pressure (ΔP) = 45 kPa
Secondary compression index (Cα) = 0.02
Thickness of the clay layer = 3.10 m
a. Solve for the expected settlement due to primary consolidation (0.054m)
b. Solve for the secondary consolidation settlement after 6 years assuming that the primary
consolidation settlement is completed after 2 years. (0.054m)
c. What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay layer after 6 years? (0.108m)

5. Laboratory tests on a 25mm thick clay specimen drained on top and bottom show that
50% consolidation takes place in 10.8 min.
a. How long will take for a similar clay layer in the field, 4 m thick and drained at the top only,
to reach 50% consolidation? (768 days)
b. Find the time required for the same clay layer in the field to reach 70% consolidation.
(1571.15 d)

6. A normally consolidated clay layer is 4m thick and is drained on one side only. From the
application of a given pressure, the expected consolidation settlement is 80mm.
a. What is the average degree of consolidation for the clay layer when the observed
settlement is 30mm? (37.5%)
b. If the average value of the coefficient of consolidation is 0.033cm 2/sec, how long will it
take for 50% consolidation to occur? (11.055 days)
c. If the clay layer is drained on both sides, how long will it take for 50% consolidation to
occur? (2.76 days)

7. The following are the results of a consolidation tests for a clay sample that drained on the
top and bottom:
P1 = 2000 psf e1 = 0.75
P2 = 4000 psf e2 = 0.71
Thickness of clay sample = 1”
Time it took for 50% consolidation = 5 mins
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the clay for the loading range. (8.22 x 10 -10 ft/sec)

8. For the soil profile shown, calculate the settlement on the clay layer due to primary
consolidation if the footing carries a net pressure equal 200 kN/m² on its bottom.

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A sample of the clay was subjected to Atterberg Limit tests and yielded a water content of
39.706% at 25 blows in the liquid limit device. (0.134 m)

9. What will be the elastic settlement of a 3m square rigid footing resting on a loose sand
layer if the footing carries a load of 711 kN. The Poisson’s ratio of the soil is 0.32 and
the Modulus of Elasticity of the soil is 16,000 kN/m2? (0.0117m)

Lesson 8 | Shear Strength of Soils

The Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:

• To analyze soil stability problems such as bearing capacity, slope capacity, and lateral
pressure on earth retaining structures.

Course Materials:
Shear strength is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil can offer to resist sliding
and failure along any plane inside it.
a. STRESSES ALONG PLANES

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STRESSES ALONG PLANE A – B

From eq. 2, the value of θ that will give a zero (0) shear (τN) is:

Eq. 3 will give two values of θ that are 90º apart -which means that there are 2 planes that
are at right angles with each other within which the shear stress is zero.
➢ These planes are called PRINCIPAL PLANES

MAJOR PRICIPAL STRESS (σ1)

MINOR PRINCIPAL STRESS (σ3)

b. MOHR’s CIRCLE for STRESSES ALONG PLANES

Sign conventions for Mohr’s Circle

1. For Normal stresses (σ):

Compressive stresses →+
Tensile stresses → -

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2. For Shear stresses (τ):

3. All angles from the stress block are multiplied by 2 in the Mohr’s circle

Illustration:
Assume: σy>σx

MOHR’s CIRCLE FOR THE STRESS BLOCK

SHEAR STRENGTH
*Laboratory test for the determination of shear strength parameters
➢ Angle of internal friction, φ
➢ Cohesion

MOHR – COULOMB FAILURE CRITERIA

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Inclination of the Plane of Failure due to Shear

1. DIRECT SHEAR TEST

2. TRIAXIAL TEST

a. CONSOLIDATED – DRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST (CD)

σ = σ’ + u
For CD Test, u = 0 →σ = σ’ (total stress = effective stress)

where:

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σ3 = chamber pressure/all around chamber pressure/chamber confining pressure

(Δσd)f= deviator stress at failure
σ1 = total axial stress at failure
φ = drained friction angle (for normally consolidated clays)
c = cohesion
φ1 = drained friction angle (for overconsolidated clays)

b. CONSOLIDATED – UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST (CU)

σ = σ’ + u
for CU Test, u is not equal to zero.

where:
σ3 = chamber pressure/all around chamber pressure/chamber confining pressure
(Δσd)f= deviator stress at failure
(Δud)f= pore water pressure developed at failure
σ1 = total axial stress at failure
σ’3= effective minor principal stress

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σ’1 = effective major principal stress

φ = drained friction angle (for normally consolidated clays)
φcu= consolidated - undrained angle of shearing resistance (for normally consolidated clays)
c = cohesion
ccu = undrained cohesion
φ1 = drained friction angle (for overconsolidated clays)
φ1(cu)= consolidated - undrained angle of shearing resistance (for overconsolidated clays)

c. UNCONSOLIDATED – UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST (UU)

➢ Also known as the φ = 0̊ condition

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST (UNIAXIAL TEST)

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where:
qu= unconfined compression strength of the soil
Cu = undrained shear strength of the soil

Sample Problems:
1. For the soil stress block shown: b → (308.49,111.51)
a. Solve for the normal and shear stress along plane AB. (253.24,88.49)
b. Solve for the major and minor principal stresses.

2. Given the illustration below:

a. Solve for the shear and normal stress acting along plane AB. (55.57,-5.12)
b. Solve for the value of the major and minor principal stress. (144.72,55.28)
c. Determine the shear and normal stress along the plane 20º clockwise of the major
principal plane. (134.26,-28.75)

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3. The following were obtained from a direct shear test of a clay sample.
Diameter of sample = 67.703 mm
Height of sample = 30 mm

Normal force (N) Shear Force at failure

(N)
342 255.6

540 374.4

Determine the following.

a. angle of internal friction (36.87)
b. cohesion (14)

4. The results of two drained triaxial tests on a saturated clay are as follows:

chamber deviator stress

pressure
Specimen A 70 kPa 176 kPa
Specimen B 108 kPa 240 kPa

Compute the angle of internal friction and the cohesion of the clay sample. (27.2,17.74)

5. The following data were obtained from a consolidated – undrained triaxial compression
test on a clay soil.

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Chamber Pressure 100 250 400

(kPa)
Deviator stress @ failure 320 425 530

Pore pressure @ failure 33.5 53 140

Determine the ff:

a. Undrained cohesion(95.84)
b. Undrained angle of shearing resistance (15.03)
c. Drained cohesion (99.19)
d. Drained angle of shearing resistance (16.67)

6. The undrained friction angle of a normally – consolidated clay is 18, while the drained
angle of internal friction is 28. If the soil sample is subjected to a chamber confining
pressure equal to 104 KPa, determine the ff: (51.45,93)
a. porewater pressure at failure
b. deviator stress at failure

Lesson 9 | Lateral Earth Pressure

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
• Defined lateral earth pressure and its importance in the design of retaining structures
• Apply fundamental formulas in computing at-rest, passive, and active earth pressures

Course Materials:
AT-REST, ACTIVE, AND PASSIVE PRESSURES

AT REST - If the wall is static—that is, if it does not move either to the
right or to the left of its initial position—the soil mass will be in a state of
static equilibrium. In that case, is referred to as the at-rest earth
pressure.

ACTIVE - If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to

the left, then a triangular soil mass, the horizontal effective stress, will
be referred to as active pressure.

PASSIVE - If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position to the right. The
horizontal effective stress at this time will be the so-called passive pressure

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EARTH PRESSURE AT-REST

Coarsed-grained Soil
Normally Consolidated Overconsolidated
(Loosed Sand) (Compacted Sand Backfill)

Clay to Gravel (modified coefficient of earth pressure at rest due to

overconsolidation)

Fined-grained Soil
Normally Consolidated

Overconsolidated (Clays)

Ø = in-situ friction angle

Ø’ = drained friction angle
γd = actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand
γd (min) = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state
OCR = Overconsolidation ratio

Total force per unit length

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EARTH PRESSURE AT-REST FOR PARTIALLY SUBMERGED SOIL

Sample Problem:

Figure shows a 15-ft-high retaining wall. The wall is restrained from yielding. Calculate the lateral
force Po per unit length of the wall. Also, determine the location of the resultant force. Assume
that for sand OCR 2.

RANKINE’S THEORY OF ACTIVE PRESSURE

Coefficient of Rankine’s active earth pressure.

THEORY OF RANKINE’S PASSIVE PRESSURE

Coefficient of Rankines’s Passive Pressure

FRICTIONLESS VERTICAL RETAINING WALL WITH SLOPING BACKFILL

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SLOPE STABILITY
FACTOR OF SAFETY INFINITE SLOPES

Factor of Safety Against Sliding

• No seepage. • With Steady seepage.

• Maximum critical height of slope.

Where:

FS = factor of safety against sliding on the rock surface

γ = unit weight of soil above the rock
H = height of soil above the interface of rock and soil
β = angle that the slope makes with the horizontal
Ø’ = angle of soil friction
c’ = cohesion of soil

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FINITE SLOPES

Critical Height.

Stability number

Note: Stability factor = 1/m

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Sample Problems:

1. An infinite slope (without steady seepage) has shear strength parameters at the interface
of soil and rock as follows:

c = 18 kPa Ø’ = 25 γ = 1900 kg/m3

a) If H = 8m and β = 20˚, find the factor of safety against sliding on the rock surface.
a. a. 1.395 b. 1.657 c. 1.472 d. 1.524
b) If β = 30˚, find the maximum height of cut.
a. a. 10.40m b. 10.60 c. 11.50 d. 11.60
c) If Hcr = 6 m, find the minimum angle β so that the slope is stable.
a. a. 35.30˚ b. 32.60˚ c. 37.50˚ d. 33.20˚

2. A cut is to be made in a soil that has a unit weight of 18.80 kN/m3 with an angle of friction
of 15˚. Cohesion of soil is 30 kPa. Using a factor of safety of 3:

a) Compute the depth of cut if the side of the cut slope will make an angle of 50 degrees with
the horizontal.
b) Compute the slope stability number.
c) If the cut is to be vertical, what would be the depth of the cut?

References and Recommended Readings:

[1] Das, Braja M. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering

[2] https://mathalino.com/reviewer/civil-engineering/geotechnical-engineering
[3] Mitchell, J.K., and Soga, K. (2005) Fundamentals of soil behavior, Third edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-0-471-46302-3
[4] Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., & Fam, M.A. (2001). Soils and Waves: Particulate
Materials Behavior, Characterization and Process Monitoring. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-
49058-6
[5] Powrie, W., Spon Press, 2004, Soil Mechanics – 2nd ed ISBN 0-415-31156-X
[6] A Guide to Soil Mechanics, Bolton, Malcolm,Macmillan Press, 1979. ISBN 0-333-18931-
0
[7] "Built Environment – Routledge". Routledge.com. Retrieved 2017-01-14.
[8] Lambe, T. William & Robert V. Whitman. Soil Mechanics. Wiley, 1991; p. 29. ISBN 978-
0-471-51192-2
[9] Budhu, M. (2011) Soil Mechanics and Foundation 3 rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
ISBN 978-0-470-55684-9

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