SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SEEA3001-POWER GENERATION AND UTILIZATION

UNIT – I CONVENTIONAL POWER PLANTS

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 UNIT I CONVENTIONAL POWER PLANTS

Layout and working of diesel, steam, low and high head power plants-pumped storage plants-
principle of nuclear power generation - types and layouts of nuclear reactors- boiling water
reactor- advanced gas cooled reactor- fast breeder reactor - reactor control - waste disposal.

Layout of diesel engine power plant:

Diesel engine:

Diesel engines or compression ignition engines as they are called are generally classified as two
stroke engine and four stroke engines. In diesel engine, air admitted into the cylinder is
compressed, the compression ratio being 12 to 20. At the end of compression stroke, fuel is
injected. It burns and the burning gases expand and do work on the position. The engine is
directly coupled to the generator. The gases are then exhausted from the cylinder to atmosphere.

Engine starting system:

This includes air compressor and starting air tank. The function of this system is to start the
engine from cold supplying compressed air.

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 Fuel system:

Pump draws diesel from storage tank and supplies it to the small day tank through the filter. Day
tank supplies the daily fuel need of engine. The day tan is usually placed high so that diesel
flowsto engine under gravity.

Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by the fuel injection pump. The fuel
issupplied to the engine according to the load on the plant.

Air intake system:

Air filters are used to remove dust from the incoming air. Air filters may be dry type, which is
made up of felt, wool or cloth. In oil bath type filters, the sir is swept over a bath of oil so
thatdust particles get coated.

Exhaust system:

In the exhaust system, silencer (muffler) is provide to reduce the noise.

Engine cooling system:

The temperature of burning gases in the engine cylinder is the order of 1500 to 2000’C. to keep
the temperature at the reasonable level, water is circulated inside the engine in water jackets
which are passage around the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber etc. hot water leaving the
jacket is sent to heat exchanger. Raw water is made to flow through the heat exchanger, where it
takes up the heat of jacket water. It is then cooled in the cooling tower and recalculates again.

Engine lubrication system:

It includes lubricating oil tank, oil pump and cooler. Lubrication is essential to reduce friction
and wear of engine parts such as cylinder walls and piston. Lubricating oil which gets heated due
to friction of moving parts is cooled before recirculation. The cooling water used in the engine is
used for cooling the lubricant also.

Advantages of diesel power plant:

1. Plant layout is simple. Hence it can be quickly installed and commissioned, while the erection
and starting of a steam power plant or hydro-plant takes a fairly long time.
2. Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads are possible in a very short time.
3. Location of the plant is near the load center.
4. The load operation is easy and requires minimum labors.
5. Efficiency at part loads does not fall so much as that of a steam plant.
6. Fuel handling is easier and no problem of ash disposal exists.
7. The plant is smaller in size than steam power plant for same capacity.
8. Diesel plants operate at high overall efficiency than steam.

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 Applications of diesel power plant

1. Diesel power plant’s is in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacity. They are used as central
station for small or medium power supplies.
2. They can be used as stand-by plants to hydro-electric power plants and steam power plants for
emergency services.
3. They can be used as peak load plants in combinations with thermal or hydro-plants.
4. They are quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely used in transportation
systems such as automobiles, railways, air planes and ships.
5. Now-a-days power cut has become a regular feature for industries. The onlysolution to tide
over this difficulty is to install diesel generating sets.
6. Steam (Thermal) power Plant

A steam power plant, also known as thermal power plant, is using steam as working fluid. Steam
is produced in a boiler using coal as fuel and is used to drive the prime mover, namely, the steam
turbine. In the steam turbine, heat energy is converted into mechanical energy which is used for
generating electric power. Generator is an electro- magnetic device which makes the power
available in the form of electrical energy.

Layout of steam power plant:

The layout of the steam power plant is shown in figure below. It consists of four main
circuits. These are:

Coal and ash circuit.

Airand flue gas circuit

Water and steam circuit and

Cooling water circuit

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Coal and ash circuit:

Coal from the storage yard is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of coal handling
equipment like belt conveyor, bucket elevator, etc., ash resulting from the combustion of coal in
the boiler furnace collects at the back of the boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard through
the ash handling equipment.

Ash disposal :

The Indian coal contains 30% to 40% ash. A power plant of 100MW 20 to 25 tons of hot ash per
hour. Hence sufficient space near the power plant is essential to dispose such large quantities of
ash.

Air and flue gas circuit:

Air is taken from the atmosphere to the air pre heater. Air is heated in the air pre heater by the
heat of flue gas which is passing to the chimney. The hot air is supplied to the furnace of the
boiler.

The flue gases after combustion in the furnace, pass around the boiler tubes. The flue gases then
passes through a dust collector, economizer and pre-heater before being exhausted to the
atmosphere through the chimney. By this method the heat of the flue gases which would have
been wasted otherwise is used effectively. Thus the overall efficiency of the plant is improved.

Air pollution:

The pollution of the surrounding atmosphere is caused by the emission of

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objectable gases and dust through the chimney. The air pollution and smoke cause nuisance to
people surrounding the planet.

Feed water and steam circuit:

The steam generated in the boiler passes through super heater and is supplied to the steam
turbine. Work is done by the expansion of steam in the turbine and the pressure of steam is
reduced. The expanded steam then passes to the condenser, where it is condensed.

The condensate leaving the condenser is first heated in a l.p. water heater by using the steam
taken from the low pressure extraction point of the turbine. Again steam taken from the high
pressure extraction point of the turbine is used for heating the feed water in the H.P water heater.
The hot feed water is passing through the economizer, where it is further heated by means of flue
gases. The feed water which is sufficiently heated by the feed water heaters and economizer is
then fed into the boiler.

Cooling water circuit:

Abundant quantity of water is required for condensing the steam in the condenser. Water
circulating through the condenser may be taken from various sources such as river or lake,
provided adequate water supply is available from the river or lake throughout the year.
If adequate quantity of water is not available at the plant site, the hot water from the condenser is
cooled in the cooling tower or cooling ponds and circulated again.

Advantages of thermal power plants:

1. Initial cost is low compared with hydro-plant.

2. The power plant can be located near load center, so the transmission losses are considerably
reduced.
3. The generation of power is not dependent on the nature’s mercy like hydro plant.
4.The construction and commissioning of thermal plant requires less period of timethan a
hydro plant.

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Hydro Electric Power Station

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water
turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the
difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called
the head. A large pipe (the "penstock") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine.

Pumped-storage

This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between
reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, the excess generation
capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When the demand becomes greater,
water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. Pumped-storage schemes
currently provide the most commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and
improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage is not an energy
source, and appears as a negative number in listings.

Run-of-the-river

Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only
the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply
must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a
significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the- river. In the United States, run of the river
hydropower could potentially provide 60,000 megawatts (80,000,000 hp) (about 13.7% of total
use in 2011 if continuously available).

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Tide

A tidal power station makes use of the daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such
sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be
dispatch able to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro
schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot waterwheels. Tidal
power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around the world.

Sizes, types and capacities of hydroelectric facilities

Large facilities

Large-scale hydroelectric power stations are more commonly seen as the largest power
producing facilities in the world, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more
than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations.

Small

Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small community or
industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to
10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the upper limit of what can be termed small hydro.
This may be stretched to 25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United States. Small-scale
hydroelectricity production grew by 28% during 2008 from 2005, raising the total world small-
hydro capacity to 85 GW. Over 70% of this was in China (65 GW), followed by Japan (3.5 GW),
the United States (3 GW), and India (2 GW).

Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as a

source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated
areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a network, or in areas where there is no national
electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and
civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared
to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on the balance between
stream flow and power production.

Micro

Micro hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100
kW of power. These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or
are sometimes connected to electric power networks. There are many of these installations
around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an economical source
of energy without purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy
systems because in many areas, water flow, and thus available hydro power, is highest in the
winter when solar energy is at a minimum.

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Pico

Pico hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW. It is useful in small,
remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For example, to power one
or two fluorescent light bulbs and a TV or radio for a few homes. Even smaller turbines of 200 -
300W may power a single home in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). A Pico-
hydro setup is typically run-of-the-river, meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert
some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before returning it to the
stream.

Underground

An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of a large
natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. An
underground tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall
built in an underground cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace
taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.

Calculating available power

Advantages

Flexibility

Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very
quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order
of a few minutes. It takes around 60 to 90 seconds to bring a unit from cold start-up to full load;
this is much shorter than for gas turbines or steam plants. Power generation can also be
decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of
hydropower units is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool
or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it serves as backup for non-hydro generators.

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Low power costs

The major advantage of hydroelectricity is elimination of the cost of fuel. The cost of operating a
hydroelectric station is nearly immune to increases in the cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural
gas or coal, and no imports are needed. The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger
than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. Hydroelectric stations have long
economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years. Operating labor cost is also
usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.

Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low
construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has
been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the
construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. Additionally, some data shows that in
most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver a
positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place.

Suitability for industrial applications

While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve
specific industrial enterprises.

Reduced CO2 emissions

Since hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels, they do not directly produce carbon dioxide.
While some carbon dioxide is produced during manufacture and construction of the project, this
is a tiny fraction of the operating emissions of equivalent fossil-fuel electricity generation. One
measurement of greenhouse gas related and other externality comparison between energy
sources can be found in the Extern project by the Paul Scherer Institute and the University of
Stuttgart which was funded by the European Commission. According to that study,
hydroelectricity produces the least amount of greenhouse gases and externality of any energy
source. Coming in second place was wind, third was nuclear energy, and fourth was solar
photovoltaic. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate
climates. The above study was for local energy in Europe; presumably similar conditions prevail
in North America and Northern Asia, which all see a regular, natural freeze/thaw cycle (with
associated seasonal plant decay and regrowth). Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are
found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in tropical regions produce a
larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas.

Other uses of the reservoir

Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports, and
become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common.
Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively

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constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect
people living downstream of the project.

Disadvantages

Ecosystem damage and loss of land

Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of
extensive areas upstream of the dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive
lowland and reverie valley forests, marshland and grasslands. The loss of land is often
exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir.

Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and
downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river
environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can
lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. Since turbine gates are often opened
intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.

Siltation and flow shortage

When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This
has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers
or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity
to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the
dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a
flood and fail. Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy
produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir
therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of
diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric
power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as a result of climate change.

Relocation

Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the
reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had
physically displaced 40-80 million people worldwide.

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Pumped storage plants

The basic principle of PSS is to store energy by pumping water from a low level reservoir
downstream to power house (lower reservoir) into a high-level storage reservoir (upper
reservoir) at times when the demand for power is low and then by utilizing the stored water of
upper reservoir to generate hydroelectric power during the peak load periods.

The reservoir-based hydro power plant generally utilizes the water of the reservoir in a
controlled manner to generate electricity and the water discharged from the turbine is passed to
the tail trace from where it joins to the river. In a pumped storage scheme the water from the tail-
trace is stored in a lower reservoir. During off-peak period, this water is pumped to the upper
reservoir and during peak load hour this water is again used for power generation. Power for
pumping is supplied either by an onsite conventional steam power plant or from remote
generating plant through electric grid. A separate pump can be installed to pump the water from
the lower reservoir. Alternately, the turbine-generator set can be designed to operate as pump
also so that during peak load hour it will function as power generating unit and during pumping it
will act as a pump.
Generally, the later method is utilized in most of the pumped storage schemes.

In other words, the same machine which is reversible is used to generate power utilizing the
potential energy of water stored in the upper reservoir during peak hours of demand and for
pumping back water from the lower reservoir into the upper reservoir during off- peak hours
utilizing surplus power from the grid. The water conductor path is same in both generating and
pumping mode of operation.

When a reversible unit is rotated in one direction, it functions in the usual manner as turbine and
generator. In the reverse direction, it operates as pump and motor. One crucial condition for
installing pumped storage scheme is the availability of cheap off- peak power.

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Advantages of pumped storage plants

The advantages of PSS are gives below

1.The net gain in energy for pumped storage scheme is negative depending on the efficiency of
generator, turbine & pump due to the fact that some energy is lost while pumping & again during
generation. But cost wise the company is not looser as peak- load energy is costlier then off-
peak load. Hence the pumped storage schemes are economilly advantageous because they
convert low-value, low-cost, off-peak energy into high-value, high-cost, on –peak energy.
2. PSSs help in power generation load leveling. There are severe fluctuations in the daily power
consumption patterns and it has become increasingly necessary to optimize the various types of
power
3. Generation in order to achieve the most cost efficient supply of electricity. PSSs can make
this possible by utilizing power from thermal and nuclear plants during off-peak hours to pump
water from lower reservoir to upper reservoir and generate power during peak demand hours.
4. Although there are many methods of storing excess energy, it is the most attractive methodof
storing large amount of energy.
5. It meets the peak demand of the system and improves system reliability. The availability of a
pumped storage plant is much higher than of a thermal or nuclear plant.
6. Due to this, efficiency and economy of thermal power stations are improved. Thermal power
plants cannot run at low loads efficiently. Pumped storage scheme consumes the off-peak power
of thermal power plants making their operation economical.

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7.Hydel power plants can be started and connected to the grid within 5 minutes where as thermal
plant takes four to six hours. So to meet the peak load, pumped storage scheme is best suitable.

Principle of Nuclear Power Generation

Introduction

Nuclear power is universally controversial. Many would say that it is also universally needed. as
an alternative or supplement to power generated by fossil fuels.
The combustion of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, now notorious for the threat of global
warming. Nuclear power plants produce neither carbon dioxide nor oxides of sulfur and nitrogen,
as does the burning of fossil fuels. Thus nuclear power reduces the global production of carbon
dioxide and other pollutants, and helps to alleviate many of the pervasive problems of fossil fuel
supply.
Petroleum is least available in regions of widest use; natural gas is, for the time being, plentiful
and sought after by all; and widely abundant coal has come to be regarded as the great Satanof
air pollution. Water power is important, but it offers limited possibility for growth. Solar energy,
while promising, is far from being mainstay of the world’s energy supply. Thus sources other
than fossil fuels and nuclear power offer little hope to become major suppliers during our
lifetimes. Nuclear power, in stasis for many years, may make a comeback.

Atoms and Molecules

Somewhat more than a hundred elements are known and are thought to be the building blocks of
everything in the universe. The atom is the basic unit of structure for each element. An important
connection between the microscopic world of the atom and the macroscopic world of experience
is given by Avogadro’s number. A gram-mole of any element has Avogadro’s number (6.023 x
1023) of atoms.

The atom may be considered as consisting of a positively charged nucleus at itscenter and one
or more negative charges around the nucleus called electrons that make the atom electrically
neutral. The electron is the fundamental unit of negative charge. It may be viewed as a particle
which is much smaller than the nucleus and which orbits around the nucleus as a planet orbits
the sun, or it may be viewed as a diffuse electron cloud around the nucleus. Still another concept
is that of a particle whose location isnot known but which is more likely to be in some places
than others, its position being given by a probability distribution. We will not concern ourselves
with the rationalesfor these views. Thus atoms consist of nuclei surrounded by electrons. The
sizes of atoms are conveniently measured in Angstroms (10-8 cm). The nucleus typically is of
the order of10 .5 Angstroms. Thus the volume of the atom is largely due to the size of the outer
electron’s orbit or to the atom’s electron cloud.

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Molecules are collections of atoms held together by electromagnetic forces between the nuclei
and the electrons. Atoms and molecules can exist in a variety of energy states associated with
their electron distributions. These microscopic states and their macroscopic influences are dealt
with theoretically in the fields of quantum mechanics and statistical thermodynamics. Molecules
and atoms can interact with each other to form different molecules in ways that are controlled by
their electron structures. These interactions, called chemical reactions, have little to do with the
nucleus. The magnitudes of the energy associated with these chemical changes, while of great
importance in thermal engineer-ing, are so small that they have no significant influence on the
nuclei of the reacting atoms. Thus the nuclei may be thought of as merely going along for the
ride when a chemical reaction occurs. An electrically neutral particle, however, can penetrate an
atom’s electromagnetic field and approach the nucleus, where it interacts via short range but
powerful nuclear forces. Then the electrical forces holding the nucleus together may be
overcome, resulting in changes in the nucleus. In these cases the inter atomic forces are largely
irrelevant and are overpowered by nuclear events.

The Nucleus

The nucleus, for our purposes, may be thought of as being made up of integral numbers of
protons and neutrons. The proton is a particle with a positive charge of the same magnitude as
that of the electron, so that pairing a proton with an electron produces exact electrical neutrality.
Thus protons account for the charge of the nucleus, and a like number of electrons ensures the
electrical neutrality of the atom. Compared with the electron, the proton is a massive particle,
having a mass which is about 1800 times the mass of the electron. Thus the hydrogen atom,
which consists of one proton in the nucleus and a single electron in orbit around the nucleus, is
electronically neutral and has a mass only slightly larger than that of the nucleus.

Atoms larger than the hydrogen atom have more than one proton in the nucleus and have oneor
more neutrons as well. A neutron, as the name suggests, is an electrically neutral particle with a
mass only slightly larger than that of the proton. As components of the nucleus, protons and
neutrons are called nucleons, and are thought of inter changeably with respect to mass because
their masses differ so little from each other. The number of protons in an atom of an element is
called the atomic number of the element. Thus hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. The atomic
number of a given element is unique to that element. Thus we could identify the elements by
their atomic numbers rather than by their names if we wished. Elements are ordered in the
periodic table in part by their atomic numbers.

The mass number of an element is the number of nucleons in an atom of that element and is
therefore the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Atoms of a given
element that have differing mass numbers are called isotopes of the element. A given isotope of
an element is sometimes designated by a notation that includes the lament’s chemical symbol, its
mass number, and its atomic number. For example, the most common isotope of uranium is
denoted as 92U238, where 92 is the atomic number of

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the element uranium and 238 is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the isotope
nucleus. The isotopes are also sometimes simply identified by their name or symbol and mass
number, such as U-235 or Uranium-235. Other significant examples are the isotopes of
hydrogen, deuterium, 1H2, and tritium, 1H3, which have, respectively, one and two neutrons
accompanying the proton. These isotopes are sometimes written 1D2 and 1T3 to reflect their
commonly used names. The form of water, H2O, in which the isotope deuterium replaces
hydrogen, is commonly called heavy water, D2O, because of the added mass of the extra neutron
in each nucleus. It will be seen later that heavy water has characteristics that are advantageous in
some nuclear processes.

Nuclear Reactions

Just as chemical fuels undergo chemical reactions that release energy, nuclei may also
participate in energy-releasing nuclear reactions. When this happens atoms of erecting elements
are converted to atoms of other elements, the sort of transmutation sought by the alchemists of
the past.

Fission and Fusion

The process known as nuclear fusion occurs in nature in the stars, including our own sun. Since
the Second World War, scientists have been attempting to achieve conditions for fusion in the
laboratory. Because it can use heavy water from the sea as a fuel, controlled thermonuclear
fusion offers the hope of vast quantities of power for many centuries in the future.

Fusion occurs when light atoms interact to form a heavier atom in reactions such as
1D2 + 1D2 _ 2He3 + 0n1 + 3.2 MEV.
Here, two deuterium atoms collide to form helium-3 and a neutron while releasing 3.2 MEV of
energy. Other fusion reactions exist that provide comparable amounts of energy. Using precise
atomic masses measured with mass spectrometers, we can determine the differences of the
masses of the reactants and products in this reaction. Application of the Einstein relation to the
mass loss yields the same energy release (in this case 3.2 MEV) as is obtained by energy
measurements. Thus the energy yield of known nuclear reactions may be determined with only
mass measurements. For over fifty years, researchers have pursued the goal of achieving
controlled Thermo nuclear fusion on a scale suited for commercial power production. Since
there act ants are two positively charged nuclei, they must have high kinetic energies to
overcome their mutual repulsion. These high energies imply a gaseous state with enormously
high temperature, a condition known as a plasma. Because solid materials cannot exist at plasma
conditions and plasmas would be cooled by the presence of solids, magnetic confinement of
plasmas has been one approach to achieving thermonuclear plasma. Large experimental devices
called Stellerators, Tokomaks, and mirror machines have been built to help solve the problems
inherent in achieving large scale fusion reactions and in stably confining the associated
thermonuclear plasma.

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While progress continues, controlled thermonuclear fusion remains, and will likely continue, in
the research stage for many years. It will therefore not be considered further here. Whereas
nuclear fusion annihilates mass by forming larger atoms from light atoms; fission is a process of
breaking massive atoms into two large, more-or-less equal-sized atoms, with an accompanying
mass loss and energy release. While controlled fusion remains elusive, nuclear fission has been
producing electrical power on a commercial scale for decades. The remainder of this chapter
therefore deals with the fundamentals and commercial use of nuclear fission.

Fundamentals of Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission involves the breakup of certain massive elements resulting from collisions with
neutrons. Uranium U-235, for instance, the isotope of uranium with 235nucleons, forms an
highly excited isotope with 236 nucleons upon capture of a neutron,

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These excited U-236 atoms are unstable and break up into a variety of pairs of large atoms
shortly after they are created. The many such fissions occurring in a reactor may be expressed as
an average reaction:

92U235 + 0n1 _ 92U236_ F1 + F2 + 2.47 0n1 + 203 MEV

92U235 + 0n1 _ 92U236 _ 54Xe139 + 38Sr95 + 2 0n1 + energy

U-235 reactions exemplified by the Xe-Sr reaction create diverse fission fragments and small
integral numbers of neutrons that average to 2.47 and release energies that average to 203 MEV.
Over 80% of the 203 MEV of energy released by the average U- 235 fission reaction is the
kinetic energy of the fission fragments associated with their large mass and high velocity.
Because of their high energy, the fission fragments become ionized and ionize nearby atoms as
they tear their way through surrounding materials. The fission fragments, however, travel only a
very short distance, for interactions cause them to lose much of their energy to the surrounding
solid. Thus most of the fission energy appears immediately as internal energy and therefore
locally high temperature of the surrounding materials. It is, therefore, necessary that the fuel be
cooled continuously to counter the fission heat generation to avoid temperature buildup and
possible melting. The heated coolant is then provides the energy input for thermodynamic
(usually steam) cycle.

As the fission fragments come to rest, their presence changes the character of the reactor
materials. Non-fissionable material exists where fissionable and other atoms once resided. In time
these materials may decay radioactively, forming still different substances and releasing
additional heat. But, importantly, they absorb neutrons without offering the possibility of fission.
Thus the fission fragments are said to poison the reactor.

Nuclear Fuels

Uranium-235 is the only material that is both fissionable by thermal neutrons and found in nature
in sufficient abundance for power production. Other fissile fuels are uranium-233 and plutonium-
239 which are created from thorium-232 and uranium-238, respectively, by absorption of
neutrons. Substances from which fissionable fuels are created, called fertile fuels, are transmuted
into fissionable fuels in a reactor by extra neutrons not needed to sustain the fission chain
reaction. Fertile fuel used in this way is said to have been converted. The resulting fissile
materials may be processed to make new fuel elements when sufficient quantities have
accumulated. Some of the converted material may be consumed directly by fissions during
reactor operation. The composition of uranium ore is about 99.3% U-238 and 0.7% U-235.
Because of the ore’s small percentage of U-235, it is difficult to design a water-cooled, thermal
reactor that uses natural uranium. Therefore the power reactors in the United States and most
other parts of the world are thermal reactors that employ uranium enriched to between 2% and
5% U-235. Such reactors use ordinary (light) water for both cooling and moderation and are
therefore commonly called light-water reactors.

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Uranium enrichment is an expensive and difficult process because it involves separation of two
isotopes of the same element, which rules out most chemical methods. Thus processes that rely
on the small mass difference between U-235 andU-238 are usually used. The gaseous diffusion
process involves conversion of uranium compound processed from the ore to gaseous uranium
hexafluoride, UF6. The gaseous UF6 flows in hundreds of stages of diffusion through porous
walls that eventually produce separate UF6 gas flows containing enriched and depleted uranium.
The enriched UF6 then is processed to UO2 powder which is sintered into hard ceramic fuel
pellets .The pellets are sealed in long cylindrical metal tubes for use in the reactor.

Newer enrichment processes currently available or under development includes: high speed
centrifugal separation; which also relies on the uranium isotopic mass difference; a separation
process that relies on differences in chemical reactivity between the isotopes; and laser
enrichment, which relies on ionization of uranium by an intense light beam with subsequent
chemical or physical separation of the ions.

The CANDU Reactor

The Canadian Deuterium Uranium, CANDU, reactor is a reactor of unique design that utilizes
natural uranium as a fuel and heavy water as a moderator and coolant. These reactors produce a
substantial saving due to the absence of fuel enrichment costs, but a large chemical plant is
required to supply the quantities of heavy water required.

One of the important and unique features of the CANDU reactor is that, where as light- water
reactors are shut down for refueling annually, CANDU reactors are refueled daily. The
pressurized heavy-water-cooled fuel bundles are horizon-tally oriented in individual fuel
channels inside the unpressurized "calandria,". Each bundle may be individually accessed,
rearranged in the calandria, or replaced using special fuel handling equipment while the reactor
is operating. Heavy water at atmospheric pressure in the calandria surrounds the fuel channels
and moderates the reactor. Thus, in an emergency, the reactor can be shut down by draining the
calandria to remove the moderator, thereby depriving the fuel of thermal neutrons. The
pressurized heavy-water loop draws hot coolant from the fuel channels through headers to supply
heat to steam generators as in a PWR. A light water loop passing through the steam generator in
turn supplies steam to the turbine-feed water loop.

In the event of an emergency, escaping steam and radioactive materials would be drawn by
vacuum into the structure. A coldwater spray would condense the steam to limit any pressure
buildup. The thermal efficiency of a CANDU reactor plant is only about 29%, but the CANDU
reactor uses a larger fraction of U-235 in uranium ore than other exactors and also makes better
use of the U-238 to Pu-239 conversion process to extend fuel burn up.

20
Moreover, statistics show that, among large reactors, CANDU reactors have outstanding
reliability records, with annual capacity factors (the ratio of annual electrical energy output to
maximum possible annual output) as high as 96% and cumulative capacity factors as high as
88%.

Fast Reactors

Reactors may be designed to fission with fast neutrons, but these fast reactors must be more
compact than thermal reactors so that the fast neutrons may produce fissions quickly before they
are absorbed or moderated by surrounding materials. They are designed with structural materials
that are poor absorbers and moderators of neutrons, such as stainless steel. The core of a fast
reactor must contain a fissionable fuel of about 20% enrichment to compensate for the lowered
probability of fashioning with high-energy neutrons. Because of their high fuel density, fast
reactors have a high power density that poses a difficult cooling problem. One solution is the use
of a liquid metal as coolant. Liquid metals such as sodium and potassium have excellent heat
transfer characteristics and do not interfere significantly with neutron functions.

21
The choice of fuel used for thermal and fast reactors depends on the fuel’s fission Probability and
the net number of neutrons produced per neutron absorbed. Cost- effective for thermal reactors is
U-235, whereas Pu-239 is most suitable for fast reactors. In fashioning with fast neutrons, Pu-
239 emits almost 20% more neutrons than does U-235. These additional neutrons are extremely
important for making breeding practical, as will be discussed shortly. Because Pu- 239 must be
created from fertileU- 238, a plutonium reactor can use fuel processed from fuel produced in a
uranium thermal reactor or in another plutonium reactor. This would occur in the core of a
plutonium fast reactor and in a blanket of U-238 surrounding the core, where additional
plutonium is created using neutrons that escape from the core.

Note that each fission must produce a minimum of two neutrons for this reaction to continue. As
a practical matter, more than two turns are required for complete replacement because of non-
productive neutron captures’ reactor that transmutes a fertile fuel to a fissionable fuel is called a
converter. The conversion efficiency is the ratio of the number of new fissionable atoms
produced to the number of atoms consumed in the fission.

Power reactors active in the United States today are light-water reactors. They are designed so
that the core is both moderated and cooled by highly purified water and therefore must use a
fuel that fissions with thermal neutrons. Water has many advantages in thermal reactors. Froma
neutron point of view, H2O is an extremely efficient moderator. As we know from its extensive
use in conventional power plants, water has excellent heat transfer characteristics, and the
technologies of its use in steam power plants are well established. Water has disadvantages as
well. To maintain its excellent moderation and heat transfer capabilities, it must remain a liquid.
Thus water reactors are currently limited to producing hot liquid or steam with little superheat.
Moreover, boiling temperatures suited to an efficient plant require very high pressures, as in
fossil fuel plants. Thus water-cooled reactor cores must be encased in pressure vessels that
operate with high temperatures nearby. In addition, they must endure, for the design life of the
plant, the severe environment resulting from the fission reactions.

22
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, should reactor pressure integrity be lost while the reactor
is operating, the liquid water will flash to steam, losing much of its heat transfer advantages. All
of these factors contribute significantly to the challenges that an engineer faces in the thermal
and mechanical design of light-water reactors.

There are two major types of light water reactors which are differentiated primarily by the
thermodynamic conditions of the water used to cool uranium fuel elements in the reactor vessel.
The boiling water reactor (BWR) operates at a pressure that allows boiling of the coolant water
adjacent to the fuel elements. The water in the pressurized water reactor (PWR) is at about the
same temperature as in the BWR but is at a higher pressure, so that the reactor coolant remains a
liquid throughout the reactor coolant loop. In addition to their use in utility power reactors,
PWRs are used in American nuclear submarines.

Boiling water reactor

Water boils inside the reactor core, producing slightly radioactive steam that passes directly to
the steam turbines. The radioactivity in the steam, however, has a half-life of only a few
seconds. The carryover of radioactivity to the turbine-feed water system is virtually nonexistent,
and experience has shown that components outside the reactor vessel (turbine, condensate pump,
etc.) may be serviced essentially as in a fossil-fueled system. Some other reactor designs, such as
the pressurized water reactor to be considered later, have an additional separate water loop, that
isolates the turbine steam loop from the reactor coolant to provide further assurance that the
turbine-feed water system components remain free of radioactivity.

23
Pressurized Water Reactors

The pressurized water reactor, PWR, is currently the predominant reactor type in the world. It is
a light-water reactor that uses slightly enriched U-235 as fuel. A major difference between
BWRs and PWRs is that the pressure of the PWR coolant is above the saturation pressure (it is
sub cooled liquid) through the entire cooling loop so that there is no possibility of bulk boiling in
the core. Another difference is that control rods are at the top of the PWR and can drop by
gravity into the reactor when necessary. The stairs and landings give some idea of the size of the
equipment within the containment.

24
Advanced gas cooled reactor

In gas cooled reactor, gas is used as a coolant and graphite is used as a moderator.

25
Fast breeder reactor

The breeder reactor is of great importance because it would allow the use of the store of U-238 in
uranium ore that remains as a by-product of the U-235enrichment process to provide fuel for
current LWRs. This supply of U-238 has the potential to provide fuel for many years without
further uranium mining. Fission ofU-235 is currently the only natural large-scale source of
neutrons. The continued use of low-conversion- efficiency reactors could preclude the eventual
use of much of the energy resource of the U-238 in uranium ore.
One possibility for the design of a breeder reactor is a liquid-metal fast breeder reactor, LMFBR,
which has the characteristics described briefly in the preceding section. The development of such
a reactor involves careful design of its neutron economy and the development of a system of fuel
reprocessing and nuclear waste storage. These topics will be considered in the next section.

Reactor control

A nuclear reactor is a system that contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions.
Reactors are used for generating electricity, moving aircraft carriers and submarines, producing
medical isotopes for imaging and cancer treatment, and for conducting research.

Fuel, made up of heavy atoms that split when they absorb neutrons, is placed into the reactor
vessel (basically a large tank) along with a small neutron source. The neutrons start a chain
reaction where each atom that splits releases more neutrons that cause other atoms to split. Each
time an atom splits, it releases large amounts of energy in the form of heat. The heat is carried
out of the reactor by coolant, which is most commonly just plain water. The coolant heats up and
goes off to a turbine to spin a generator or drive shaft.

A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a
sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity
generation and in propulsion of ships. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid
(water or gas), which runs through turbines. These either drive a ship's propellers or turn
electrical generators. Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat
or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use,
or for production of weapons-grade plutonium. Some are run only for research.

Mechanism

A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-
moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. Though both reactors and nuclear
weapons rely on nuclear chain-reactions, the rate of reactions in a reactor

26
Occurs much more slowly than in a bomb. Just as conventional power-stations generate
electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear reactors
convert the energy released by controlled nuclear fission into thermal energy for further
conversion to mechanical or electrical forms.

Fission

When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it
may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the
fission products), releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of
these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events,
which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction.

To control such a nuclear chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the
portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have
automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe
conditions.

Commonly-used moderators include regular (light) water (in 74.8% of the world's reactors),
solid graphite (20% of reactors) and heavy water (5% of reactors). Some experimental types of
reactor have used beryllium, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility.

Heat generation

The reactor core generates heat in a number of ways:

 The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei
collide with nearby atoms.
 The reactor absorbs some of the gamma rays produced during fission and converts their
energy into heat.
 Heat is produced by the radioactive decay of fission products and materials that have
been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat-source will remain for some time
even after the reactor is shut down.

A kilogram of uranium-235 (U-235) converted via nuclear processes releases approximately

three million times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally (7.2 × 1013
joulesper kilogram of uranium-235 versus 2.4 × 107 joules per kilogram of coal).

Cooling

A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water but sometimes a gas or a liquid metal (like liquid
sodium) or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates.
The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate

27
steam. Most reactor systems employ a cooling system that is physically separated from the water
that will be boiled to produce pressurized steam for the turbines, like the pressurized water
reactor. However, in some reactors the water for the steam turbines is boiled directly by the
reactor core; for example the boiling water reactor.

Reactivity control

The power output of the reactor is adjusted by controlling how many neutrons are able to create
more fission.

Control rods that are made of a neutron poison are used to absorb neutrons. Absorbing more
neutrons in a control rod means that there are fewer neutrons available to cause fission, so
pushing the control rod deeper into the reactor will reduce its power output, and extracting the
control rod will increase it.

At the first level of control in all nuclear reactors, a process of delayed neutron emission by a
number of neutron-rich fission isotopes is an important physical process. These delayed neutrons
account for about 0.65% of the total neutrons produced in fission, with the remainder (termed
"prompt neutrons") released immediately upon fission. The fission products which produce
delayed neutrons have half lives for their decay by neutron emission that range from
milliseconds to as long as several minutes, and so considerable time is required to determine
exactly when a reactor reaches the critical point. Keeping the reactor in the zone of chain-
reactivity where delayed neutrons are necessary to achieve a critical mass state allows
mechanical devices or human operators to control a chain reaction in "real time"; otherwise the
time between achievement of criticality and nuclear meltdown as a result of an exponential
power surge from the normal nuclear chain reaction, would be too short to allow for intervention.
This last stage, where delayed neutrons are no longer required to maintain criticality, is known
as the prompt critical point. In some reactors, the coolant also acts as a neutron moderator. A
moderator increases the power of the reactor by causing the fast neutrons that are released from
fission to lose energy and become thermal neutrons. Thermal neutrons are more likely than fast
neutrons to cause fission. If the coolant is a moderator, then temperature changes can affect the
density of the coolant/moderator and therefore change power output. A higher temperature
coolant would be less dense, and therefore a less effective moderator.

In other reactors the coolant acts as a poison by absorbing neutrons in the same way that the
control rods do. In these reactors power output can be increased by heating the coolant, which
makes it a less dense poison. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to
scram the reactor in an emergency shutdown. Most types of reactors are sensitive to a process
variously known as xenon poisoning, or the iodine pit. The common fission product Xenon-135
produced in the fission process acts as a "neutron poison" that absorbs neutrons and therefore
tends to shut the reactor down. Xenon-135 accumulation can be controlled by keeping power
levels high enough to destroy it by neutron absorption as fast as it is produced. Reactors used in
nuclear marine propulsion (especially nuclear submarines) often cannot be run at continuous

28
power around the clock in the same way that land-based power reactors are normally run, and in
addition often need to have a very long core life without refueling. For this reason many designs
use highly enriched uranium but incorporate burnable neutron poison in the fuel rods.

Waste disposal

Radioactive Waste Management

 Nuclear power is the only large-scale energy-producing technology which takes full
responsibility for all its wastes and fully costs this into the product.
 The amount of radioactive wastes is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel
electricity generation.
 Used nuclear fuel may be treated as a resource or simply as a waste.
 Nuclear wastes are neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other
toxic industrial wastes.
 Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically
proven;the international consensus is that this should be geological disposal.

All parts of the nuclear fuel cycle produce some radioactive waste (radiate) and the relatively
modest cost of managing and disposing of this is part of the electricity cost,
i.e. it is internalized and paid for by the electricity consumers.

At each stage of the fuel cycle there are proven technologies to dispose of the radioactive wastes
safely. For low- and intermediate-level wastes these are mostly being implemented. For high-
level wastes some countries await the accumulation of enough of it to warrant building
geological repositories; others, such as the USA, have encountered political delays.

Unlike other industrial wastes, the level of hazard of all nuclear waste – its radioactivity
– diminishes with time. Each radionuclide contained in the waste has a half-life – the time taken
for half of its atoms to decay and thus for it to lose half of its radioactivity. Radionuclide with
long half-lives tend to be alpha and beta emitters – making their handling easier – while those
with short half-lives tend to emit the more penetrating gamma rays. Eventually all radioactive
wastes decay into non-radioactive elements. The more radioactive an isotope is, the faster it
decays.

The main objective in managing and disposing of radioactive (or other) waste is to protect
people and the environment. This means isolating or diluting the waste so that the rate or
concentration of any radionuclide returned to the biosphere is harmless. To achieve this,
practically all wastes are contained and managed – some clearly need deep and permanent burial.
From nuclear power generation, none is allowed to cause harmful pollution.

29
All toxic wastes need to be dealt with safely, not just radioactive wastes. In countries with
nuclear power, radioactive wastes comprise less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes (the
balance of which remains hazardous indefinitely).

Types of radioactive waste

Exempt waste & very low level waste

Exempt waste and very low level waste (VLLW) contains radioactive materials at a level
which is not considered harmful to people or the surrounding environment. It consists mainly of
demolished material (such as concrete, plaster, bricks, metal, valves, piping etc) produced during
rehabilitation or dismantling operations on nuclear industrial sites. Other industries, such as food
processing, chemical, steel etc also produce VLLW as a result of the concentration of natural
radioactivity present in certain minerals used in their manufacturing processes (see also
information page on Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials). The waste is therefore
disposed of with domestic refuse, although countries such as France are currently developing
facilities to store VLLW in specifically designed VLLW disposal facilities.

Low-level waste

Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel
cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, and filters etc, which contain small amounts of
mostly short-lived radioactivity. It does not require shielding during handling and transport and
is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated
before disposal. It comprises some 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste.

Intermediate-level waste

Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some requires
shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sledges and metal fuel cladding, as well as
contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. Smaller items and any non-solids may
be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. It makes up some 7% of the volume and has
4% of the radioactivity of all radiate. By definition, its radioactive decay generates heat of less
than about 2 kW/m3 so does not require heating to be taken into account in design of storage or
disposal facilities.

High-level waste

High-level waste (HLW) arises from the 'burning' of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor. HLW
contains the fission products and Trans uremic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly
radioactive and hot due to decay heat, so requires cooling and shielding. It has thermal power
above about 2 kW/m3 and can be considered as the 'ash' from 'burning' uranium. HLW accounts
for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of electricity generation. There are
two distinct kinds of HLW:

30
  Used fuel itself.
 Separated waste from reprocessing the used fuel (as described in section on Managing
HLW from used fuel below).

HLW has both long-lived and short-lived components, depending on the length of time it will
take for the radioactivity of particular radionuclide to decrease to levels that are considered no
longer hazardous for people and the surrounding environment. If generally short-lived fission
products can be separated from long-lived actinides, this distinction becomes important in
management and disposal of HLW.

HLW is a major focus of attention regarding nuclear power, and the industry has proposed that
any option for the management of used nuclear fuel is sustainable if:

It covers all the steps of used fuel management until final disposal, in accordance with an
acceptable, practical plan.

It proves to be feasible with an acceptable impact level by meeting defined key criteria. It

includes a realistic and balanced financing plan.

It does not impose undue burdens on future generations.

Mining and milling

Traditional uranium mining generates fine sandy tailings, which contain virtually all the
naturally occurring radioactive elements naturally found in uranium ore. These are collected in
engineered tailings dams and finally covered with a layer of clay and rock to inhibit the leakage
of radon gas and ensure long-term stability. In the short term, the tailings material is often
covered with water. After a few months, the tailings material contains about 75% of the
radioactivity of the original ore. Strictly speaking these are not classified as radioactive wastes.

Conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication

Uranium oxide concentrate from mining, essentially 'yellowcake' (U3O8), is not significantly
radioactive – barely more so than the granite used in buildings. It is refined then converted to
uranium hexafluoride gas (UF6). As a gas, it undergoes enrichment to increase the U-235 content
from 0.7% to about 3.5%. It is then turned into a hard ceramic oxide (UO2) for assembly as
reactor fuel elements.

The main byproduct of enrichment is depleted uranium (DU), principally the U-238 isotope,
which is stored either as UF6 or U3O8. About 1.2 million tones of DU is now stored. Some is
used in applications where its extremely high density makes it valuable, such as the keels of
yachts and military projectiles. It is also used (with reprocessed plutonium) for making mixed
oxide fuel and to dilute highly-enriched uranium from dismantled weapons which are now being
used for reactor fuel (see pages on Uranium and Depleted Uranium and Military Warheads as a
Source of Nuclear Fuel).
31
 Questions
Part – A

1. State the two main applications of a diesel power plant?

2. What type of turbine is used in the thermal station?
3. What is an economiser?
4. What are the equipments which are helpful in improving the efficiency of steam plants?
5. What is spillway and penstock in hydrostation?
6. List out the factors to be considered in the selection of site for hydro-projects.
7. What is a pumped storage plant? What is its utility?
8. Name the parts of a nuclear plant.
9. How are nuclear reactors classified?
10. How are nuclear reactors controlled?
11. What is the necessity of moderator?
12. Give any two advantages of nuclear power plants.

Part-B

1. Draw the schematic diagram of a diesel power plant and explain each component.
2. a. Give the classification of hydro plants depending on the head of operation.
b. Describe one type of hydro-plant with relevant diagram.
3. Draw the schematic diagram of a steam power station and explain each component.
4. a). Discuss the various types of turbines used in steam power generation.
b). Write short notes on pumped storage plant & discuss the economy of it.
5. Describe briefly the different types of nuclear reactors used for generating electricity
commercially.

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. C.L.Wadhwa, “Generation, Distribution & Utilisation of Electrical Energy”, New Age

International Publishers, New Delhi, Reprint 2016.
2. Uppal.S.L. “Electrical Power”, Khanna Publishers, 9th Edition, 2001.
3.Leonard L.Grigsby, ”Electric power generation, transmission and Distribution”, CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis Group, 2012.
4. S.Sivanagaraju, M.Balasubba Reddy and D.Srilatha, ”Electric Energy-Generation, Utilization and
Conservation” Pearson, 2012.

32
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SEEA3001-POWER GENERATION AND UTILIZATION

UNIT – II ECONOMICS OF GENERATION

1
 UNIT II-ECONOMICS OF GENERATION

Introduction-Definitions-Load Duration Curve-Number and size of Generator Units-Base Load

and Peak Load Plants-Cost of Electrical Energy-Fixed cost-Running Cost of Energy-Tariff or
Charge to Consumer.

Introduction

The function of a power station is to deliver power to a large number of consumers. However,
the power demands of different consumers vary in accordance with their activities. The result of
this variation in demand is that load on a power station is never constant, rather it varies from
time to time. Most of the complexities of modern power plant operation arise from the inherent
variability of the load demanded by the users. Unfortunately, electrical power cannot be stored
and, therefore, the power station must produce power as and when demanded to meet the
requirements of the consumers. On one hand, the power engineer would like that the alternators
in the power station should run at their rated capacity for maximum efficiency and on the other
hand, the demands of the consumers have wide variations. This makes the design of a power
station highly complex. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the problems of variable
load on power station.

Variable Load on Power Station

The load on a power station varies from time to time due to uncertain demands of the consumers
and is known as variable load on the station.

A power station is designed to meet the load requirements of the consumers. An ideal load on the
station, from stand point of equipment needed and operating routine, would be one of constant
magnitude and steady duration. However, such a steady load on the station is never realised in
actual practice. The consumers require their small or large block of power in accordance with the
demands of their activities. Thus the load demand of one consumer at any time may be different
from that of the other consumer. The result is that load on the power station varies from time to
time.

Effects of variable load

The variable load on a power station introduces many perplexities in its operation. Some of the
important effects of variable load on a power station are :

(i) Need of additional equipment.

The variable load on a power station necessitates to have additional equipment. By way of
illustration, consider a steam power station. Air, coal and water are the raw materials for this
plant. In order to produce variable power, the supply of these materials will be required to be
varied correspondingly. For instance, if the power demand on the plant increases, it must be
followed by the increased flow of coal, air and water to the boiler in order to meet the increased
demand. Therefore, additional equipment has to be installed to accomplish this job. As a matter
of fact, in a modern power plant, there is much equipment devoted entirely to adjust the rates of
supply of raw materials in accordance with the power demand made on the plant.

(ii) Increase in production cost.

2
 The variable load on the plant increases the cost of the production of electrical energy. An
alternator operates at maximum efficiency near its rated capacity. If a single alternator is used,
it will have poor efficiency during periods of light loads on the plant. Therefore, in actual
practice, a number of alternators of different capacities are installed so that most of the
alternators can be operated at nearly full load capacity. However, the use of a number of
generating units increases the initial cost per kW of the plant capacity as well as floor area
required. This leads to the increase in production cost of energy

Load Curves

The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to (w.r.t) time is
known as a load curve.

The load on a power station is never constant; it varies from time to time. These load
variations during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are
plotted against time on the graph. The curve thus obtained is known as daily load curve as it
shows the variations of load w.r.t. time during the day. It is clear that load on the power station
is varying, being maximum at 6 P.M. in this case. It may be seen that load curve indicates at a
glance the general character of the load that is being imposed on the plant. Such a clear
representation cannot be obtained from tabulated figures.

The monthly load curve can be obtained from the daily load curves of that month. For this
purpose, average* values of power over a month at different times of the day are calculated
and then plotted on the graph. The monthly load curve is generally used to fix the rates of
energy. The yearly load curve is obtained by considering the monthly load curves of that
particular year. The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the annual load factor.

Importance:

The daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation as they supply the following
information readily :

1.The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during different hours of
the day.

2.The area under the daily load curve gives the number of units generated in the day. Units
generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve.

3.The highest point on the daily load curve represents the maximum demand on the station on
that day.

4.The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number of hours gives the average load
on the station in the day.

Average load = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve / 24 hours

5.The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in which it is contained
gives the load factor.

Load factor = Average load / Max. demand = Average load * 24 / Max. demand * 24 = Area (in
kWh) under daily load curve / Total area of rectangle in which the load curve is contained.

3
5.The load curve helps in selecting* the size and number of generating units.

6.The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule** of the station.

Important Terms and Factors

The variable load problem has introduced the following terms and factors in power plant
engineering:

(i) Connected load.

It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply system. A
power station supplies load to thousands of consumers. Each consumer has certain equipment
installed in his premises. The sum of the continuous ratings of all the equipments in the
consumer’s premises is the “connected load” of the consumer. For instance, if a consumer
has connections of five 100-watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then connected load
of the consumer is 5 × 100 + 500 = 1000 watts. The sum of the connected loads of all the
consumers is the connected load to the power station.

(ii) Maximum demand :

It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period. The load on the
power station varies from time to time. The maximum of all the demands that have occurred
during a given period (say a day) is the maximum demand. the maximum demand on the
power station during the day is 6 MW and it occurs at 6 P.M. Maximum demand is generally
less than the connected load because all the consumers do not switch on their connected load
to the system at a time. The knowledge of maximum demand is very important as it helps in
determining the installed capacity of the station. The station must be capable of meeting the
maximum demand.

(iii) Demand factor.

It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load i.e.,

Demand factor = Maximum demand /Connected load

The value of demand factor is usually less than 1. It is expected because maximum demand on
the power station is generally less than the connected load. If the maximum demand on the
power station is 80 MW and the connected load is 100 MW,

then demand factor = 80/100 = 0·8.

The knowledge of demand factor is vital in determining the capacity of the plant equipment.

(iv) Average load.

The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or month or year)
is known as average load or average demand.

Daily average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a day / 24 hours

Monthly average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a month / Number of hours

4
 in a month

Yearly average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a year / 8760 hours

(v) Load factor.

The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as load
factor i.e.,

Load factor = Average load / Max. demand

If the plant is in operation for T hours,

Units generated in T hours / Max. demand *T hours

The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor if the time
period considered is a day or month or year. Load factor is always less than 1 because average
load is smaller than the maximum demand. The load factor plays key role in determining the
overall cost per unit generated. Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser* will be the
cost per unit generated.

(vi) Diversity factor.

The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on power
station is known as diversity factor i.e.,

Diversity factor = Sum of individual max. demands / Max. demand on power station

A power station supplies load to various types of consumers whose maximum demands
generally do not occur at the same time. Therefore, the maximum demand on the power
station is always less than the sum of individual maximum demands of the consumers.
Obviously, diversity† factor will always be greater than 1. The greater the diversity factor, the
lesser‡ is the cost of generation of power.

(vii) Plant capacity factor.

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could have been
produced during a given period i.e.,

Plant capacity factor = Actual energy produced / Max. energy that could have been
produced

= Average demand / Plant capacity

Thus if the considered period is one year,

Annual plant capacity factor = Annual kWh output / Plant capacity* 8760

The plant capacity factor is an indication of the reserve capacity of the plant. A power station
is so designed that it has some reserve capacity for meeting the increased load demand in
future. Therefore, the installed capacity of the plant is always somewhat greater than the

5
 maximum demand on the plant.

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity − Max. demand

It is interesting to note that difference between load factor and plant capacity factor is an
indication of reserve capacity. If the maximum demand on the plant is equal to the plant
capacity, then load factor and plant capacity factor will have the same value. In such a case,
the plant will have no reserve capacity.

(viii) Plant use factor.

It is ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours for
which the plant was in operation i.e.

Plant use factor = Station output in kWh / Plant capacity * Hours of use

Units Generated per Annum

It is often required to find the kWh generated per annum from maximum demand and load
factor. The procedure is as follows :

Load factor = Average load / Max. demand

∴ Average load = Max. demand × L.F.

Units generated/annum = Average load (in kW) × Hours in a year

= Max. demand (in kW) × L.F. × 8760

Load Duration Curve

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes,
the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve.

The following points may be noted about load duration curve :

(i) The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form. In other
words, it readily shows the number of hours during which the given load has
prevailed.

(ii) The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of the corresponding
load curve. Obviously, area under daily load duration curve (in kWh) will give
the units generated on that day.

(iii) The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time. By
laying out the abscissa from 0 hour to 8760 hours, the variation and
distribution of demand for an entire year can be summarised in one curve. The
curve thus obtained is called the annual load duration curve.

6
Types of Loads

A device which taps electrical energy from the electric power system is called a load on the
system. The load may be resistive (e.g., electric lamp), inductive (e.g., induction motor),
capacitive or some combination of them. The various types of loads on the power system are :

(i) Domestic load.

Domestic load consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, heaters, television, small motors for
pumping water etc. Most of the residential load occurs only for some hours during the day
(i.e., 24 hours) e.g., lighting load occurs during night time and domestic appliance load
occurs for only a few hours. For this reason, the load factor is low (10% to 12%).

(ii) Commercial load.

Commercial load consists of lighting for shops, fans and electric appliances used in
restaurants etc. This class of load occurs for more hours during the day as compared to the
domestic load. The commercial load has seasonal variations due to the extensive use of
airconditioners and space heaters.

(iii) Industrial load.

Industrial load consists of load demand by industries. The magnitude of industrial load
depends upon the type of industry. Thus small scale industry requires load upto 25 kW,
medium scale industry between 25kW and 100 kW and large-scale industry requires load
above 500 kW. Industrial loads are generally not weather dependent.

(iv) Municipal load.

Municipal load consists of street lighting, power required for water supply and drainage
purposes. Street lighting load is practically constant throughout the hours of the night. For
water supply, water is pumped to overhead tanks by pumps driven by electric motors.
Pumping is carried out during the off-peak period, usually occurring during the night. This
helps to improve the load factor of the power system.

(v) Irrigation load.

This type of load is the electric power needed for pumps driven by motors to supply water to
fields. Generally this type of load is supplied for 12 hours during night.

(vi) Traction load.

This type of load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways etc. This class of load has wide
variation. During the morning hour, it reaches peak value because people have to go to their
work place. After morning hours, the load starts decreasing and again rises during evening
since the people start coming to their homes.

2.1. The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual load factor is 40% ,
calculate the total energy generated in a year.

Solution.
Energy generated/year = Max. demand × L.F. × Hours in a year

= (100 × 103 ) × (0·4) × (24 × 365) kWh = 3504 × 105 kWh

2.2. A generating station has a connected load of 43MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW;
the units generated being 61·5 × 106 per annum. Calculate (i) the demand factor and (ii) load

7
 factor.

Solution.
Demand factor = Max. demand / Connected load = 20 / 43 = 0·465
Average demand = Units generated / annum Hours in a year = 7020 kW
∴ Load factor = Average demand / Max. demand = 0·351 or 35·1%

Base Load and Peak Load on Power Station

The changing load on the power station makes its load curve of variable nature. It is clear that
load on the power station varies from time to time. However, a close look at the load curve
reveals that load on the power station can be considered in two parts, namely;

(i) Base load (ii) Peak load

(i) Base load.

The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station is known as base load. it is
clear that 20 MW of load has to be supplied by the station at all times of day and night i.e.
throughout 24 hours. Therefore, 20 MW is the base load of the station. As base load on the
station is almost of constant nature, therefore, it can be suitably supplied (as discussed in the next
Article) without facing the problems of variable load.

(ii) Peak load.

The various peak demands of load over and above the base load of the station is known as peak
load. it is clear that there are peak demands of load excluding base load. These peak demands of
the station generally form a small part of the total load and may occur throughout the day.

Economics of Power Generation

The art of determining the per unit (i.e., one kWh) cost of production of electrical energy is
known as economics of power generation.

The economics of power generation has assumed a great importance in this fast developing
power plant engineering. A consumer will use electric power only if it is supplied at reasonable
rate. Therefore, power engineers have to find convenient methods to produce electric power as
cheap as possible so that consumers are tempted to use electrical methods. Before passing on to
the subject further, it is desirable that the readers get themselves acquainted with the following
terms much used in the economics of power generation :

(i) Interest.

The cost of use of money is known as interest. A power station is constructed by investing a
huge capital. This money is generally borrowed from banks or other financial institutions and the
supply company has to pay the annual interest on this amount. Even if company has spent out of
its reserve funds, the interest must be still allowed for, since this amount could have earned
interest if deposited in a bank. Therefore, while calculating the cost of production of electrical
energy, the interest payable on the capital investment must be included. The rate of interest
depends upon market position and other factors, and may vary from 4% to 8% per annum.

8
 (ii) Depreciation.
The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to constant use is
known as depreciation. If the power station equipment were to last for ever, then interest on the
capital investment would have been the only charge to be made. However, in actual practice,
every power station has a useful life ranging from fifty to sixty years. From the time the power
station is installed, its equipment steadily deteriorates due to wear and tear so that there is a
gradual reduction in the value of the plant. This reduction in the value of plant every year is
known as annual depreciation. Due to depreciation, the plant has to be replaced by the new one
after its useful life. Therefore, suitable amount must be set aside every year so that by the time
the plant retires, the collected amount by way of depreciation equals the cost of replacement. It
becomes obvious that while determining the cost of production, annual depreciation charges
must be included.

Cost of Electrical Energy

The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts, namely ; (i) Fixed
cost ; (ii) Semi-fixed cost ; (iii) Running or operating cost.

(i) Fixed cost.

It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and units generated. The fixed cost is
due to the annual cost of central organisation, interest on capital cost of land and salaries of high
officials. The annual expenditure on the central organisation and salaries of high officials is fixed
since it has to be met whether the plant has high or low maximum demand or it generates less or
more units. Further, the capital investment on the land is fixed and hence the amount of interest
is also fixed.

(ii) Semi-fixed cost.

It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but is independent of units generated. The
semi-fixed cost is directly proportional to the maximum demand on power station and is on
account of annual interest and depreciation on capital investment of building and equipment,
taxes, salaries of management and clerical staff. The maximum demand on the power station
determines its size and cost of installation. The greater the maximum demand on a power station,
the greater is its size and cost of installation. Further, the taxes and clerical staff depend upon the
size of the plant and hence upon maximum demand.

(iii) Running cost.

It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units generated. The running cost is on
account of annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil, maintenance, repairs and salaries of operating
staff. Since these charges depend upon the energy output, the running cost is directly
proportional to the number of units generated by the station. In other words, if the power station
generates more units, it will have higher running cost and vice-versa.

Methods of Determining Depreciation

There is reduction in the value of the equipment and other property of the plant every year due to
depreciation. Therefore, a suitable amount (known as depreciation charge) must be set aside
annually so that by the time the life span of the plant is over, the collected amount equals the cost
of replacement of the plant. The following are the commonly used methods for determining the
annual depreciation charge : (i) Straight line method ; (ii) Diminishing value method ; (iii)
Sinking fund method.

9
 (i) Straight line method.
In this method, a constant depreciation charge is made every year on the basis of total
depreciation and the useful life of the property. Obviously, annual depreciation charge will be
equal to the total depreciation divided by the useful life of the property. Thus, if the initial cost
of equipment is Rs 1,00,000 and its scrap value is Rs 10,000 after a useful life of 20 years,
then,

Annual depreciation charge = Total depreciation / Useful life = 100 000 -10 000 / 20

= Rs 4,500
In general, the annual depreciation charge on the straight line method may be expressed as

Annual depreciation charge = P-S / n

where
P = Initial cost of equipment
n = Useful life of equipment in years
S = Scrap or salvage value after the useful life of the plant.

The straight line method is extremely simple and is easy to apply as the annual depreciation
charge can be readily calculated from the total depreciation and useful life of the equipment. It is
clear that initial value P of the equipment reduces uniformly, through depreciation, to the scrap
value S in the useful life of the equipment. The depreciation curve (PA) follows a straight line
path, indicating constant annual depreciation charge. However, this method suffers from two
defects. Firstly, the assumption of constant depreciation charge every year is not correct.
Secondly, it does not account for the interest which may be drawn during accumulation.

(ii) Diminishing value method.

In this method, depreciation charge is made every year at a fixed rate on the diminished value of
the equipment. In other words, depreciation charge is first applied to the initial cost of equipment
and then to its diminished value. As an example, suppose the initial cost of equipment is Rs
10,000 and its scrap value after the useful life is zero. If the annual rate of depreciation is 10%,
then depreciation charge for the first year will be 0·1 × 10,000 = Rs 1,000. The value of the
equipment is diminished by Rs 1,000 and becomes Rs 9,000. For the second year, the
depreciation charge will be made on the diminished value (i.e. Rs 9,000) and becomes 0·1 ×
9,000 = Rs 900. The value of the equipment now becomes 9000 − 900 = Rs 8100. For the third
year, the depreciation charge will be 0·1 × 8100 = Rs 810 and so on.

(iii) Sinking fund method.

In this method, a fixed depreciation charge is made every year and interest compounded on it
annually. The constant depreciation charge is such that total of annual instalments plus the
interest accumulations equal to the cost of replacement of equipment after its useful life.

2.3. A transformer costing Rs 90,000 has a useful life of 20 years. Determine the annual
depreciation charge using straight line method. Assume the salvage value of the equipment to be
Rs 10,000.

Solution :
Initial cost of transformer, P = Rs 90,000
Useful life, n = 20 years
Salvage value, S = Rs 10,000

10
 Using straight line method,
Annual depreciation charge = P – S / n − = Rs 90 000 -10 000 /20 = Rs 4000

Importance of High Load Factor

The load factor plays a vital role in determining the cost of energy. Some important advantages
of high load factor are listed below :

(i) Reduces cost per unit generated :

A high load factor reduces the overall cost per unit generated. The higher the load factor, the
lower is the generation cost. It is because higher load factor means that for a given maximum
demand, the number of units generated is more. This reduces the cost of generation.

(ii) Reduces variable load problems :

A high load factor reduces the variable load problems on the power station. A higher load factor
means comparatively less variations in the load demands at various times. This avoids the
frequent use of regulating devices installed to meet the variable load on the station.

TARIFF
The rate at which the electrical energy is supplied to the consumers.

Types of Consumers
1. Domestic Consumers
2. Commercial Consumers
3. Industrial Consumers
4. Agricultural Consumers

Factors Affecting the Electricity Tariffs

The following factors are taken into accounts to decide the electricity tariff:

Types of Load – The load is mainly classified into three types, i.e., domestic, commercial, or
industrial. The industrial consumers use more energy for a longer time than domestic consumers,
and hence the tariff for the industrial consumers is more than the domestic consumers. The tariff
of the electric energy varies according to their requirement.

Maximum demand – The cost of the electrical energy supplied by a generating station depends
on the installed capacity of the plant and kWh generated. Increased in maximum capacity
increased the installed capacity of the generating station.
The time at which load is required – The time at which the maximum load required is also
essential for the electricity tariff. If the maximum demand coincides with the maximum demand
of the consumer, then the additional plant is required. And if the maximum demand of the
consumers occurs during off-peak hours, the load factor is improved, and no extra plant capacity
is needed. Thus, the overall cost per kWh generated is reduced.

The power factor of the load – The power factor plays a major role in the plant economics. The
low power factor increases the load current which increases the losses in the system. Thus, the
regulation becomes poor. For improving the power factor, the power factor correction equipment

11
is installed at the generating station. Thus, the cost of the generation increases.

The amount of energy used – The cost of electrical energy is reduced by using large amounts of
energy for longer periods.

Objectives of tariff

Like other commodities, electrical energy is also sold at such a rate so that it not only returns the
cost but also earns reasonable profit. Therefore, a tariff should include the following items :

(i) Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.

(ii) Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution systems.
(iii) Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g., metering
equipment, billing etc.
(iv) A suitable profit on the capital investment.

Desirable Characteristics of a Tariff

A tariff must have the following desirable characteristics:

(i) Proper return : The tariff should be such that it ensures the proper return from each
consumer. In other words, the total receipts from the consumers must be equal to the cost of
producing and supplying electrical energy plus reasonable profit. This will enable the electric
supply company to ensure continuous and reliable service to the consumers.

(ii) Fairness : The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are satisfied with the
rate of charge of electrical energy. Thus a big consumer should be charged at a lower rate than a
small consumer. It is because increased energy consumption spreads the fixed charges over a
greater number of units, thus reducing the overall cost of producing electrical energy.

Similarly, a consumer whose load conditions do not deviate much from the ideal (i.e.,
nonvariable) should be charged at a lower* rate than the one whose load conditions change
appreciably from the ideal.

(iii) Simplicity : The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand
it. A complicated tariff may cause an opposition from the public which is generally distrustful of
supply companies.

(iv) Reasonable profit : The profit element in the tariff should be reasonable. An electric supply
company is a public utility company and generally enjoys the benefits of monopoly. Therefore,
the investment is relatively safe due to non-competition in the market. This calls for the profit to
be restricted to 8% or so per annum.

(v) Attractive : The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are
encouraged to use electrical energy. Efforts should be made to fix the tariff in such a way so that
consumers can pay easily.

12
 Types of Electricity Tariff

Some of the most important types of tariff are as follows;

1. Flat Demand Rate tariff

2. Straight-line Meter rate tariff
3. Block meter Rate tariff
4. Two-part tariff
5. Power factor tariff
6. Seasonal rate tariff
7. Peak load tariff
8. Three-part tariff
The different types of tariffs are explained below in details

1. Flat demand rate tariff – The flat demand rate tariff is expressed by the equation C = Ax. In
this type of tariff, the bill of the power consumption depends only on the maximum demand of
the load. The generation of the bill is independent of the normal energy consumption. This type
of tariff is used on the street light, sign lighting, irrigation, etc., where the working hours of the
equipment are unknown. The metering system is not used for calculating such type of tariffs.

2. Straight-line meter rate tariff – This type of tariff is given by the equation C = By. The
generation of the bills depends on the energy consumption of the load. Thus, different types of
bills are generated by the consumers.
The charges for different types of consumption depends on the load and diversity factors of the
load. For example, the tariff for small devices is less as compared to the power loads. Hence
different meters are used for measuring the power consumption.

3. Block meter rate tariff – In this type of tariff, the energy consumption is distinguished into
blocks. The per unit tariff of the individual block is fixed. The price of the block is arranged in
the decreasing order. The first block has the highest cost, and it goes on decreasing accordingly.
The price and the energy consumption are divided into three blocks. The first few units of energy
at a certain rate, the next at a slightly lower rate and the remaining unit at a very lower rate.

4. Two-part tariff – In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts. The first one is the
fixed charge and the second is the running charge. The fixed charge is because of the maximum
demand and the second charge depends on the energy consumption by the load.

The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some sliding.

13
5. Power factor tariff – The tariff, which depends on the power factor of the load is known as the
power factor tariff. The power factor tariff is mainly classified into two types.

a. kVA maximum demand tariff – This is also a two-part tariff.

The low power factor increases the KVA rating of the load.

b. kWh and kVarh tariff – The bill is calculated by the sum of the kVarh and Kwh rating of the
load.

The kVarh is inversely proportional to the power factor of the load.

c. Sliding Scale or Average power factor tariff – In Average power factor tariff, the particular
value of the power factor is taken as reference. If the power factor at the consumer end is low,
then the consumer has to pay the additional charges. Similarly, if the power factor of the load is
above from the reference value, then the discount will be given to the consumer.

6. Seasonal rate tariff – Such type of tariff measures the high price in kWh used by the consumer
in one complete year. It is also known as the on peak season tariff. If the low consumption occurs
in the year, then it called the off-peak season tariffs.

7. Peak-load tariff – Such type of tariff is similar to peak load tariffs. The only difference is that
the seasonal tariff measures the peak hour of the year and the peak tariff calculates it for the day.
If the power consumption is high, then it is known as the on-peak tariff, and for low power
consumption, it is called off-peak load tariffs.
The peak load and seasonal tariffs both are used for reducing the idle or standby capacity of the
load.

8. Three-part tariff – The three-part tariff is in the form of,and it is applied to the big consumer.
The total bill of the consumer has three parts, namely, fixed charge D, semi-fixed charge Ax and
running charge By.

where, C – total charge for a period (say one month)

x – maximum demand during the period (kW or kVA)
y – Total energy consumed during te period (kW or kVA)
A – cost per kW or kVa of maximum demand.
B – cost per kWh of energy consumed.
D – fixed charge during each billing period.

2.4 A Consumer has a M.D of 80Kw at 0.45 load factor. If the tariff is Rs. 750/ Kw of M.D plus Rs.
1.10 /Kwh, Determine the Overall cost/Kwh.

Solution:
Load Factor = Average load / M.D
Annual Avg Demand = 0.45 * 80 * 24 * 365 = 315360 Kwh

14
 Tariff = Rs. 750 * 80 + 1.10 * 315360 = Rs. 406896
Overall cost/ Kwh = 406896 / 315360 = Rs.1.29.

2.5 An Industrial consumer has a M.D of 150Kw at a L.F of 0.65. The tariff is Rs. 900/KVA of
M.D/ year + Rs. 1.30/Kwh of energy consumed. If the average P.F is 0.82 lagging, calculate the
total energy consumed / year & the total yearly electricity bill.

Solution:
Max KVA demand = Max Kw Demand / P.F = 150 / 0.82 = 1.82.9268 KVA
Annual energy consumption = L.F * M.D * 8760 = 0.65 * 150 * 8760 = 854100 Kwh
Annual Electricity bill = Rs.[ 900 * 182.9268 + 1.30 * 854100] = Rs.1274964

2.6 An industrial consumer has a M.D of 100Kw. Two alternative tariffs are available.
a) A fixed charge of Rs. 800 / Kw of M.D / year plus a running charge of Rs.1.30 / kwh of energy
consumed.
b) A flat rate of Rs.1.83 / Kwh
Which tariff is economical if the factory runs for 3600 hrs/year with a L.F of 0.8?

Solution:
Avg demand = M.D * L.F = 100 * 0.8 =80Kw
Annual energy consumption = Avg demand * working hrs / year = 80 * 3600 = 288000Kwh
Annual bill with first tariff = Rs. ( 800 * 100 + 1.3 * 288000 ) = Rs. 454400
Annual bill with second tariff = Rs. 1.83 * 288000 = Rs. 527040
Since the annual bill with two part tariff is lower than that with flat rate tariff, the two part tariff
is economical.

2.7 The following tariffs are offered to a consumer:

a) Rs.500 per year plus Rs.0.90 /Kwh
b) Rs. 1.43 for the first 100 units/month & Rs.1.63 for next 100 units & Rs. 1.83 for all the
additional units.
Find the energy consumed / year for which the charges due to both tariffs become equal.

Solution:
Let x be the number of units consumed
Annual charges due to first tariff
C1 = Rs. ( 500+0.90 * x)
Annual charges due to second tariff
C2= Rs. (1.43 * 100) + Rs. (1.63 * 100) + Rs. ((1.83) ( x-200) = Rs.(1.83x – 60)
If C1=c2
500+0.90 * x = 1.83x – 60
X = 560 / 0.93 = 6.02 Kwh

2.8 Determine the generation cost / Kwh from the following data:

Installed Capacity = 500Mw

Capital cost = Rs. 35000 / Kw

15
 Interest & Depreciation = 12%
Fuel Consumption = 0.85 Kg / Kwh
Fuel cost = Rs.800/1000 Kg
Other Operating costs = 25% of fuel cost
Peak load = 475 Mw
Load Factor = 0.82

Solution:
Average load = M.D * L.F = 475 * 0.82 = 389.5Mw
Energy Generated / year = Avg .load in Kw * No. of hrs / year = 389.5 * 103 * 8760
Total Investment = Rs. (500* 103 ) * 35000 = Rs. 1.75 * 1010
Annual interest and depreciation, CID = Rs.12/100 * 1.75 * 1010 = Rs.2.1 * 109
Fuel consumption / year = 0.85 * 389.5 * 103 * 8760
Annual fuel cost, CAF = Rs. 800/1000 * 0.85 * 389.5 * 103 * 8760 = Rs. 2.32017 * 109
Other operating cost / year , CAC = 25% of fuel cost = 25/100 * CAF = 0.25 CAF
Annual plant cost, CPC = annual fixed cost + annual operating costs

= CID + CAF + 0.25 * CAF = Rs. ( 2.1 * 109 + 1.25 * 2.32017 * 109)

= Rs. 5.00021 * 109

Generation cost / Kwh = CPC / energy generated / year

= 5.00021 * 109 / 389.5 * 103 * 8760 = Rs. 1.47

2.9 Calculate the minimum two part tariff to be charged from the consumers of a supply has the
following data:
Generating cost / Kwh is 50 paise. Generating cost /Kw of M.D is Rs. 100. Total energy
generated / year is 40,000Mwh. L.F of the station is 50%. Annual charges for distribution are Rs.
2,00,000. Diversity Factor for the distribution network is 1.25. Total loss between the station &
consumer is 10%.

Solution:
M.D = 40000 * 103 / (0.5 * 365 * 24 ) = 9132.42Kw
Diversity factor = sum of Max Demands / M.D
Sum of all individual M.D = 1.25 * 9132.42 = 11,415.531 Kw
10% is lost = 11415.53 * 0.1 = 1141.55
Consumer M.D = 11415.53 – 1141.55 = 10273.98 Kw
Fixed charges = Rs. 100 * 9132.42 + 200000 = Rs. 1.113 * 106
Fixed charges / K.w of M.D = Rs. 1.113 * 106 / 10273.98 = Rs.108.33 / Kw
Two part tariff = Rs. 0.5/Kwh * Kwh + Rs. 108.33 /Kw of M.D * Kw

16
 QUESTIONS
PART A
1. Discuss the terms demand factor and load factor.
2. Express the formula for the cost of electrical energy.
3. Discuss about power factor tariff.
4. Survey the load curve for 24 hours.
5. Categorize the cost of electrical energy.
6. List the different methods of depreciation cost.

PART B

1. Explain the various methods of accumulating the depreciation amount.

2. A domestic lighting installation having 15, 60 W lamps is operated as follows :
5 lamps from 6 pm till 8 pm
10 lamps from 8 pm till 10 pm
6 lamps from 10 pm till 12 pm
a.Determine the connected load, the maximum demand, demand factor and daily load factor
b.Also determine the improved load factor if a 2 KW immersion heater is used fron 1 pm till 5
pm and a 2KW heater from 8 pm till 11pm.

3.There are four consumers of electricity having different load requirements at different times.
Consumer1 has a maximum demand of 2 KW at 9 pm a demand of 1.6 KW at 8 pm and a daily
load factor of 15%. Consumer2 has a maximum demand of 2 KW at 12 noon, a load of 1 KW at
8 pm and an average load of 500W. Consumer3 has a maximum demand of 8 KW at 5pm, a load
of 5 KW at 8 pm and daily load factor of 25%. Consumer4 has an average load of 1 KW and his
maximum demand is 4 KW at 8 pm. Determine
(i) The diversity factor
(ii) The load factor and average load of each consumer
(iii) The average load and load factor of the combined loadElaborate various resistances
welding process.
4.Discuss the various methods of electrical tariff used in practice.

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1.C.L.Wadhwa, “Generation, Distribution & Utilisation of Electrical Energy”, New Age
International Publishers, New Delhi, Reprint 2016.
2. Uppal.S.L. “Electrical Power”, Khanna Publishers, 9th Edition, 2001.
3. R.K.Rajput, “Utilization of Electrical power”, Laxmi Publications, 2006.
4. S.Sivanagaraju, M.Balasubba Reddy and D.Srilatha, ”Electric Energy-Generation, Utilization
and Conservation” Pearson, 2012.

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 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SEEA3001-POWER GENERATION AND UTILIZATION

UNIT – III ILLUMINATION

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 UNIT III-ILLUMINATION

Nature of radiation - definition-laws-lighting calculations-polar curves-Rousseau construction-

design of Illumination Systems-Flood Lighting and Calculations-Street Lighting-Classification
of Light Sources- Incandescent lamps- gas discharge lamps- sodium vapour, mercury vapour,
Fluorescent Lamps and LED lamps.

ILLUMINATION
Illumination is a branch of engineering that deals with planning the lighting systems of
new buildings and outdoor areas (as streets, parking lots) and the study and correction of old
lighting installations

NATURE OF RADIATION

The usual method of producing artificial light consists in raising a solid body or vapour to
incandescence by applying heat to it. It is found that as the body is gradually heated above room
temperature, it begins to radiate energy in the surrounding medium in the form of
electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths. The nature of this radiant energy depends on the
temperature of the hot body. Thus, when the temperature is low, radiated energy is in the form of
heat waves only but when a certain temperature is reached, light waves are also radiated out in
addition to heat waves and the body becomes luminous. Further increase in temperature produces
an increase in the amount of both kinds of radiations but the colour of light or visible radiation
changes from bright red to orange, to yellow and then finally, if the temperature is high enough,
to white. As temperature is increased, the wavelength of the visible radiation goes on becoming
shorter. It should be noted that heat waves are identical to light waves except that they are of
longer wavelength and hence produce no impression on the retina. Obviously, from the point of
view of light emission, heat energy represents so much wasted energy.
1 A.U=10-8cm=10-10m

Hence, the wave-length of red light becomes λr = 7800 × 10-10 m or 7800 A.U. and λv =
3900×10-10 m or 3900 A.U. The sensation of colour is due to the difference in the wavelengths
and hence frequencies of the light radiations.
DEFINITIONS

Plane Angle

A Plane angle is subtended ata appoint and is enclosed by two straight lines lying in the
same plane.A Plane angle is expressed in terms of degrees or radian.
Solid angle

A concept which frequently is used for illumination calculation is the solid angle and is
explained as follows:

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Consider an area A which is part of a sphere of radius r (Fig. 3.1). Let us find the solid angle ω
subtended by this area at the centre C of the sphere. For this purpose, let point C be joined to
every point on the edges of the area A. Then, the angle enclosed by the cone at point C gives the
solid angle. Its value is

(1)
The unit of solid angle is steradian (sr). If, in the above equation, A = r2, then ω= 1 steradian.
Hence, steradian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a part of its
surface having an area equal to (radius).
Candela
It is the unit of luminous intensity of a source. It is defined as 1/60th of the luminous
intensity per cm2 of a black body radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum
(2045°K). A source of one candela (cd) emits one lumen per steradian. Hence, total flux emitted
by it all round is

Luminous Flux (F or )
It is the light energy radiated out per second from the body in the form of luminous light
waves. Since, it is a rate of flow of energy, it is a sort of power unit. Unit of luminous flux is
lumen (lm). It is defined as the flux contained per unit solid angle of a source of one candela
or standard candle

(Fig. 3.1). Approximate relation between lumen and electric unit of power i.e. watt is givenas

Fig.3.1
Lumen
One lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted bya source of one candle power in a
unit solid angle
Lumen+candle power of source x solid angle

Lumen-hour
It is the quantity of light delivered in one hour by a flux of one lumen.

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 Luminous Intensity (I) or Candle-power of a point source in any particular direction is
given by the luminous flux radiated out per unit solid angle in that direction. In other words, it
is solid angular flux density of a source in a specified direction.

If flux is measured in lumens and solid angle in steradian, then its unit is lumen/steradian(lm/sr)
or candela (cd).

If a source has an average luminous intensity of I lm/sr (or I candela), then total flux radiated by
it all around S.

Generally, the luminous intensity or candle power of a source is different in different directions.
The average candle-power of a source is the average value of its candle power in all directions.
Obviously, it is given by total flux (in lm) emitted in all directions in all planes divided by 4 .
Thisaverage candle-power is also known as mean spherical candle- power (M.S.C.P.).

(2)
If the average is taken over a hemisphere (instead of sphere), then this average candle poweris
known as mean hemispherical candle-power (M.H.S.C.P.).
It is given by the total flux emitted in a hemisphere (usually the lower one) divided by the solid
angle subtended at the point source by the hemisphere.

(3)

Lux

One meter candle or lux is defined as the illumination produced by a uniform souce
of one CP on the inner surface of a sphere of radius one meter.

Reduction Factor of a source is given by the ratio, f = M.S.C.P./M.H.C.P. where

M.H.C.P. is the mean horizontal candle power. It is also referred to as spherical reductionfactor.

Illuminance or Illumination (E)

When the luminous flux falls on a surface, it is said to be illuminated. The illumination of
a surface is measured by the normal luminous flux per unit area.

Transmittance (T) of an Illuminated Diffuse Reflecting Surface

It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux transmitted by it to the total flux
incident on it.
The relation between luminous exitance (M) of a surface transmitting light and illuminance
(E) on the other side of it is

M=TE or M=T/E (4)

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 Reflection Ratio or Coefficient of Reflection or Reflectance It is givenby
Luminous flux refiected from a small area of the surface to the total flux incident upon it.

Specific Output or Efficiency of a lamp is the ratio of luminous flux to the power intake.Its unit
is lumen/watt (lm/W). Following relations should be taken note of :

Specific Consumption. It is defined as the ratio of the power input to the averagecandlepower.
It is expressed in terms of watts per average candle or watts/M.S.C.P.
The summary of the above quantities along with their units and symbol is given in Table

Table 3.1 Calculation of Luminance (L) of a Diffuse Reflecting Surface

The luminance (or brightness) of a surface largely depends on the character of the surface, if it is
itself not the emitter. In the case of a polished surface, the luminance depends on the angle of
viewing. But if the surface is matt and diffusion is good, then the luminance or brightness is
practically independent of the angle of viewing. However, the reflectance of the surface reduces
the brightness proportionately. In Fig. 3.4 is shown a perfectly diffusing surface of small area A.
Suppose that at point M on a hemisphere with centre O and radius R, the illuminance is L cd/m2.

LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
The illumination on a surface depends upon the luminous intensity, distance between the
source and surface and the direction of rays of light. It is governed by following laws :
1. Inverse square law
2. Lambert‟s cosine law

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The Inverse Square Law
As a surface that is illuminated by a light source moves away from the light source, the
surface appears dimmer. In fact, it becomes dimmer much faster than it moves away from the
source. The inverse square law, which quantifies this effect, relates illumi-nance (Ev) and
intensity (Iv) as follows:
Ev = Iv/d2 --------------------------------------------------------------- (5)
Where d = the distance from the light source.
For example, if the illuminance on a surface is 40 lux (lm/m2) at a distance of 0.5 meters from
the light source, the illuminance decreases to 10 lux at a distance of 1 meter, as shown in the
following figure.

Fig 3.2
Note: the inverse square law can only be used in cases where the light source approximates a
point source. For lambertian light sources (Lambertian Emission and Reflection”), a useful
guideline to use for illuminance measurements is the “five times rule”: the distance from the
measurement point to the light source should be greater than five times the largest dimension of
the source for an accurate measurement. However, the five times rule does not work for a
strongly directional light source.

Lambert’s Cosine Law

Lambert‟s cosine law states that the illuminance falling on any surface depends on the
cosine of the light‟s angle of incidence, θ.
Eθ = Ecosθ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------(6)

Fig 3.3

Lambertian Emission and Reflection A lambertian surface reflects or emits equal (isotropic)
luminance in every direction. For example, an evenly illuminated diffuse flat surface such as a
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piece of paper is approximately lambertian, because the reflected light is the same in every
direction from which you can see the surface of the paper.
However, it does not have isotropic intensity, because the intensity varies according to the cosine
law. Figure 4.3 shows a lambertian reflection from a surface. Notice that the reflec- tion follows
the cosine law — the amount of reflected energy in a particular direction (the intensity) is
proportional to the cosine of the reflected angle. Remember that luminance is intensity per unit
area. Because both intensity and apparent area follow the cosine law, they remain in proportion
to each other as the viewing angle changes. Therefore, luminance remains constant while
luminous intensity does not. To compare illuminance and luminance on a lambertian surface,
consider the following example: a surface with a luminance of 1 lm/m2/sr radiates a total of πA
lumens, where A is the area of the surface, into a hemisphere (which is 2π steradians). The
illuminance of the surface is equal to the total luminous flux divided by the total area — π
lux/m2. In other words, if you were to illuminate a perfectly diffuse reflect- ing surface with
3.1416 lm/m2, its luminance would be 1 lm/m2/sr.

LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

A well-designed lighting scheme is one which

(i) provides adequate illumination

(ii) avoids glare and hard shadows
(iii) providessufficientlyuniform distribution of light all over the working plane.
Before explaining the method of determining the number, size and proper arrangement of
lampsin order to produce a given uniform illumination over a certain area, let us first consider
the followingtwo factors which are of importance in such calculations.

Utilization Factor or Coefficient of Utilization (η)

It is the ratio of the lumens actually received by a particular surface to the total lumens emitted
bya luminous source.

(7)

The value of this factor varies widely and depends on the following factors :

1.the typeof lighting system, whether direct or indirect etc.

2.the type and mounting height of the fittings 3.thecolour and surface of walls and ceilings and

4. to some extent on the shape and dimensions of the room.

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For example, for direct lighting, the value of η varies between 0.4 and 0.6 and mainly depends
onthe shape of the room and the type and mounting height of fittings but very little on the colour
of wallsand ceiling. For indirect lighting, its value lies between 0.1 and 0.35 and the effect of
walls andceiling, from which light is reflected on the working plane, is much greater. Exact
determination of the value of utilization factor is complicated especially in small rooms where
light undergoes multiple reflections.Since the light leaving the lamp in different directions is
subjected to different degrees of absorption, the initial polar curve of distribution has also to
be taken into account. Even thoughmanufacturers of lighting fittings supply tables giving
utilization factors for each type of fitting underspecified conditions yet, since such tables apply only to
the fittings for whichtheyhavebeen compiledagood deal of judgment is necessary while using them.
Depreciation Factor (p)

This factor allows for the fact that effective candle power of all lamps or luminous
sourcesdeteriorates owing to blackening and/or accumulation of dust or dirt on the globes and
reflectors etc.Similarly, walls and ceilings etc., also do not reflect as much light as when they are
clean. The valueof this factor may be taken as 1/1.3 if the lamp fittings are likely to be cleaned
regularly or 1/1.5 if there is much dust etc.

-(8)

Since illumination is specified in lm/m2, the area in square metre multiplied by the
illuminationrequired in lm/m2gives the total useful luminous flux that must reach the working
plane. Taking into consideration the utilization and depreciation or maintenance factors, the
expression for the grosslumens required is

-(9)

Where E = desired illumination in lm/m2 ;

A= area of working plane to be illuminated in m2 p=depreciation or maintenance factor ;

η= utilization factor.

The size of the lamp depends on the number of fittings which, if uniform distribution is
required,should not be far apart. The actual spacing and arrangement is governed by space/height
values andby the layout of ceiling beams or columns. Greater the height, wider the spacing that
may be used,although the larger will be the unit required. Having

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settled the number of units required, the lumensper unit may be found from (total
lumens/number ofunits) from which the size of lamp can be calculated.

Example 1. A room 8 m× 12 m is lighted by 15 lamps to a fairly uniform illumination of 100

lm/m2. Calculate the utilization coefficient of the room given that the output of each lamp is1600
lumens.
Solution.

Lumens emitted by the lamps = 15×1600 = 24,000 lm

Lumens received by the working plane of the room = 8×12×100 = 9600 lmUtilization

coefficient = 9600/24,000 =0.4 or 40%.

Example 2.The illumination in a drawing office 30 m× 10 m is to have a value of 250 luxand is

to be provided by a number of 300-W filament lamps. If the coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and
the depreciation factor 0.9, determine the number of lamps required. The luminous efficiency of
eachlamp is 14 lm/W.
Solution.

Φ= EA / η p ; E = 250 lm/m2, A= 30×10 = 300 m2;η= 0.4, p= 0.9

∴ Φ=250×300/0.4×0.9 = 208,333 lm

Flux emitted/lamp = 300×14 = 4200 lm; No. of lamps reqd.= 208,333/4200 =50.

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LIGHTING SCHEMES

Different lighting schemes may be classfied as

(i ) direct lighting
(ii) indirect lighting and (iii)semi-direct lighting (iv)semi-indirect lighting and (v)general

diffusing systems.

(i)Direct Lighting

As the name indicates, in the form of lighting, the light from the source falls directly on the
objector the surface to be illuminated (Fig. 49.35). With the help of shades and globes and
reflectors of various types as disscussed in Art. 49.11, most of the light is directed in the lower
hemisphere andalso the brilliant source of light is kept out of the direct line of vision. Direct
illumination by lamps insuitable reflectors can be

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 supplemented by standard or bracket lamps on desk or by additional pendant fittings over
counters.

Fig 3.4
The fundamental point worth remembering is planning any lighting installation is that
sufficientand sufficiently uniform lighting is to be provided at the working or reading plane. For
this purpose,lamps of suitable size have to be so located and furnished with such fittings as to
give correct degreeand distribution of illumination at the required place. Moreover, it is
important to keep the lamps andfittings clean otherwise the decrease in effective illumination due
to dirty bulbs or reflectors mayamount to 15 to 25% in offices and domestic lighting and more in
industrial areas as a result of a few weeks neglect. Direct lighting, though most efficient, is liable
to cause glare and hard shadows.
(ii) Indirect Lighting

In this form of lighting, light does not reach the surface directly from the source but indirectly
bydiffuse reflection (Fig. 49.36). The lamps are either placed behind a cornice or in suspended
opaque bowls. In both cases, a silvered reflector which is corrugated for eliminating striations is
placed beneath the lamp.

Fig 3.5

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 In this way, maximum light is thrown upwards on the ceiling from which it is distributed all
overthe room by diffuse reflection. Even gradation of light on the ceiling is secured by careful
adjustementof the position and the number of lamps. In the cornice and bowl system of lighting,
bowl fittings aregenerally suspended about three-fourths the height of the room and in the case of
cornice lighting, afrieze of curved profile aids in throwing the light out into the room to be
illuminated. Since in indirectlighting whole of the light on the working plane is received by
diffuse reflection, it is important tokeep the fittings clean.One of the main characteristics of
indirect lighting is that it provides shadowless illumination which is very useful for drawing
offices, composing rooms and in workshops especially where largemachines and other
obstructions would cast troublesome shadows if direct lighting were used.However, many people
find purely indirect lighting flat and monotonous and even depressive
Most of the users demand 50 to 100% more light at their working plane by indirect lighting than
withdirect lighting. However, for appreciating relief, a certain proportion of direct lighting is
essential.
(iii) Semi-direct System

This system utilizes luminaries which send most of the light downwards directly on the
workingplane but a considerable amount reaches the ceilings and walls also

Fig 3.6

The division is usually 30% upwards and 45% downwards. Such a system is best suited to
roomswith high ceilings where a high level of uniformly-distributed illumination is desirable.
Glare in suchunits is avoided by using diffusing globes which not only improve the brightness
towards the eyelevel but improve the efficiency of the system with reference to the working
plane.

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(iv) Semi-indirect Lighting

In this system which is, in fact, a compromise between the first two systems, the light is
partlyreceived by diffuse reflection and partly direct from the source (Fig. 49.38). Such a system,
therefore,eliminates the objections of indirect lighting mentioned above. Instead of using opaque
bowls withreflectors, translucent bowls without reflector are used. Most of the light is, as before,
directedupwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection and the rest reaches the working plane
directly except for some absorption by the bowl.

Fig 3.7
(v) General Diffusing System

In this system, luminaries are employed which have almost equal light distributiondownwards
and upwards as shown

Fig 3.8
ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF LIGHT

The different methods of producing light by electricity may, in a board sense, be divided into
three groups.
1. By temperature incandescence. In this method, an electric current is passed through a
filament of thin wire placed in vacuum or an inert gas. The current generates enough heat to raise
the temperature of the filament to luminosity. Incandescent tungsten

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filament lamps are examples of this type and since their output depends on the temperature of
their filaments, they are known as temperature radiators.
2. By establishing an arc between two carbon electrodes. The source of light, in their case, is
the incandescent electrode.
3. Discharge Lamps. In these lamps, gas or vapour is made luminous by an electric discharge
through them. The colour and intensity of light i.e. candle-power emitted depends on the nature
of the gas or vapour only. It should be particularly noted that these discharge lamps are
luminiscentlight lamps and do not depend on temperature for higher efficiencies. In this respect,
they differ radically from incandescent lamps whose efficiency is dependent on temperature.
Mercury vapour lamp, sodium-vapour lamp, neon-gas lamp and fluorescent lamps are examples
of light sources based on discharge through gases and vapours.
FLOOD LIGHTING

It means „flooding‟ of large surfaces with the help of light from powerful projectors.
Flooding isemployed for the following purposes :
1. For aesthetic purposes as for enhancing the beauty of a building by nighti.e.flood lightingof
ancient monuments, religious buildings on important festive occassions etc.
2.For advertising purposesi.e.flood lighting, huge hoardings and commercial buildings.

3.For industrial and commercial purposes as in the case of railway yards, sports stadiums and
quarries etc.
Usually, floodlight projectors having suitable reflectors fitted with standard 250-, 500-, or 1,000-
watt gas-filled tungsten lamps, areemployed. One of the two typical floodlightinstallations often
used is as shown inFiga). The projector is kept 15 mto 30 m away from the surface to
befloodlighted and provides approximatelyparallel beam having beam spread of 25°to 30°. Fig.
(b) shows the case whenthe projector cannot be located away fromthe building. In that case, an
asymmetricreflector is used which directs more intense light towards the top of the building.
The total luminous flux required tofloodlight a building can be found from the relation,

Φ= EA/ η × p --------------------------------------------------------- (10)

However, in the case of flood-lighting, one more factor has to be taken into account. That
factoris known as waste-light factor (W ). It is so because when several projectors are used, there
is boundto be a certain amount of overlap and also because some light would fall beyond the
edges of the areato be illuminated. These two factors are taken into account by multiplying the
theoretical value of theflux required by a waste-light factor which has a value of nearly 1.2 for
regular surfaces and about 1.5for irregular objects like statues etc. Hence, the formula for
calculation of total flux required for floodlighting purposes is

Ф=EAW/ηρ ---------------------------------------------------------------------(11)

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 Fig 3.9

STREET LIGHTING

The major purposes of street lighting are

To promote tehe community and convenience in the streeta at night through adequatevisibility
To promote the community value of a street
To increase the attractiveness of the street

In a wll lighted street objects are shown up in silhouette by the background of the road
surface.An object is shown up in silhouette when the general level of brightness of all or a
substantial part of it is lower than the brightness of its background.The method of discernment
predominates in the observation of distant objects on lighted streets and highways where the
object itself may posses relatively low average brightness in the direction of the observer
whereas the street possess a relatively high background brightness.
For proper illumination of streets the main requirements for the light distribution from the lamps
are:
1.The lamps should give a peak of intensity at a sufficiently high angle to make best use of the
reflecting properties of the surface of the road.
2.The intensities below the peak should gradually become smaller in order that the luminance of
the road close to the lamp-post should not be so great as to cause a patchy appearance.
3.The reduction in intensity above the peak should be sharp in order to reduce glare.

Incandescent Lamps

An incandescent lamp essentially consists of a fine wire of a high-resistance metal placed in an

evacuated glass bulb and heated to luminosity by the passage of current through it. Such lamps
were * It indicates the divergence of a beam and may be defined as the angle within which the
minimum illumination on a surface normal to the axis of the beam is 1/10th of the maximum
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 produced commercially for the first time by Edison in 1879.
His early lamps had filaments of carbonized paper which were, later on, replaced by carbonized
bamboo. They had the disadvantage of negative temperature coefficient of resistivity. In 1905,
the metallized carbon-filament lamps were put in the market whose filaments had a positive
temperature coefficient of resistivity (like metals). Such lamps gave 4 lm/W. At approximately
the same time, osmium lamps were manufactured which had filaments made of osmium which
is very rare and expensive metal. Such lamps had a very fair maintenance of candle-power
during their useful life and an averae efficiency of 5 lm/W. However, osmium filaments were
found to be very fragile.
In 1906 tantalum lamps having filaments of tantalum were produced which had an initial
efficiency of 5 lm/watt. All these lamps were superseded by tungsten lamps which were
commercially produced in about 1937 or so. The superiority of tungsten lies mainly in its
ability to withstand a high operating temperature without undue vaporisation of the filament. The
necessity of high working temperature is due to the fact that the amount of visible radiation
increases with temperature and so does the radiant efficiency of the luminous source. The
melting temperature of tungsten is 3655°K whereas that of osmium is 2972°K and that of
tantalum is 3172°K. Actually, carbon has a higher melting point than tungsten but its operating
temperature is limited to about 2073°K because of rapid vaporization beyond this temperature.
In fact, the ideal material for the filament of incandescent lamps is one which has the following
properties :
1. A high melting and hence operating temperature

2. A low vapour pressure

3. A high specific resistance and a low temperature coefficient

4. Ductility and

5. Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand vibrations. Since tungsten possesses practically all
the above mentioned qualities, it is used in almost all modern incandescent lamps. The earlier
lamps had a square-cage type filament supported from a central glass stem enclosed in an
evacuated glass bulb.

The object of vacuum was two fold :

i.to prevent oxidation and

ii.to minimize loss of heat by convection and the consequent lowering of filament temperature.
However, vacuum favoured the evaporation of the filament with the resulting blackening of the
lamp so that the operating temperature had to be kept as low as 2670º K with serious loss in
luminous efficiency

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 Fig 3.10

It was, later on, found that this difficulty could be solved to a great extent by inserting a
chemically inert gas like nitrogen or argon. The presence of these gases within the glass bulb
decreased the evaporation of the filament and so lengthened its life. The filament could now be
run at a relatively higher temperature and hence higher luminous efficiency could be realized. In
practice, it was found that an admixture of 85% argon and about 15 percent nitrogen gave the
best results. However, introduction of gas led to another difficulty i.e. loss of heat due to
convection which offsets the additional increase in efficiency. However, it was found that for
securing greater efficiency, a concentrated filament having a tightly-wound helical construction
was necessary. Such a coiled filament was less exposed to circulating gases, its turns supplying
heat to each other and further the filament was mechanically stronger. The latest improvement is
that the coiled filament is itself coiled„resulting in ‗coiled-coil„ filament Fig. 3.10
(a) which leads to further concentrating the heat, reducing the effective exposure to gasesand allows
higher temperature operation, thus giving greater efficiency.
The construction of a modern coiled coil gas-filled filament lamp is shown

(b) The lamp has a ‗wreath„ filament i.e. a coiled filament arranged in the form of a wreathon radial
supports
Discharge Lamps

In all discharge lamps, an electric current is passed through a gas or vapour which renders
itluminous. The elements most commonly used in this process of producing light by gaseous
conductionare neon, mercury and sodium vapours.
The colours (. wavelength) of light produced depends onthe nature of gas or vapour. For
example, the neon discharge yields orange-red light of nearly 6,500A.U. which is very popular
for advertising signs and other spectacular effects. The pressure used inneon tubes is usually
from 3 to 20 mm of Hg. Mercury-vapour light is always bluish green and deficient in red rays,
whereas sodium vapour light is orange-yellow.
Discharge lamps are of two types. The first type consists of those lamps in which the colour of
light is the same as produced by the discharge through the gas or vapour. To this group belong

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theneon gas lamps, mercury vapour (M.V.) and sodium vapour lamps. The other type consists of
vapourlamps which use the phenomenon of fluorescence. In their case, the discharge through
the vapourproduces ultra-violet waves which cause fluorescence in certain materials known as
phosphors. Theradiations from the mercury discharge (especially 2537 A° line) impinge on these
phosphors whichabsorb them and then re-radiate them at longer wave-lengthsof visible spectrum.
The inside of thefluorescent lamp is coated with these phosphors for this purpose. Different
phosphors have different exciting ranges of frequency and give lights of different colours as
shown in table
Table 3.2 Lights of Different Colours

Sodium Vapour Lamp

One type of low-pressure sodium-v a pou r l a mp a l ong wi th i t s ci rcu i t connection is shown

in Fig. 3.11. It consists of an inner U-tube A made of a s p e c i a l s o d i u m - v a p o u r - r e s i s t i
n g glass. It houses the two electrodes andcontains sodium together with the small amount of neon-
gas at a pressure of about 10 mm of mercury and one percent of argon whose main function isto
reduce the initial ionizing potential.
The discharge is first started in the neon gas (which gives out redish color).A f t e r a f e w m i n u t es
, t h e h e a t o f d i s c h a r g e t h r o u g h t h e n e o n g a s becomes sufficient to
vaporise sodium and then discharge passes through the sodium vapour. In this way, the lamp
starts its normal operation emitting its characteristic yellow light.
The tungsten-coated electrodes are connected across auto-transformer T having a relatively
highleakage reactance. The open-circuit voltage of this transformer is about 450 V which is
sufficient toinitiate a discharge through the neon gas. The leakage reactance is used not only for
starting thecurrent but also for limiting its value to safe limit. The electric discharge or arc strikes
immediatelyafter the supply is switched on whether the lamp is hot or cold. The normal burning
position of thelamp is horizontal although two smaller sizes of lamp may be burnt vertically. The
lamp is surroundedby an outer glass envelope B which serves to reduce the loss of heat from the
inner discharge tube A.In this way, B helps to maintain the necessary high temperature needed
for the operation of a sodium vapour lamp irrespective of draughts. The capacitor C is meant for
improving the power factor of the circuit.

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 Fig 3.11

The light emitted by such lamps consists entirely of yellow colour. Solid objects illuminated
bysodium-vapour lamp, therefore, present a picture in monochrome appearing as various shades
of yellow or black.
Mercury Vapour Lamp

Like sodium-vapour lamp, this lamp is also classified as electric discharge lamp in which light
isproduced by gaseous conduction. Such a lamp usually consists of two bulbs — an arc-tube
containingthe electric discharge and an outer bulb which protects the arc-tube from changes in
temperature. The nner tube or arc tube A is made of quartz (or hard glass) the outer bulb B of
hard glass. As shown inFig. 3.12, the arc tube contains a small amount of mercury and argon gas
and houses three electrodes D, E and S. The main electrodes are D and E whereas S is the
auxiliary starting electrode.S is connected through a high resistance R (about 50 kΩ) to the main
electrode situated at the outer endof the tube. The main electrodes consist of tungsten coils with
electron- emitting coating or elements of thorium metal.
When the supply is switched on, initial discharge for the few seconds is established in the
argongas between D and S and then in the argon between D and E . The heat produced due to
this dischargethrough the gas is sufficient to vaporise mercury. Consequently, pressure inside A
increases to aboutone or two atmospheres and the
p.d. across D and E grows from about 20 to 150 V, the operationtaking about 5-7 minutes.
During this time, discharge is established through the mercury vapours which emit greenish-blue
light.

Fig 3.12
20
 The choke serves to limit the current drawn by the discharge tube A to a safe limit and capacitor
C helps to improve the power factor of the circuit.
True colour rendition is not possible with mercury vapour lamps since there is complete
absenceof red-light from their radiations. Consequently, red objects appear black, all blues
appear mercury-spectrum blue and all greens the mercury-spectrum green with the result that colour values
are distorted.
Correction for colour distortion can be achieved by

1.Using incandescent lamps (which are rich in red light) in combination with the mercurylamps.
2.Using colour-corrected mercury lamps which have an inside phosphor coat to add red colourto
the mercury spectrum.
Stroboscopic (Flickering) effect in mercury vapour lamps is caused by the 100 on and off
arcstrikes when the lamps are used on the 50-Hz supply. The effect may be minimized by

1. Using two lamps on lead-lag transformer

2. Using three lamps on separated phases of a 3-phase supply and 3.Using incandescent lamps in
combination with mercury lamps.
In the last few years, there has been tremendous improvement in the construction and
operationof mercury-vapour lamps, which has increased their usefulness and boosted their
application for alltypes of industrial lighting, floodlighting and street lighting etc. As compared
to an incandescentlamp, a mercury-vapour lamp is ( a ) smaller in size (b) has 5 to 10 times
longer operating life and(c) has 3 times higher efficiency
i.e.3 times more light output for given electrical wattage input. Typicalmercury-vapour lamp

applications are :

1.High-bay industrial lighting — where high level illumination is required and colourrendition
is not important.
2.Flood-lighting and street-lighting
3.Photochemical applications — where ultra-violet output is useful as in chlorination,
watersterilization and photocopying etc.
4.For a wide range of inspection techniques by ultra-violet activation of fluorescent and phos-
phorescent dyes and pigments.
5.Sun-tan lamps — for utilizing the spectrum lines in the erythemal region of ultra-
violetenergyfor producing sun-tan.

POLAR CURVES

The Luminous flux obtained by a source can be determined from the intensity distribution
curve.The luminous intensity or candle power of any practical lamp is not uniform in all
directions due to its unsymmetrical shape.The distribution light is given by polar curves. If the
actual luminous intensity of a source in various directions be plotted to scale along lines

21
radiating from the centre of the source at corresponding angles, we obtain the polar curve of the
candle power.
Suppose we construct a figure consisting of large number of spokes radiating out from a point
—the length of each spoke representing to some scale the candle power or luminous intensity of
the source in that particular direction. If now we join the ends of these spokes by some suitable
material, say, by linen cloth, then we get a surface whose shape will represent to scale the three
dimensional candle power distribution of the source placed at the centre. In the ideal case of a
point source having equal distribution in all directions, the surface would be spherical. It would
be realized that it is difficult to give a graphic representation of such a 3-dimensional model in a
plane surface. Therefore, as with engineering drawings, it is usual to draw only one or more
elevations and a plan of sections through the centre of the source. Elevations represent
c.p. distribution in the vertical plane and the plans represent c.p. distribution in horizontal plane.
The number of elevations required to give a complete idea of the c.p. distribution of the source in
all directions depends upon the shape of the plan i.e. on the horizontal distribution. If the
distribution is uniform in every horizontal plane i.e. if the polar curve of horizontal distribution is
a circle, then only one vertical curve is sufficient to give full idea of the space distribution.
(Fig 3.12) are shown two polar curves of c.p. distribution in a vertical plane. Curve 1 is for
Vacuum type tungsten lamp with zig-zag filament whereas curve 2 is for gas filled tungstenlamp
with filament arranged as a horizontal ring.

Fig 3.13

If the polar curve is symmetrical about the vertical axis as in the figures given below, then it is
sufficient to give only the polar curve within one semicircle in order to completely define the
distribution of c.p. as shown in Fig.(3.12). The curves 1 and 2 are as in Fig. (3.12), curves 3 is
for d.c. open arc with plain carbons and curve 4 is for a.c. arc with plain carbons. However, if the
source and/or reflector are not symmetrical about vertical axis, it is impossible to represent the
space distribution of c.p. by a single polar diagram and even polar diagrams for two planes at
right angles to each other give no definite idea as to the distribution in the intermediate planes.

22
Consider a filament lamp with a helmet-type reflector whose axis is inclined and cross- section
elliptical—such reflectors are widely used for lighting shop windows. Fig. (3.13) represents the
distribution of luminous intensity of such source and its reflector in two planes at right angles to
each other. The importance of considering the polar curves in different planes when the c.p.
distribution in asymmetrical is even more strikingly depicted by the polar curves in YY plane and
XX plane of a lamp with a special type of reflector designed for street lighting purposesFig(3.14)

Fig 3.14

Fig 3.15

It would be realized from above that the polar distribution of light from any source can be given
any desired form by using reflectors and/or refractors of appropriate shape.
ROUSSEAU‘S CONSTRUCTION
Only half of the vertical polar curve is shown in the figure (Fig. 3.16 &3.17) since it is
symmetrical about the vertical axis. With O is the centre and radius OR equal to the maximum
radius of the polar curve, a semi-circle LRM is drawn. A convenient number of points on this
semi-circle (say 10° points) are projected onto any vertical plane as shown. For example, points
a,b,c etc. are projected to d,e,f and so on. From point d, the horizontal line dg is drawn equal to
the intercept OA of the polar diagram on the radius oa. Similarly, eh = OB, fk = OC and so on.
The points g, h, k etc., define the Rousseau figure. The average width w of this figure represents
the M.S.C.P. to the same scale as that of the candle powers in the polar curve. The average width
is obtained by dividing the Rousseau area by the base of the Rousseau figure i.e. length lm which
is the projection of the semi-circle LM on the vertical axis. The area may be determined by
Simpson„s rule or by using a planimeter

23
 Fig 3.16

Fig 3.17

-(12)
As explained earlier, the M.H.C.P. of an incandescent lamp can be easily obtained by mounting
the lamp with its axis vertical and taking photometer readings in the horizontal plane while the
lamp is rotated about its axis in steps of 10° or so. A definite ratio exists between the M.H.C.P.
and M.S.C.P. of each particular type of filament. M.S.C.P. of a lamp can be found by
multiplying
M.H.C.P. by a factor known as spherical reduction factor which, as defined earlier, is For the

particular lamp considered, f = 430/80 = 0.54 (approx.) ---------------------- (13)

LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes)

LEDs are solid-state semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy directly into light.
LEDs can be extremely small and durable; some LEDs can provide much longer lamplife than
other sources.
Figure 3.18 shows several typical LEDs. The plastic encapsulant and the lead

24
frame occupy most of the volume. The light-generating chip is quite small (typically a
cuboid with one side equal to 0.25 mm). Light is generated inside the chip, a solid crystal
material, when current flows across the junctions of different materials. The composition of the
materials determines the wavelength and therefore the color of light.

Fig 3.18

Fluorescent Lamp

A fluorescent lamp, or fluorescent tube, is a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that

uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor,
which produces short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of
the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more
efficiently than incandescent lamps. The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting
systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with
comparable light output.
Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because they require a ballast
to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher
initial cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same popular sizes as
incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.

A fluorescent lamp tube is filled with a gas containing low-pressure mercury

vapor and argon, xenon, neon, or krypton. The pressure inside the lamp is around 0.3% of
atmospheric pressure. The inner surface of the lamp is coated with a fluorescent
(and often slightly phosphorescent) coating made of varying blends of metallic and rare-earth
phosphor salts. The lamp's electrodes are typically made of coiled tungsten and usually referred
to as cathodes because of their prime function of emitting electrons. For this, they are coated
with a mixture of barium, strontium and calcium oxides chosen to have a low thermionic
emissiontemperature.
Fluorescent lamp tubes are typically straight and range in length from about 100 millimeters (3.9
in) for miniature lamps, to 2.43 meters (8.0 ft) for high-output lamps. Some lamps have the tube
bent into a circle, used for table lamps or other places where a more compact light source is
desired. Larger U- shaped lamps are used to provide the same amount of light in a more compact
area, and are used for special architectural purposes. Compact fluorescent lamps have several
small-diameter tubes joined in a bundle of two, four, or six, or a small diameter tube coiled into a
helix, to provide a high amount of light output in little volume.

25
Light-emitting phosphors are applied as a paint-like coating to the inside of the tube. The organic
solvents are allowed to evaporate, then the tube is heated to nearly the melting point of glass to
drive off remaining organic compounds and fuse the coating to the lamp tube. Careful control of
the grain size of the suspended phosphors is necessary; large grains, 35 micrometers or larger,
lead to weak grainy coatings, whereas too many small particles 1 or 2 micrometers or smaller
leads to poor light maintenance and efficiency. Most phosphors perform best with a particle size
around 10 micrometers. The coating must be thick enough to capture all the ultraviolet light
produced by the mercury arc, but not so thick that the phosphor coating absorbs too much visible
light. The first phosphors were synthetic versions of naturally occurring fluorescent minerals,
with small amounts of metals added as activators. Later other compounds were discovered,
allowing differing colors of lamps to be made.

Fig 3.19

Applications
Fluorescent lamps come in many shapes and sizes. The compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) is
becoming more popular. Many compact fluorescent lamps integrate the auxiliary electronics into
the base of the lamp, allowing them to fit into a regular light bulb socket.
In US residences, fluorescent lamps are mostly found in kitchens, basements, or garages, but
schools and businesses find the cost savings of fluorescent lamps to be significant and rarely use
incandescent lights. Tax incentives and building codes result in higher use in places such as
California.
In other countries, residential use of fluorescent lighting varies depending on the price of energy,
financial and environmental concerns of the local population, and acceptability of the light

26
output. In East and Southeast Asia it is very rare to see incandescent bulbs in buildings
anywhere.
Some countries are encouraging the phase-out of incandescent light bulbs and substitution of
incandescent lamps with fluorescent lamps or other types of energy-efficient lamps.
In addition to general lighting, special fluorescent lights are often used in stage lighting for film
and video production. They are cooler than traditional halogen light sources, and use high-
frequency ballasts to prevent video flickering and high color-rendition index lamps to
approximate daylight color temperatures.

Advantages

Luminous efficacy
Fluorescent lamps convert more of the input power to visible light than incandescent lamps,
though as of 2013 LEDs are sometimes even more efficient and are more rapidly increasing in
efficiency. A typical 100 watt tungsten filament incandescent lamp may convert only 5% of its
power input to visible white light (400–700 nm wavelength), whereas typical fluorescent lamps
convert about 22% of the power input to visible white light.

The efficacy of fluorescent tubes ranges from about 16 lumens per watt for a 4 watt tube with an
ordinary ballast to over 100 lumens per watt with a modern electronic ballast, commonly
averaging 50 to 67 lm/W overall. Most compact fluorescents above 13 watts with integral
electronic ballasts achieve about 60 lm/W. Lamps are rated by lumens after 100 hours of
operation.For a given fluorescent tube, a high-frequency electronic ballast gives about a 10%
efficacy improvement over an inductive ballast. It is necessary to include the ballast loss when
evaluating the efficacy of a fluorescent lamp system; this can be about 25% of the lamp power
with magnetic ballasts, and around 10% with electronic ballasts.
Life
Typically a fluorescent lamp will last 10 to 20 times as long as an equivalent incandescent lamp
when operated several hours at a time. Under standard test conditions general lighting lamps
have 9,000 hours or longer service life.
The higher initial cost of a fluorescent lamp compared with an incandescent lamp is usually more
than compensated for by lower energy consumption over its life.
A few manufacturers are producing T8 lamps with 90,000 hour lamp lives, rivalling the life of
LED lamps.
Lower luminance
Compared with an incandescent lamp, a fluorescent tube is a more diffuse and physically larger
light source. In suitably designed lamps, light can be more evenly distributed without point
source of glare such as seen from an undiffused incandescent filament; the lamp is large
compared to the typical distance between lamp and illuminated surfaces.
Lower heat
Fluorescent lamps give off about one-fifth the heat of equivalent incandescent lamps. This
greatly reduces the size, cost, and energy consumption devoted to air conditioning for office
buildings that would typically have many lights and few windows.

27
 Questions
Part – A

1.Define space –height ratio.

2.State different lighting schemes.
3.Define i) Solid angle ii) Luminous intensity.
4.Define the terms,Lumen,Candle power.
5.Define i) Angstrom ii) Luminous flux
6.List out the requirements of good lighting?
7.What are the advantages of fluorescents lighting over plain mercury discharge lighting?
8.Why tungsten is selected as the filament material & on what factors its life depends?
9.What are the advantages & disadvantages of sodium & high pressure mercury lightingover that
of filaments lamp?

Part – B

1.Explain the working of high pressure mercury vapour lamp with neat sketch.
2.Explain with the help of diagram ,how the MSCP can be found from a vertical polar curveby
Rousseau’s construction.
3.Explain with a neat diagram , the principle and operation of sodium vapour Lamp.
4.Draw the schematic diagram of low pressure mercury vapour lamp & explain the operation
of thelamp.
5.Draw the schematic diagram of sodium vapour lamp.
6.The illumination in a drawing office 30 m× 10 m is to have a value of 250 lux and is to be
provided by a number of 300-W filament lamps. If the coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and the
depreciation factor 0.9, determine the number of lamps required. The luminous efficiency of
eachlamp is 14 lm/W.
7.Explain the schematic diagram of Fluorescent Lamp.

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Uppal.S.L. “Electrical Power”, Khanna Publishers, 9th Edition, 2001.

2. J.B. Gupta, “Utilization of Electric Power and Electric Traction”, Kataria & Sons publishers,
Delhi, 9 th Edition, 2004.
3. R.K.Rajput, “Utilization of Electrical power”, Laxmi Publications, 2006.
4. Leonard L.Grigsby, ”Electric power generation, transmission and Distribution”, CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis Group, 2012.
5. S.Sivanagaraju, M.Balasubba Reddy and D.Srilatha, ”Electric Energy-Generation, Utilization
and Conservation” Pearson, 2012.

28
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SEEA3001-POWER GENERATION AND UTILIZATION

UNIT – IV
HEATING AND WELDING

1
 UNIT IV HEATING AND WELDING
Introduction - methods of heating - design of heating element- resistance, inductance, arc
furnaces- high freq. dielectric heating- welding - types- resistance, arc welding- construction and
its characteristics.

4.1. Introduction

Electric heating is any process in which electrical energy is converted to heat. Common
applications include space heating, cooking, water heating and industrial processes. An electric
heater is an electrical device that converts electric current to heat. The heating element inside
every electric heater is an electrical resistor, and works on the principle of Joule heating: an
electric current passing through a resistor will convert that electrical energy into heat energy.
Most modern electric heating devices use nichrome wire as the active element; the heating
element, depicted on the right, uses nichrome wire supported by ceramic insulators.

Alternatively, a heat pump uses an electric motor to drive a refrigeration cycle, that draws heat
energy from a source such as the ground or outside air and directs that heat into the space to be
warmed. Some systems can be reversed so that the interior space is cooled and the warm air is
discharged outside or into the ground. Heat pumps can deliver three or four units of heating
energy for every unit of electricity purchased, with the amount of heating energy delivered being
a function of equipment efficiency as well as the temperature difference between the ground (or
outdoor air) and the building interior.

2
4.1.1. Space heating

Space heating is used to warm the interiors of buildings. Electric space heating is useful in places
where air-handling is difficult, such as in laboratories. Several methods of electric space heating
are used.

4.1.2. Radiant heaters

Electric radiant heating uses heating elements that reach a high temperature. The element is
usually packaged inside a glass envelope resembling a light bulb and with a reflector to direct the
energy output away from the body of the heater. The element emits infrared radiation that travels
through air or space until it hits an absorbing surface, where it is partially converted to heat and
partially reflected. This heat directly warms people and objects in the room, rather than warming
the air. This style of heater is particularly useful in areas through which unheated air flows. They
are also ideal for basements and garages where spot heating is desired. More generally, they are
an excellent choice for task-specific heating.Radiant heaters operate silently and present the
greatest potential danger of ignition of nearby furnishings due to the focused intensity of their
output and lack of overheat protection. In the United Kingdom, these appliances are sometimes
called electric fires, because they were originally used to replace open fires.

The active medium of the heater depicted at the right is a coil of nichrome resistance wire inside
a fused silica tube, open to the atmosphere at the ends, although models exist where the fused
silica is sealed at the ends and the resistance alloy is not nichrome.

4.1.3. Convection heaters

In a convection heater, the heating element heats the air in contact with it by thermal conduction.
Hot air is less dense than cool air, so it rises due to buoyancy, allowing more cool air to flow in
to take its place. This sets up a convection current of hot air that rises from the heater, heats up
the surrounding space, cools and then repeats the cycle. These heaters are sometimes filled with
oil. They are ideally suited for heating a closed space. They operate silently and have a lower

3
risk of ignition hazard if they make unintended contact with furnishings compared to radiant
electric heaters.

4.1.4. Fan heaters

A fan heater, also called a forced convection heater, is a variety of convection heater that
includes an electric fan to speed up the airflow. They operate with considerable noise caused by
the fan. They have a moderate risk of ignition hazard if they make unintended contact with
furnishings. Their advantage is that they are more compact than heaters that use natural
convection.

4.1.5. Storage heating

A storage heating system takes advantage of cheaper electricity prices, sold during low demand
periods such as overnight. The storage heater stores heat in clay bricks, then releases it during the
day when required. Newer storage heaters are able to be used with various tariffs. Alongside new
designs the use of a thermostat or sensor has improved the efficiency of the storage heater. A
thermostat or sensor is able to read the temperature of the room, and change the output of the
heater accordingly.

Water can also be used as a heat-storage medium.

4.1.6. Domestic electrical under floor heating

An electric under floor heating system has heating cables embedded in the floor. Current flows
through a conductive heating material, supplied either directly from the line voltage (120 or 240
volts) or at low voltage from a transformer. The heated cables warm the flooring until it reaches
the right temperature set by the floor thermostat. The flooring then heats the adjacent air, which
circulates, heating other objects in the room (tables, chairs, people) by convection. As it rises, the
heated air will warm the room and all its contents up to the ceiling. This form of heating gives
the most consistent room temperature from floor to ceiling compared to any other heating
system. A variation of this principle uses tubes filled with circulating hot water.

4.1.7.Lighting system

In large office towers, the lighting system is integrated with the heating and ventilation system.
Waste heat from fluorescent lamps is captured in the return air of the heating system; in large
buildings a substantial part of the annual heating energy is supplied by the lighting system.
However, this waste heat becomes a liability when using air conditioning.

4.1.8.Heat pumps

A heat pump uses an electrically driven compressor to operate a refrigeration cycle that extracts
heat energy from outdoor air, the ground or ground water, and moves that heat to the space to be
warmed. A liquid contained within the evaporator section of the heat pump boils at low pressure,
absorbing heat energy from the outdoor air or the ground. The vapor is then compressed by a

4
compressor and piped into a condenser coil within the building to be heated. The heat from the
hot dense gas is absorbed by the air in the building (and sometimes also used for domestic hot
water) causing the hot working fluid to condense back into a liquid. From there the high pressure
fluid is passed back to the evaporator section where it expands through an orifice and into the
evaporator section, completing the cycle. In the summer months, the cycle can be reversed to
move heat out of the conditioned space and to the outside air.

Heat pumps may obtain low-grade heat from the outdoor air in mild climates. In areas with
average winter temperatures well below freezing, ground source heat pumps are more efficient
than air source heat pumps because they can extract residual solar heat stored in the ground at
warmer temperatures than is available from cold air. According to the US EPA, geothermal heat
pumps can reduce energy consumption up to 44% compared with air source heat pumps and up
to 72% compared with electric resistance heating. The high purchase price of a heat pump vs
resistance heaters may be offset when air conditioning is also needed.

4.1.9.Liquid heating

4.1.9.1.Immersion heater

An immersion heater has an electrical resistance heating element encased in a tube and directly
placed in the water (or other fluid) to be heated. The immersion heater may be placed in an
insulated hot water tank. A temperature sensor within the tank triggers a thermostat to control the
temperature of the water. Small portable immersion heaters may not have a control thermostat,
since they are intended to be used only briefly and under control of an operator.

4.1.9.2.Domestic immersion heaters

Domestic immersion heaters, usually rated at 3 kilowatts and on a 1.5" British Standard Pipe
screw plug in the UK, run on the normal domestic electricity supply, but consumers may also
take advantage of a cheaper, off-peak electricity tariff such as. In a typical off-peak installation, a
lower immersion heater is connected to the separately switched off-peak heating circuit and an
upper heater is connected to the normal circuit via its own switch. The consumer then has the

5
option to top-up the available hot water supply at any time, rather than waiting for the cheaper
supply to turn on (typically after midnight). A poorly insulated hot water cylinder will increase
running costs because a consumer must pay for electricity used to replace lost heat.

Electric shower and tank less heaters also use an immersion heater (shielded or naked) that is
turned on with the flow of water. A group of separate heaters can be switched in order to offer
different heating levels. Electric showers and tank less heaters usually use from 3 to 7.5
kilowatts.

Irish-American comedian Des Bishop talks about his first encounter with a domestic immersion
heater in one of his comedy routines.

4.1.9.3.Industrial immersion heaters

Industrial immersion heaters can be either screwed or flanged. Screwed industrial immersion
heaters, in the UK usually on a 2.25" British Standard Pipe are usually only rated up to
approximately 24 kW, with 6 kW being considered the very top end that can be accommodated
safely on a single phase supply. Flanged immersion heaters (such as those used in electric steam
boilers) can be rated at up to 2000 kilowatts, or more, and require a three-phase supply.

Electrical immersion heaters may heat water immediately adjacent to the heating element high
enough to promote the formation of scale, commonly calcium carbonate, in hard water areas.
This accumulates on the element, and over time, as the element expands and contracts through its
heating cycle, the scale cracks off and drops to the bottom of the tank, progressively filling up
the tank. This reduces the tank's capacity and, where the immersion heater is secondary to the
heating of the water by a coil fed from a gas or oil-fired boiler, can reduce the efficiency of the
primary heating source by covering that other coil and in turn reducing its efficiency. Regular
flushing-out of accumulated sediment can reduce this problem.

Such problems can be avoided at the design stage, by maximizing the amount of hot element in
the liquid, thus reducing the watts density. This reduces the working temperature of the surface
of the element, reducing the buildup of lime scale.

4.1.9.4.Direct electric heat exchangers (DEHE)

The direct electric heat exchangers (DEHE) uses heating elements inserted into the "shell side"
medium directly to provide the heating effect. Virtually all of the electric heat generated by the
electric circulation heater is transferred into the medium, thus an electric heater is nearly 100
percent efficient. Direct electric heat exchangers or "circulation heaters" are used to heat liquids
and gases in industrial processes.

4.2.Methods of heating

4.2.1.Electric heating

6
Methods of converting electric energy to heat energy by resisting the free flow of electric
current. Electric heating has several advantages: it can be precisely controlled to allow a
uniformity of temperature within very narrow limits; it is cleaner than other methods of heating
because it does not involve any combustion; it is considered safe because it is protected from
overloading by automatic breakers; it is quick to use and to adjust; and it is relatively quiet. For
these reasons, electric heat is widely chosen for industrial, commercial, and residential use.

Resistance heaters produce heat by passing an electric current through a resistance—a coil, wire,
or other obstacle which impedes current and causes it to give off heat. Heaters of this kind have
an inherent efficiency of 100% in converting electric energy into heat. Devices such as electric
ranges, ovens, hot-water heaters, sterilizers, stills, baths, furnaces, and space heaters are part of
the long list of resistance heating equipment.

Dielectric heaters use currents of high frequency which generate heat by dielectric hysteresis
(loss) within the body of a nominally non conducting material. These heaters are used to warm to
a moderate temperature certain materials that have low thermal conducting properties; for
example, to soften plastics, to dry textiles, and to work with other materials like rubber and
wood.

Induction heaters produce heat by means of a periodically varying electromagnetic field within
the body of a nominally conducting material. This method of heating is sometimes called eddy-
current heating and is used to achieve temperatures below the melting point of metal. For
instance, induction heating is used to temper steel, to heat metals for forging, to heat the metal
elements inside glass bulbs, and to make glass-to-metal joints.

Electric-arc heating is really a form of resistance heating in which a bridge of vapor and gas
carries an electric current between electrodes. The arc has the property of resistance. Electric-arc
heating is used mainly to melt hard metals, alloys, and some ceramic metals.

Electricity is one choice for heating houses, but with only a 35% efficiency rate, electricity has
been a less attractive option than the direct use of gas and oil for heating homes. Common
electric heating systems in houses are central heating employing an electric furnace with forced
air circulation; central heating employing an electric furnace with forced water circulation;
central heating using radiant cables; electrical duct heaters; space (strip) heaters which use
radiation and natural convection for heat transfer; and portable space heaters.

4.2.2.Resistance heating

The generation of heat by electric conductors carrying current. The degree of heating for a given
current is proportional to the electrical resistance of the conductor. If the resistance is high, a
large amount of heat is generated, and the material is used as a resistor rather than as a
conductor.

In addition to having high resistivity, heating elements must be able to withstand high
temperatures without deteriorating or sagging. Other desirable characteristics are low
temperature coefficient of resistance, low cost, formability, and availability of materials. Most

7
commercial resistance alloys contain chromium or aluminum or both, since a protective coating
of chrome oxide or aluminum oxide forms on the surface upon heating and inhibits or retards
further oxidation.

Since heat is transmitted by radiation, convection, or conduction or combinations of these, the

form of element is designed for the major mode of transmission. The simplest form is the helix,
using a round wire resistor, with the pitch of the helix approximately three wire diameters. This
form is adapted to radiation and convection and is generally used for room or air heating. It is
also used in industrial furnaces, utilizing forced convection up to about 1200°F (650°C). Such
helixes are stretched over grooved high-alumina refractory insulators and are otherwise open and
unrestricted.

The electrical resistance of molten salts between immersed electrodes can be used to generate
heat. Limiting temperatures are dependent on decomposition or vaporization temperatures of the
salt, Parts to be heated are immersed in the salt. Heating is rapid and, since there is no exposure
to air, oxidation is largely prevented. Disadvantages are the personnel hazards and discomfort of
working close to molten salts.

A major application of resistance heating is in electric home appliances, including electric

ranges, clothes dryers, water heaters, coffee percolators, portable radiant heaters, and hair dryers.
Resistance heating also has application in home or space heating.

If the resistor is located in a thermally insulated chamber, most of the heat generated is
conserved and can be applied to a wide variety of heating processes. Such insulated chambers are
called ovens or furnaces, depending on the temperature range and use. The term oven is
generally applied to units which operate up to approximately 800°F (430°C). Typical uses are for
baking or roasting foods, drying paints and organic enamels, baking foundry cores, and low-
temperature treatments of metals. The term furnace generally applies to units operating above
1200°F (650°C). Typical uses of furnaces are for heat treatment or melting of metals, for
verification and glazing of ceramic wares, for annealing of glass, and for roasting and claiming
of ores.

4.2.3.Dielectric heating

The heating of a nominally electrical insulating material due to its own electrical (dielectric)
losses, when the material is placed in a varying electrostatic field.

The material to be heated is placed between two electrodes (which act as capacitor plates) and
forms the dielectric component of a capacitor (see illustration). The electrodes are connected to a
high-voltage source of 2-90-MHz power, produced by a high-frequency vacuum-tube oscillator.

8
The resultant heat is generated within the material, and in homogeneous materials is uniform
throughout. Dielectric heating is a rapid method of heating and is not limited by the relatively
slow rate of heat diffusion present in conventional heating by external surface contact or by
radiant heating.

This technique is widely employed industrially for preheating in the molding of plastics, for
quick heating of thermosetting glues in cabinet and furniture making, for accelerated jelling and
drying of foam rubber, in foundry core baking, and for drying of paper and textile products. Its
advantages over conventional methods are the speed and uniformity of heating, which offset the
higher equipment costs. Because of the absence of high thermal gradients, an improved end-
product quality is usually obtained.

4.2.4.Induction heating

The heating of a nominally electrical conducting material by eddy currents induced by a varying
electromagnetic field. The principle of the induction heating process is similar to that of a
transformer. In the illustration, the inductor coil can be considered the primary winding of a
transformer, with the work piece as a single-turn secondary. When an alternating current flows in
the primary coil, secondary currents will be induced in the work piece. These induced currents
are called eddy currents. The current flowing in the work piece can be considered as the
summation of all of the eddy currents.

In the design of conventional electrical apparatus, the losses due to induced eddy currents are
minimized because they reduce the overall efficiency. However, in induction heating, their
maximum effect is desired. Therefore close spacing is used between the inductor coil and the
work piece, and high coil currents are used to obtain the maximum induced eddy currents and
therefore high heating rates.

Induction heating is widely employed in the metalworking industry for a variety of industrial
processes. While carbon steel is by far the most common material heated, induction heating is
also used with many other conducting materials such as various grades of stainless steel,
aluminum, brass, copper, nickel, and titanium products.

The advantages of induction heating over the conventional processes (like fossil furnace or salt-
bath heating) are the following: (1) Heating is induced directly into the material. It is therefore an
extremely rapid method of heating. It is not limited by the relative slow rate of heat diffusion in
conventional processes using surface-contact or radiant heating methods. (2) Because of skin
effect, the heating is localized and the heated area is easily controlled by the shape and size of
the inductor coil. (3) Induction heating is easily controllable, resulting in uniform high quality of

9
the product. (4) It lends itself to automation, in-line processing, and automatic-process cycle
control. (5) Startup time is short, and standby losses are low or nonexistent. (6) Working
conditions are better because of the absence of noise, fumes, and radiated heat.

Induction heating is characterized by the non uniform release of power in the object being
heated. Eighty-six percent of the power is released in the surface layer (the so-called
penetration). The penetration of the current Δ (in meters) where ρ is the specific electrical
resistivity in ohms • m, μ, is the relative magnetic permeability, and f is the frequency in hertz
(Hz).

Low-frequency (50 Hz), medium-frequency (up to 10 kHz) and high-frequency (over 10 kHz)
currents are used in induction heating to generate an alternating electromagnetic field.
Mechanical and static converters, as well as tube oscillators, are used to supply medium- or high-
frequency current to induction heaters.

Induction heating is most widely used in the melting of metals, zone melting, and heating for
pressure shaping. Induction heating is the most advanced contactless method of transmitting
electrical energy to the object being heated, converting electrical energy directly into thermal
energy.

4.2.5. Principle of High-frequency Induction Heater Unit

Induction heater units incorporate high frequency generators for non-contact heating of metal
using electromagnetic induction.

When AC is applied to a coil surrounding the work (metal), a magnetic field is generated by the
current flowing in the coil, and induced loss (hysteresis loss) is generated causing a heat. At the
same time, in the magnetic field which alternates with the AC, a spiral current (eddy current) is
generated by the electromagnetic induction. This eddy current generates Joule heating, and a heat
loss of the electromagnetic energy (eddy-current loss) will be caused. High frequency induction
heating equipment performs heating by utilizing the two heating principle, namely hysteresis loss
and eddy-current loss.

10
4.2.6. Arc heating

The matter may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. When the heating is direct, the material to be heated
is one electrode; for indirect heating, the heat is transferred from the arc by conduction,
convection, or radiation.

At atmospheric pressure, the arc behaves much like a resistor operating at temperatures of the
order of thousands of kelvins. The energy source is extremely concentrated and can reach many
millions of watts per cubic meter. Almost all materials can be melted quickly under these
conditions, and chemical reactions can be carried out under oxidizing, neutral, or reducing
conditions.

In a direct-arc furnace, the arc strikes directly between the graphite electrodes and the charge
being melted. These furnaces are used in steelmaking, foundries, ferroalloy production, and some
nonferrous metallurgical applications. Although an extremely large number of furnace types are
available, they are all essentially the same. They consist of a containment vessel with a refractory
lining, a removable roof for charging, electrodes to supply the energy for melting and reaction,
openings and a mechanism for pouring the product, a power supply, and controls. The required
accessory components include water-cooling circuits, gas cleaning and extraction equipment,
cranes for charging the furnace, and ladles to remove the product. Because the electrodes are
consumed by volatilization and reaction, a mechanism must be provided to feed them
continuously through the electrode holders.

In submerged-arc furnaces, the arcs are below the solid feed and sometimes below the molten
product. Submerged-arc furnaces differ from those used in steelmaking in that raw materials are

11
fed continuously around the electrodes and the product and slag are tapped off intermittently.
The furnace vessel is usually stationary. Submerged-arc furnaces are often used for carbothermic
reductions (for example, to make ferroalloys), and the gases formed by the reduction reaction
percolate up through the charge, preheating and sometimes pre reducing it. Because of this, the
energy efficiency of this type of furnace is high. The passage of the exhaust gas through the
burden also filters it and thus reduces air-pollution control costs.

Although carbon arcs are plasmas, common usage of the term plasma torch suggests the injection
of gas into or around the arc. This gas may be inert, neutral, oxidizing, or reducing, depending on
the application and the electrodes used. Plasma torches are available at powers ranging from a
few kilowatts to over 10 MW; usually they use direct-current electricity and water-cooled
metallic electrodes.

Direct-current carbon arc furnaces operate on the basis that a direct-current arc is more stable
than its alternating-current counterpart, and can, therefore, be run at lower current and higher
voltage by increasing the arc length. This reduces both the electrode diameter and the electrode
consumption compared to alternating-current operation at similar powers. Tests have also shown
that injecting gas through a hole drilled through the center of the electrode further increases
stability and reduces wear. Powdered ore and reluctant may be injected with this gas, reducing
the need for agglomerating the arc furnace feed.In most cases, direct-current carbon arc furnaces
have one carbon electrode, with the product forming the second electrode. The current is usually
removed from the furnace through a bottom constructed of electrically conducting material.
Several direct-current plasma furnaces with powers ranging from 1 to 45 MW are in operation.

4.2.7.Disadvantages of Electric Heating

With space heaters, we can't easily provide central filtration, humidification or cooling .
However, this is also true of boilers and radiant heating, for example, no matter which fuel is
used to generate the heat. Electric furnaces , of course, do have the opportunity to provide central
filtration, humidification and cooling. Some people would suggest that the electrical hazard of
shock and fire caused by electricity is an issue. However, since this is already an issue in homes
because of the electrical distribution system, most people do not feel that this adds considerably
to the hazard of the house. Electric heat requires a larger electrical service than normal. There is
a cost associated with this.

4.3.Welding

4.3.1. Introduction to Welding

A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form one piece when
heated to a temperature high enough to cause softening or melting. Filler material is typically
added to strengthen the joint.

12
Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently joining similar metals.
In other words, you can weld steel to steel or aluminum to aluminum, but you cannot weld steel
to aluminum using traditional welding processes.

Welding is used extensively in all sectors or manufacturing, from earth moving equipment to the
aerospace industry.

4.3.2. Welding Processes

The most popular processes are shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).

All of these methods employ an electric power supply to create an arc which melts the base
metal(s) to form a molten pool. The filler wire is then either added automatically (GMAW) or
manually (SMAW & GTAW) and the molten pool is allowed to cool.

Finally, all of these methods use some type of flux or gas to create an inert environment in which
the molten pool can solidify without oxidizing.

4.3.3.Electric resistance welding

where heat to form the weld is generated by the electrical resistance of material combined with
the time and the force used to hold the materials together during welding. Some factors
influencing heat or welding temperatures are the proportions of the work pieces, the metal
coating or the lack of coating, the electrode materials, electrode geometry, electrode pressing
force, electrical current and length of welding time. Small pools of molten metal are formed at
the point of most electrical resistance (the connecting or "faying" surfaces) as an electrical
current (100–100,000 A) is passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are
efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are limited to relatively thin materials
and the equipment cost can be high (although in production situations the cost per weld may be
low)

4.3.4.Spot welding

Spot welding is a resistance welding method used to join two or more overlapping metal sheets,
studs, projections, electrical wiring hangers, some heat exchanger fins, and some tubing. Usually
power sources and welding equipment are sized to the specific thickness and material being
welded together. The thickness is limited by the output of the welding power source and thus the
equipment range due to the current required for each application. Care is taken to eliminate
contaminants between the faying surfaces. Usually, two copper electrodes are simultaneously
used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. When the current
is passed through the electrodes to the sheets, heat is generated due to the higher electrical
resistance where the surfaces contact each other. As the electrical resistance of the material
causes a heat buildup in the work pieces between the copper electrodes, the rising temperature
causes a rising resistance, and results in a molten pool contained most of the time between the

13
electrodes. As the heat dissipates throughout the work piece in less than a second (resistance
welding time is generally programmed as a quantity of AC cycles or milliseconds) the molten or
plastic state grows to meet the welding tips. When the current is stopped the copper tips cool the
spot weld, causing the metal to solidify under pressure. The water cooled copper electrodes
remove the surface heat quickly, accelerating the solidification of the metal, since copper is an
excellent conductor. Resistance spot welding typically employs electrical power in the form of
direct current, alternating current, medium frequency half-wave direct current, or high-frequency
half wave direct current.
If excessive heat is applied or applied too quickly, or if the force between the base materials is
too low, or the coating is too thick or too conductive, then the molten area may extend to the
exterior of the work pieces, escaping the containment force of the electrodes (often up to 30,000
psi). This burst of molten metal is called expulsion, and when this occurs the metal will be
thinner and have less strength than a weld with no expulsion. The common method of checking a
weld's quality is a peel test. An alternative test is the restrained tensile test, which is much more
difficult to perform, and requires calibrated equipment. Because both tests are destructive in
nature (resulting in the loss of salable material), non-destructive methods such as ultrasound
evaluation are in various states of early adoption by many OEMs.

The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited work piece deformation, high
production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. When high strength in shear
is needed, spot welding is used in preference to more costly mechanical fastening, such as
riveting. While the shear strength of each weld is high, the fact that the weld spots do not form a
continuous seam means that the overall strength is often significantly lower than with other
welding methods, limiting the usefulness of the process. It is used extensively in the automotive
industry— cars can have several thousand spot welds. A specialized process, called shot
welding, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.

There are three basic types of resistance welding bonds: solid state, fusion, and reflow braze. In a
solid state bond, also called a thermo-compression bond, dissimilar materials with dissimilar
grain structure, e.g. molybdenum to tungsten, are joined using a very short heating time, high
weld energy, and high force. There is little melting and minimum grain growth, but a definite
bond and grain interface. Thus the materials actually bond while still in the solid state. The
bonded materials typically exhibit excellent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel strength. In
a fusion bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with similar grain structures are heated to the
melting point (liquid state) of both. The subsequent cooling and combination of the materials
forms a “nugget” alloy of the two materials with larger grain growth. Typically, high weld
energies at either short or long weld times, depending on physical characteristics, are used to
produce fusion bonds. The bonded materials usually exhibit excellent tensile, peel and shear
strengths. In a reflow braze bond, a resistance heating of a low temperature brazing material,
such as gold or solder, is used to join either dissimilar materials or widely varied thick/thin
material combinations. The brazing material must “wet” to each part and possess a lower melting
point than the two work pieces. The resultant bond has definite interfaces with minimum grain
growth. Typically the process requires a longer (2 to 100 ms) heating time at low weld energy.
The resultant bond exhibits excellent tensile strength, but poor peel and shear strength.

14
4.3.5.Seam welding

Resistance seam welding is a process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of two similar
metals. The seam may be a butt joint or an overlap joint and is usually an automated process. It
differs from butt welding in that butt welding typically welds the entire joint at once and seam
welding forms the weld progressively, starting at one end. Like spot welding, seam welding
relies on two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure and current. The electrodes
are disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between them. This allows the electrodes to stay
in constant contact with the material to make long continuous welds. The electrodes may also
move or assist the movement of the material.

A transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low voltage, high current AC
power. The joint of the work piece has high electrical resistance relative to the rest of the circuit
and is heated to its melting point by the current. The semi-molten surfaces are pressed together
by the welding pressure that creates a fusion bond, resulting in a uniformly welded structure.
Most seam welders use water cooling through the electrode, transformer and controller
assemblies due to the heat generated. Seam welding produces an extremely durable weld because
the joint is forged due to the heat and pressure applied. A properly welded joint formed by
resistance welding is typically stronger than the material from which it is formed.

A common use of seam welding is during the manufacture of round or rectangular steel tubing.
Seam welding has been used to manufacture steel beverage cans but is no longer used for this as
modern beverage cans are seamless aluminum.

There are two modes for seam welding: Intermittent and continuous. In intermittent seam
welding, the wheels advance to the desired and stop to make each weld. This process continues
until the desired length of the weld is reached. In continuous seam welding, the wheels continue
to roll as each weld is made.

4.3.6.Low-frequency Electric resistance welding

Electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe is manufactured by cold-forming a sheet of steel into a
cylindrical shape. Current is then passed between the two edges of the steel to heat the steel to a
point at which the edges are forced together to form a bond without the use of welding filler
material. Initially this manufacturing process used low frequency A.C. current to heat the edges.

Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to selective seam
corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low frequency ERW is no
longer used to manufacture pipe. The high frequency process is still being used to manufacture
pipe for use in new pipeline construction.

4.3.7.Flash welding

The pieces of metal to be welded are set apart at a predetermined distance based on material
thickness, material composition, and desired properties of the finished weld. Current is applied to
the metal, and the gap between the two pieces creates resistance and produces the arc required to

15
melt the metal. Once the pieces of metal reach the proper temperature, they are pressed together,
effectively forging them together.

4.3.7.1 Applications

According to the Journal of Materials Processing, the railroad industry is using flash welding to
join sections of mainline rail together. This mainline rail is also known as continuously welded
rail (CWR) and is much smoother than mechanically joined rail because there are no gaps
between the sections of rail. This smoother rail reduces the wear on the rails themselves,
effectively reducing the frequency of inspections and maintenance. In other countries,
continuously welded rail is used on high-speed rail lines because of its smoothness. A study
published in Materials Science and Design proved that flash welding is also beneficial in the
railroad industry because it allows dissimilar metals and non ferrous metals to be joined. This
allows crossings, which are generally composed of high manganese steel, to be effectively
welded to the carbon steel rail with the use of a stainless steel insert, while keeping the desired
mechanical properties of both the rail and the crossing intact. The ability of this single process to
weld many different metals with simple parameter adjustments makes it very versatile. Materials
and Design discusses the use of flash welding in the metal building industry to increase the
length of the angle iron used to fabricate joists.

16
4.3.8.Spot welding

Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by the
heat obtained from resistance to electric current.

Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in
the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy
electrodes to concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the
sheets together. Forcing a large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld.
The attractive feature of spot welding is that a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very
short time (approximately 10–100 milliseconds).That permits the welding to occur without
excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.

The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the
electrodes and the magnitude and duration of the current. The amount of energy is chosen to
match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little
energy will not melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too
much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. Another feature of spot
welding is that the energy delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.

Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process, the weld is localized by
means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the work pieces to be joined. Heat is
concentrated at the projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer
spacing of welds. The projections can also serve as a means of positioning the work pieces.
Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and other screw machine parts to metal
plate. It is also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production
process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and jigging.

4.3.9.Arc welding

is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an
electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct
(DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding
region is usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes
may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th
century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World
War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

17
4.3.9.1.Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

SMAW is a welding process that uses a flux covered metal electrode to carry an electrical
current. The current forms an arc that jumps a gap from the end of the electrode to the work. The
electric arc creates enough heat to melt both the electrode and the base material(s). Molten metal
from the electrode travels across the arc to the molten pool of base metal where they mix
together. As the arc moves away, the mixture of molten metals solidifies and becomes one piece.
The molten pool of metal is surrounded and protected by a fume cloud and a covering of slag
produced as the coating of the electrode burns or vaporizes. Due to the appearance of the
electrodes, SMAW is commonly known as ‘stick’ welding.

SMAW is one of the oldest and most popular methods of joining metal. Moderate quality welds
can be made at low speed with good uniformity. SMAW is used primarily because of its low
cost, flexibility, portability and versatility. Both the equipment and electrodes are low in cost and

18
very simple. SMAW is very flexible in terms of the material thicknesses that can be welded
(materials from 1/16” thick to several inches thick can be welded with the same machine and
different settings). It is a very portable process because all that’s required is a portable power
supply (i.e. generator). Finally, it’s quite versatile because it can weld many different types of
metals, including cast iron, steel, nickel & aluminum.

Some of the biggest drawbacks to SMAW are (1) that it produces a lot of smoke & sparks, (2)
there is a lot of post-weld cleanup needed if the welded areas are to look presentable, (3) it is a
fairly slow welding process and (4) it requires a lot of operator skill to produce consistent quality
welds.

4.3.9.2.Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

In the GMAW process, an arc is established between a continuous wire electrode (which is
always being consumed) and the base metal. Under the correct conditions, the wire is fed at a
constant rate to the arc, matching the rate at which the arc melts it. The filler metal is the thin
wire that’s fed automatically into the pool where it melts. Since molten metal is sensitive to
oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free gases is required. This shielding gas provides
a stable, inert environment to protect the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GMAW is
commonly known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding. Since fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the
welds produced are sound, free of contaminants, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal.
The filler material is usually the same composition (or alloy) as the base metal.

19
GMAW is extremely fast and economical. This process is easily used for welding on thin-gauge
metal as well as on heavy plate. It is most commonly performed on steel (and its alloys),
aluminum and magnesium, but can be used with other metals as well. It also requires a lower
level of operator skill than the other two methods of electric arc welding discussed in these notes.
The high welding rate and reduced post-weld cleanup are making GMAW the fastest growing
welding process.

4.3.9.3.Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

In the GTAW process, an arc is established between a tungsten electrode and the base metal(s).
Under the correct conditions, the electrode does not melt, although the work does at the point
where the arc contacts and produces a weld pool. The filler metal is thin wire that’s fed manually
into the pool where it melts. Since tungsten is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with
oxygen-free gas is required. The same inert gas provides a stable, inert environment to protect
the weld pool as it solidifies. Consequently, GTAW is commonly known as TIG (tungsten inert
gas) welding. Because fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of
contaminants and slags, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal.

Tungsten’s extremely high melting temperature and good electrical conductivity make it the best
choice for a non-consumable electrode. The arc temperature is typically around 11,000° F.
Typical shielding gasses are Ar, He, N, or a mixture of the two. As with GMAW, the filler
material usually is the same composition as the base metal.

20
GTAW is easily performed on a variety of materials, from steel and its alloys to aluminum,
magnesium, copper, brass, nickel, titanium, etc. Virtually any metal that is conductive lends
itself to being welded using GTAW. Its clean, high-quality welds often require little or no post-
weld finishing. This method produces the finest, strongest welds out of all the welding processes.
However, it’s also one of the slower methods of arc welding.

4.4.Selection of the welding process

The selection of the joining process for a particular job depends upon many factors. There is no
one specific rule governing the type of welding process to be selected for a certain job. A few of
the factors that must be considered when choosing a welding process are:
Availability of equipment
Repetitiveness of the operation
Quality requirements (base metal penetration, consistency, etc.)
Location of work
Materials to be joined
Appearance of the finished product
Size of the parts to be joined
Time available for work
Skill experience of workers
Cost of materials
Code or specification requirements

4.4.1. Welding power supply

A welding power supply is a device that provides an electric current to perform welding.
Welding usually requires high current (over 80 amperes) and it can need above 12,000 amperes
in spot welding. Low current can also be used; welding two razor blades together at 5 amps with
gas tungsten arc welding is a good example. A welding power supply can be as simple as a car
battery and as sophisticated as a high-frequency inverter using IGBT technology, with computer
control to assist in the welding process.

4.4.2. Classification

Welding machines are usually classified as constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV); a
constant current machine varies its output voltage to maintain a steady current while a constant
voltage machine will fluctuate its output current to maintain a set voltage. Shielded metal arc
welding and gas tungsten arc welding will use a constant current source and gas metal arc
welding and flux-cored arc welding typically use constant voltage sources but constant current is
also possible with a voltage sensing wire feeder.
The nature of the CV machine is required by gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc welding
because the welder is not able to control the arc length manually. If a welder attempted to use a
CV machine to weld with shielded metal arc welding the small fluctuations in the arc distance
would cause wide fluctuations in the machine's output. With a CC machine the welder can count
on a fixed number of amps reaching the material to be welded regardless of the arc distance but
too much distance will cause poor welding.

21
4.4.3. Power supply designs
The welding power supplies most commonly seen can be categorized within the following types:

4.4.4. Transformer
A transformer-style welding power supply converts the moderate voltage and moderate current
electricity from the utility mains (typically 230 or 115 VAC) into a high current and low voltage
supply, typically between 17 to 45 (open-circuit) volts and 55 to 590 amperes. A rectifier
converts the AC into DC on more expensive machines.
This design typically allows the welder to select the output current by variously moving a
primary winding closer or farther from a secondary winding, moving a magnetic shunt in and out
of the core of the transformer, using a series saturating reactor with a variable saturating
technique in series with the secondary current output, or by simply permitting the welder to
select the output voltage from a set of taps on the transformer's secondary winding. These
transformer style machines are typically the least expensive.
The trade off for the reduced expense is that pure transformer designs are often bulky and
massive because they operate at the utility mains frequency of 50 or 60 Hz. Such low frequency
transformers must have a high magnetizing inductance to avoid wasteful shunt currents. The
transformer may also have significant leakage inductance for short circuit protection in the event
of a welding rod becoming stuck to the work piece. The leakage inductance may be variable so
the operator can set the output current.

4.4.5. Generator and alternator

Welding power supplies may also use generators or alternators to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Modern designs are usually driven by an internal combustion engine but older
machines may use an electric motor to drive an alternator or generator. In this configuration the
utility power is converted first into mechanical energy then back into electrical energy to achieve
the step-down effect similar to a transformer. Because the output of the generator can be direct
current, or even a higher frequency ac current, these older machines can produce DC from AC
without any need for rectifiers of any type, or can also be used for implementing formerly-used
variations on so-called heli arc (most often now called TIG) welders, where the need for a higher
frequency add-on module box is avoided by the alternator simply producing higher frequency ac
current directly.

4.4.6. Inverter
Since the advent of high-power semiconductors such as the insulated gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT), it is now possible to build a switched-mode power supply capable of coping with the
high loads of arc welding. These designs are known as inverter welding units. They generally
first rectify the utility AC power to DC; then they switch (invert) the DC power into a step down
transformer to produce the desired welding voltage or current. The switching frequency is
typically 10 kHz or higher. Although the high switching frequency requires sophisticated
components and circuits, it drastically reduces the bulk of the step down transformer, as the mass
of magnetic components (transformers and inductors) that is required for achieving a given
power level goes down rapidly as the operating (switching) frequency is increased. The inverter
circuitry can also provide features such as power control and overload protection. The high
frequency inverter-based welding machines are typically more efficient and provide better
control of variable functional parameters than non-inverter welding machines.

22
The IGBTs in an inverter based machine are controlled by a microcontroller, so the electrical
characteristics of the welding power can be changed by software in real time, even on a cycle by
cycle basis, rather than making changes slowly over hundreds if not thousands of cycles.
Typically, the controller software will implement features such as pulsing the welding current,
providing variable ratios and current densities through a welding cycle, enabling swept or
stepped variable frequencies, and providing timing as needed for implementing automatic spot-
welding; all of these features would be prohibitively expensive to design into a transformer-
based machine, but require only program memory space in a software-controlled inverter
machine. Similarly, it is possible to add new features to a software-controlled inverter machine if
needed, through a software update, rather than through having to buy a more modern welder.

4.4.7. Other types

Additional types of welders also exist, besides the types using transformers, motor/generator, and
inverters. For example, laser welders also exist, and they require an entirely different type of
welding power supply design that does not fall into any of the types of welding power supplies
discussed previously. Likewise, spot welders require a different type of welding power supply,
typically containing elaborate timing circuits and large capacitor banks that are not commonly
found with any other types of welding power supplies.

4.4.7.1. Welding Transformers

Most of the power supplies available now are a.c. Therefore a transformer for welding is
most commonly used as compared to motor-generator set. Moreover motor-generator set has to
be kept in the running position continuously during the weld is made.

Welding transformer is a transformer having thin primary winding with large number of
turns. While the secondary is having more area of cross-section and with less number of turns.
This ensures very high current and less voltage in the secondary.
One end of the secondary is connected to welding electrode and another end is connected to
the pieces to be welded. Due to the contact resistance between the electrode and pieces to be
welded, when a very high current flows, I 2R heat is produced. This heat is very large. Due to this
heat, a tip of the electrode melts and fills the gap between the two pieces.
A winding used for the welding transformer is highly reactive or a separate reactor may be
added in series with the secondary winding.
4.4.7.2.V-I Characteristics

23
 Volt ampere characteristics for a welding transformer is as shown in the Fig.

Volt ampere characteristics for a welding transformer

4.4.7.3.Reactors used with with Welding Transformer

The welding transformer can be used with various reactors for control of arc. The various
methods of such control are :

i) Tapped Reactor : In this, output current is regulated by taps on the reactor. This has limited
number of current settings.

Tapped reactor

ii) Moving Coil Reactor :

In this method, the relative distance between primary and the secondary is adjusted.
When the distance between the coils is large the current obtained is less.

Moving coil reactor

24
iii) Magnetic Shunt Reactor : In this method, position of central magnetic shunt can be
adjusted. This adjusts the shunted flux and hence output current gets changed.

Magnetic shunt reactor

iv) Continuously Variable Reactor : The height of the reactor is continuously varied in this
method. Greater the core insertion greater is the reactance and less is the output current.

Continuously variable reactor

v) Saturable Reactor :
The reactance of the reactor is adjusted by changing the value of d.c. excitation obtained
from d.c. controlled transducer. More the d.c. currents, reactor approaches to saturation. This
changes the reactance of reactor and hence changing the current.

25
 Saturation reactor
QUESTIONS

PART A

1. List out the requirements for a good heating element.

2. Discuss the principle of arc furnace?
3. Distinguish between core type and coreless type induction furnaces.
4. Compare direct arc & indirect arc furnaces.
5. Discuss the principle of induction heating.
6. List out the advantages of coreless induction furnace.
7. Compare induction & dielectric heating.

PART B

1. Outline dielectric heating and explain its application in industry & domestic areas.
2. Explain the core type (AJAX-WYATT) induction furnace and state its application.
3. Discuss with neat sketch, the various methods of electrical arc welding.
4. Elaborate various resistances welding process.
5. With neat sketch, develop the construction, principle of operation, application & control
methods of direct & indirect arc furnaces.
6. Explain butt & spot welding with a neat sketch.
TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1.C.L.Wadhwa, “Generation, Distribution & Utilisation of Electrical Energy”, New Age

International Publishers, New Delhi, Reprint 2016.
2. Uppal.S.L. “Electrical Power”, Khanna Publishers, 9th Edition, 2001.
3. R.K.Rajput, “Utilization of Electrical power”, Laxmi Publications, 2006.
4. S.Sivanagaraju, M.Balasubba Reddy and D.Srilatha, ”Electric Energy-Generation, Utilization
and Conservation” Pearson, 2012.

26
 SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SEEA3001-POWER GENERATION AND UTILIZATION

UNIT – V ELECTRIC TRACTION

2
 UNIT V-ELECTRIC TRACTION

Introduction - requirements of an ideal traction Train Movement-Speed-Time Curve-

mechanics of train movement - tractive effort calculations- Power and energy output from
driving axles-Traction motors and its Characteristics-Traction motor control-Current
collection systems.

INTRODUCTION

Electric traction means using the electric power for traction system (i.e. for
railways,trams, trolleys etc). Electric traction means use of the electricity for all the above
machines. Basically dc motors are used for electric traction systems.
Electric traction has many advantages as compared to other non-electrical systems of
traction including steam traction.

TRACTION SYSTEMS
Broadly speaking, all traction systems may be classified into two categories

Non-electric traction systems

They do not involve the use of electrical energy at any stage. Examples are: steam enginedrive
used in railways and internal-combustion-engine drive used for road transport.
Electric traction systems

They involve the use of electric energy at some stage or the other. They may be further
subdivided intotwo groups

1.First group consists of self-contained vehicles or locomotives. Examples are : battery-electric

drive and diesel-electric drive etc.
2.Second group consists of vehicles which receive electric power from a distribution network
fed at suitable points from either central power stations or suitably-spaced sub- stations.

Examples are : railway electric locomotive fed from overhead ac supply and tramwaysandtrolley
buses supplied with dc supply.

Direct Steam Engine Drive

Though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, steam locomotive is still the
most widely adopted means of propulsion for railway work. Invariably, the reciprocating
engine is employed because

1.It is inherently simple.

2.Connection between its cylinders and the driving wheels is simple.
3.Its speed can be controlled very easily.

However, the steam locomotive suffers from the following disadvantages:

3
1. Since it is difficult to install a condenser on a locomotive, the steam engine runs non-
condensing and, therefore, has a very low thermal efficiency of about 6-8 percent.

2. It has strictly limited overload capacity.

3. It is available for hauling work for about 60% of its working days, the remaining 40%
being spent in preparing for service, in maintenance and overhaul.

Diesel-electric Drive
It is a self-contained motive power unit which employs a diesel engine for direct drive of a dc
generator. This generator supplies current to traction motors which are geared to the driving
axles. In India, diesel locomotives were introduced in 1945 for shunting service on broad guage
(BG) sections and in 1956 for high-speed main-line operations on metre-guage (MG) sections. It
was only in 1958 that Indian Railways went in for extensive main-line dieselisation.

Diesel-electric traction has the following advantages:

1.No modification of existing tracks is required while converting from steam to diesel- electric
traction.

2.It provides greater tractive effort as compared to steam engine which results in higherstarting
acceleration.

3.It is available for hauling for about 90% of its working days.

4.Diesel-electric locomotive is more efficient than a steam locomotive (though less efficient
than an electric locomotive).

Disadvantages

1.For same power, diesel-electric locomotive is costlier than either the steam or electric
locomotive.

2.Overload capacity is limited because diesel engine is a constant-kW output prime mover.

3.Life of a diesel engine is comparatively shorter.

4.Diesel-electric locomotive is heavier than plain electric locomotive because it carries the main
engine, generator and traction motors etc.

5.Regenerative braking cannot be employed though rheostatic braking can be.

4
 Battery-electric Drive
In this case, the vehicle carries secondary batteries which supply current to dc motors used for
driving the vehicle. Such a drive is well-suited for shunting in railway yards, for traction in
mines, for local delivery of goods in large towns and large industrial plants. They have low
maintenance cost and are free from smoke. However, the scope of such vehicles is limited
because of the small capacity of the batteries and the necessity of charging them frequently.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL TRACTION

The requirements of an ideal traction system are

1. The locomotive should be self-contained and able to run on any route braking should be such
that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes if possible the braking energy should be
regenerated and returned to the supply.
2. Speed control should be easy.
3. The wear on the track should be the minimum.
4. The starting tractive effort should be high so as to have rapid acceleration.
5. There should be no interference to the communication lines running along the lines.
6. It should be Pollution free.
7. Low initial and maintenance costs.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

As compared to steam traction, electric traction has the following advantages :

1.Cleanliness. Since it does not produce any smoke or corrosive fumes, electric traction is most
suited for underground and tube railways. Also, it causes no damage to the buildings and other
apparatus due to the absence of smoke and flue gases.

2.Maintenance Cost. The maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is nearly 50% of that fora
steam locomotive. Moreover, the maintenance time is also much less.

3.Starting Time. An electric locomotive can be started at a moment's notice whereas a steam
locomotive requires about two hours to heat up.

4.High Starting Torque. The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting torque.
Hence, it is possible to achieve higher accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h/s as against 0.6 to 0.8
km/h/s in steam traction

5.Braking. It is possible to use regenerative braking in electric traction system. It leads to the
following

5
 ADVANTAGES:

(i) About 80% of the energy taken from the supply during ascent is returned to it during descent.

(ii) Goods traffic on gradients becomes safer and speedier.

(iii) Since mechanical brakes are used to a very small extent, maintenance of brake shoes, wheels,
tyres and track rails is considerably reduced because of less wear and tear.

6.Lower Centre of Gravity. Since height of an electric locomotive is much less than that of a
steam locomotive, its centre of gravity is comparatively low. This fact enables an electric
locomotive to negotiate curves at higher speeds quite safely.

7.Absence of Unbalanced Forces. Electric traction has higher coefficient of adhesion since there
are no unbalanced forces produced by reciprocating masses as is the case in steam traction. It not
only reduces the weight/kW ratio of an electric locomotive but also improves its riding quality in
addition to reducing the wear and tear of the track rails.

DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

1. The most vital factor against electric traction is the initial high cost of laying out overhead
electric supply system. Unless the traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes
uneconomical.

2. Power failure for few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours.

3. Communication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines suffer from
electrical interference. Hence, these communication lines have either to be removed away
from the rail track or else underground cables have to be used for the purpose which
makes theentire system still more expensive.

4. Electric traction can be used only on those routes which have been electrified. Obviously,
this restriction does not apply to steam traction.

5. Provision of a negative booster is essential in the case of electric traction. By avoiding the
flow of return currents through earth, it curtails corrosion of underground pipe work and
interference with telegraph and telephone circuits.

6
 SYSTEMS OF RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION

Presently, following four types of track electrification systems are available:

1. Direct current system—600 V, 750 V, 1500 V, 3000 V

2. Single-phase ac system—15-25 kV, 16 23, 25 and 50 Hz

3. Three-phase ac system—3000-3500 V at 16 2 3 Hz

4. Composite system—involving conversion of single-phase ac into 3-phase ac or dc.

TRAIN MOVEMENT
The movement of trains and their energy consumption can be conveniently studied by means of
speed/time and speed/distance curves. As their names indicate, former gives speed of the train at
various times after the start of the run and the later gives speed at various distances from the
starting point. Out of the two, speed/time curve is more important because

1. Its slope gives acceleration or retardation as the case may be.

2. Area between it and the horizontal (i.e. time) axis represents the distance travelled.

3. Energy required for propulsion can be calculated if resistance to the motion of train is known

TYPICAL SPEED/TIME CURVE

Typical speed/time curve for electric trains operating on passenger services is shown in Fig. 1. It
may be divided into the following five parts :

1. Constant Acceleration Period (0 to t1)

It is also called notching-up or starting period because during this period, starting resistance of
the motors is gradually cut out so that the motor current (and hence, tractive effort) is
maintained nearly constant which produces constant acceleration alternatively called rheostatic
acceleration‘ or Acceleration while notching‘.

2. Acceleration on Speed Curve(T1 to t2)

This acceleration commences after the starting resistance has been all cut out at point t1 and full
supply voltage has been applied to the motors. During this period, the motor current and torque
decrease as train speed increases. Hence, acceleration gradually decreases till torque developed
by motors exactly balances that due to resistance to the train motion. The shape of the portion AB
of the speed/time curve depends primarily on the torque/speed characteristics of the traction
motors.

7
3. Free-running Period (t2 to t3)
The train continues to run at the speed reached at point t2. It is represented by portion
BC in Fig. 1and is a constant-speed period which occurs on level tracks.

4. Coasting (t3 to t4)

Power to the motors is cut off at point t3 so that the train runs under its momentum, the speed
gradually falling due to friction, wind age etc. (portion CD). During this period, retardation
remains practically constant. Coasting is desirable because it utilizes some of the kinetic energy
of the train which would, otherwise, be wasted during braking. Hence, it helps to reduce the
energy consumption of the train.
5. Braking (t4 to t5)
At point t4, brakes are applied and the train is brought to rest at point t5.
It may be noted that coasting and braking are governed by train resistance and allowable
retardation respectively.

FIG 1 SPEED-TIME CURVES

SPEED/TIME CURVES FOR DIFFERENT SERVICES

Fig. 2 (a) is representative of city service where relative values of acceleration and retardation
are high in order to achieve moderately high average speed between stops. Due to short
Distances between stops, there is no possibility of free-running period though a short coasting
period is included to save on energy consumption.
In suburban services [Fig. 2 (b)], again there is no free-running period but there is comparatively
longer coasting period because of longer distances between stops. In this case also, relatively
high values of acceleration and retardation are required in order to make the service as attractive
as Possible.

8
For main-line service [Fig. 2 (c)], there are long periods of free-running at high speeds. The
accelerating and retardation periods are relatively unimportant.

FIG 2 DIFFETENT SPEED-TIME CURVES

SIMPLIFIED SPEED/TIME CURVE

For the purpose of comparative performance for a given service, the actual speed/time curve of
Fig. 1 is replaced by a simplified speed/time curve which does not involve the knowledge of
motor characteristics. Such a curve has simple geometric shape so that simple mathematics
can be used to find the relation between acceleration, retardation, average speed and distance etc.
The simple curve would be fairly accurate provided it
(i) retains the same acceleration and retardation and (ii) has The same area as the actual
speed/time curve. The simplified speed/time curve can have either of the two shapes:
(i) trapezoidal shape OABC of Fig. 3 where speed-curve running and coasting periods of the
actual speed/time curve have been replaced by a constant speed period.

FIG 3 Trapezoidal Speed-time curve

9
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRINCIPAL QUANTITIES IN TRAPEZOIDAL
DIAGRAM
As seen from Fig. 3
α = Vm /t1 or t1 = Vm /α β
= Vm /t3 or t3 = Vm /β
As we know, total distance D between the two stops is given by the area of trapezium
OABC.
therefore D = area OABC
= area OAD + area ABED + area BCE

10
(ii) Quadrilateral shape OABC where the same two periods are replaced by the extensions of
initial constant acceleration and coasting periods. It is found that trapezoidal diagram OA1B1C
gives simpler relationships between the principal quantities involved in train movement and also
gives closer approximation of actual energy consumed during main-line service on level track.
On the other hand, quadrilateral diagram approximates more closely to the actual conditions in
city and suburban services.

Fig 4 Quadrilateral Speed/Time Curve

11
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRINCIPAL QUANTITIES IN QUADRILATERAL
DIAGRAM

As before,

12
TRACTIVE EFFORT FOR PROPULSION OF TARIN

Fig 5

13
 SPECIFIC ENERGY OUTPUT
It is the energy output of the driving wheel expressed in watt-hour (Wh) per tonne-km (t- km) of
the train. It can be found by first converting the energy output into Wh and then dividing it by the
mass of the train in route distance in km.
Hence, unit of specific energy output generally used in railway work is : Wh/tonne-km (Wh/t-
km).
EVALUATION OF SPECIFIC ENERGY OUTPUT

We will first calculate the total energy output of the driving axles and then divide it by train mass
in tonne and route length in km to find the specific energy output. It will be presumed that :

(i) there is a gradient of G throughout the run and

(ii) power remains ON upto the end of free run in the case of trapezoidal curve and up to the
accelerating period in the case of quadrilateral curve

Now, output of the driving axles is used for the following purposes :
1. for accelerating the train
2. for overcoming the gradient
3. for overcoming train resistance.

14
Where D’ is the total distance over which power remains ON.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

It equals the total energy input to the traction motors from the supply. It is usually expressed in
Wh which equals 3600 J. It can be found by dividing the energy output of the driving wheels
with the combined efficiency of transmission gear and motor.

SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION

It is the energy consumed (in Wh) per tonne mass of the train per km length of the run. Specific
energy consumption,

15
The specific energy consumption of a train running at a given schedule speed is influenced by
1. Distance between stops 2. Acceleration 3. Retardation 4. Maximum speed 5. Type of train
and equipment 6. Track configuration.

Adhesive Weight
It is given by the total weight carried on the driving wheels. Its value is Wa = x W, where
W is dead weight and x is a fraction varying from 0.6 to 0.8.

Coefficient of Adhesion

Adhesion between two bodies is due to interlocking of the irregularities of their surfaces in
contact. The adhesive weight of a train is equal to the total weight to be carried on the driving.

16
It has been found that tractive effort can be increased by increasing the motor torque but only
Up to a certain point. Beyond this point, any increase in motor torque does not increase the
tractive effortbut merely causes the driving wheels to slip. It is seen from the above relation that
for increasing Ft, it is not enough to increase the kW rating of the traction motors alone but the
weight on the driving wheels has also to be increased.
Adhesion also plays an important role in braking. If braking effort exceeds the adhesive weight of
the vehicle, skidding takes place.

MECHANISM OF TRAIN MOVEMENT

Fig 6 Mechanism of Train movement

The essentials of driving mechanism in an electric vehicle are illustrated in Fig.6. The armature
of the driving motor has a pinion which meshes with the gear wheel keyed to the axle of the
driving wheel. In this way, motor torque is transferred to the wheel through the gear.

Let, T = torque exerted by the motor

F1 = tractive effort at the pinion Ft

= tractive effort at the wheel γ = gear ratio
Here, d1, d2 = diameters of the pinion and gear wheel respectively
D = diameter of the driving wheel
η = efficiency of power transmission from the motor to driving axle Now, T =
F1 × d1/2 or F1 = 2T/d1
Tractive effort transferred to the driving wheel is

17
 For obtaining motion of the train without slipping, Ft ≤ μa Wa where μa is the coefficient
ofadhesion and Wa is the adhesive weight.

QUANTITIES INVOLVED IN TRACTION MECHANICS

Following principal quantities are involved in train movement:

D = distance between stops
M = dead mass of the train
Me = effective mass of the train
W = dead weight of the train We = effective weight of the train α = acceleration during starting
period β= retardation during coasting β = retardation during braking
Va = average speed
Vm = maximum (or crest) speed.
t = total time for the run t1 = time of acceleration t2 = time of freerunning = t − (t1 + t3) t3 =
time of braking
Ft = tractive effort
T = torque

ELECTRIC BRAKING

When a motor is in moving state, it has some kinetic energy stored in it. If you have to
stop the motor, then you have to remove or dissipate this energy(commonly called brake energy).
A running motor may be brought to rest quickly by either mechanical braking or
electrical braking. The mechanical braking is applied by means of mechanical break shoes.
Hence the smoothness of mechanical braking is dependent on the surface and physical condition
of brakes. Smooth braking of a motor can be achieved by electric braking.

The electric braking of a DC motor is of three types, (i) Rheostatic or dynamic braking,
(ii) Plugging or reverse current braking and (iii) Regenerative beaking.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Regenerative braking takes place whenever the speed of the motor exceeds the synchronous
speed. This baking method is called regenerative baking because here the motor works as
generator and supply itself is given power from the load, i.e. motors. The main criteria for
regenerative braking is that the rotor has to rotate at a speed higher than synchronous speed, only
then the motor will act as a generator and the direction of current flow through the circuit and
direction of the torque reverses and braking takes place. The only disadvantage of this type of
braking is that the motor has to run at super synchronous speed which may damage the motor
mechanically and electrically, but regenerative braking can be done at sub synchronous speed if
the variable frequency source is available.

PLUGGING

Another type of braking is Plugging type braking. In this method the terminals of supply are
reversed, as a result the generator torque also reverses which resists the

18
normal rotation of the motor and as a result the speed decreases. During plugging external
resistance is also introduced into the circuit to limit the flowing current. The main disadvantage
of this method is that here power is wasted.

Fig 7 Plugging

DYNAMIC BRAKING

Another method of reversing the direction of torque and braking the motor is dynamic braking.
In this method of braking the motor which is at a running condition is disconnected from the
source and connected across a resistance. When the motor is disconnected from the source, the
rotor keeps rotating due to inertia and it works as a self –excited generator. When the motor
works as a generator the flow of the current and torque reverses. During braking to maintain the
steady torque sectional resistances are cut out one by one.

FIG 8 DYNAMIC BRAKING

SERIES PARALLEL TRANSITIONCONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS

The starting current of motor is limited to its normal rated current by starter during starting.
At the instant of switching on the motor, back e.m.f. Eb = 0 therefore Supply voltage = V = IR +
Voltage drop across Rs.

19
At any other instant during starting
V = IR + Voltage across Rs + Eb
At the end of accelerating period, when total Rs is cut-off V = Eb + IR

If T is the time in sec. for starting and neglecting IR drop, total energy supplied = V.I.T.
watt-sec

From Fig. 9 (b) Energy wasted in Rs = Area of triangle ABC × I = ½. T.V.I. watt - sec. =
½ VIT watt - sec. But total energy supplied = V.I.T watt - sec. Therefore Half the energy is wasted
in starting
Therefore ηstarting = 50%

FIG 9 SERIES - PARALLEL STARTING

With a 2 motor equipment ½ the normal voltage will be applied to each motor at starting as
shown in Fig. 10 (a) (Series connection) and they will run up to approximate ½ speed, at which
instant they are switched on to parallel and full voltage is applied to each motor. Rs is gradually
cut out, with motors in series connection and then reinserted when the motors are connected in
parallel, and again gradually cut-out.
In traction work, 2 or more similar motors are employed. Consider 2 series motors started by
series parallel method, which results in saving of energy.

FIG 10 Series Parallel Starting

20
(a) Series operation.
The 2 motors, are started in series with the help of Rs. The current during starting is limited to
normal rated current ‗I‘ per motor. During series operation, current
‗I‘ is drawn from supply. At the instant of starting OA = AB = IR drop in each motor. OK =
Supply voltage ‗V‘. The back e.m.fs. of 2 motors jointly develop along OM as shown in
Fig.
(a). At point. E, supply voltage V = Back e.m.fs of 2 motors + IR drops of 2 motor. Any point on
the line BC represents the sum of Back e.m.fs. of 2 motors + IR drops of 2 motors + Voltage
across resistance Rs of 2 motors OE = time taken for series running.

At pt ‗E‘ at the end of series running period, each motor has developed a back e.m.f.=2V − IREL
= ED – LD

(b) Parallel operation.

The motors are switched on in parallel at the instant ‗E‘, with Rs reinserted as shown in Fig. 10
(b). Current drawn is 2I from supply. Back e.m.f. across each motor = EL. So the back e.m.f.
now develops along LG. At point ‗H‘ when the motors are in full parallel, (Rs = 0 and both the
motors are running at rated speed) Supply voltage = V = HF = HG
+ GF= Normal Back e.m.f. of each motor + IR drop in each motor.

To find ts, tp and η of starting

The values of time ts during which the motors remain in series and tp during which they are in
parallel can be determined from Fig.11(a), (b). From Fig.11(a), triangles OLE and OGH are
similar

21
 FIG 11 Series Parallel operation

total energy supplied = I V t + 2 I V t ( Series) (Parallel ) = 3 V I t

Series Parallel Control by Shunt Transition Method

The various stages involved in this method of series – parallel control are shown in Fig.

In steps 1, 2, 3, 4 the motors are in series and are accelerated by cutting out the Rs in steps. In
step 4, motors are in full series. During transition from series to parallel, Rs is reinserted in
circuit– step 5. One of the motors is bypassed -step 6 and disconnected from main circuit – step
7. It is then connected in parallel with other motor-step 8, giving 1st parallel position. Rs is again
cut-out in steps completely and the motors are placed in full parallel.

22
 FIG 12 Series Parallel Shunt Operation

The main difficulty with series parallel control is to obtain a satisfactory method of transition
fromseries to parallel without interrupting the torque or allowing any heavy rushes of current.
In shunt transition method, one motor is short circuited and the total torque is reduced by about
50% during transition period, causing a noticeable jerk in the motion of vehicle. The Bridge
transition is more complicated, but the resistances which are connected in parallel with or
‗bridged‘ across the motors are of such a value that current through the motors is not altered in
magnitude and the total torque is therefore held constant and hence it is normally used for
railways.
So in this method it is seen that, both motors remain in circuit through-out the transition. Thus
the jerks will not be experienced if this method is employed.

SERIES PARALLEL CONTROL BY BRIDGE TRANSITION

(a) At starting, motors are in series with Rs i.e. link P in position = AA′

(b) Motors in full series with link P in position = BBRs in the circuit)
The motor and Rs are connected in the form of Wheatstone Bridge. Initially motors are in series
with full Rs as shown in Fig. 13. A and A’ heads are moved in direction of arrow heads. In
position BB’motors are in full series as shown in fig 14, with no Rs present in the circuit.

23
FIG 13 Series Parallel Bridge operation(a)

FIG 14 Series Parallel Bridge operation(b)

24
 FIG 15 Series Parallel Bridge operation(c)

In transition step the Rs is reinserted.

In Ist parallel step, link P is removed and motors are connected in parallel with full Rs as shown
in Fig. 15. Advantage of this method is that the normal acceleration torque is available from both
the motors, through - out starting period. Therefore acceleration is smoother, without any jerks,
which is very much desirable for traction motors.
THE TRAMWAYS
It is the most economical means of transport for very dense traffic in the congested streets of
large cities. It receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel from an overhead
conductor at about 600 V dc, the running rail forming the return conductor. It is provided with at
least two driving axles in order to (i) secure necessary adhesion (ii) start it from either end and
(iii) use two motors with series-parallel control. Two drum- type controllers, one at each end,
are used for controlling the tramcar. Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have
suitable interlocking arrangement meant to prevent their being used simultaneously.
Tramcars are being replaced by trolley-buses and internal-combustion-engine omnibuses
becauseof the following reasons :

1. Tramcars lack flexibility of operation in congested areas.

2. The track constitutes a source of danger to other road users.

THE TROLLEYBUS
It is an electrically-operated pneumatic-tyred vehicle which needs no track in the roadway. It
receives its power at 600 V dc from two overhead contact wires. Since adhesion between a
rubber tyred wheel and ground is sufficiently high, only a single driving axle and, hence, a single
motor is used. The trolleybus can manoeuvre through traffic a metre or two on each side of the
centre line of the trolley wires

25
Overhead Equipment (OHE)

Broadly speaking, there are two systems of current collection by a traction unit :

(i) third rail system and (ii) overhead wire system.

It has been found that current collection from overhead wire is far superior to that from the third
rail. Moreover, insulation of third rail at high voltage becomes an impracticable proposition and
endangers the safety of the working personnel.
The simplest type of OHE consists of a single contact wire of hard drawn copper or silicon-
bronze supported either by bracket or an overhead span. To facilitate connection to the supports,
the wire is grooved as shown in Fig.16. Because there is appreciable sag of the wire between
supports, it limits the speed of the traction unit to about 30 km/h. Hence, single contact wire
system is suitable for tramways and in complicated yards and terminal stations where speeds are
low and simplicity of layout is desirable.

FIG 16 TrolleyBus
For collection of current by high-speed trains, the contact (or trolley) wire has to be kept level
without any abrupt changes in its height between the supporting structures. It can be done by
using the single catenary system which consists of one catenary or messenger wire of steel with
high sag and the trolley (or contact) wire supported from messenger wire by means of droppers
clipped to both wires as shown in Fig. 17.

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 FIG 17 OHE

Collector Gear for OHE

The most essential requirement of a collector is that it should keep continuous contact with
trolley wire at all speeds. Three types of gear are in common use :

1.Trolley collector 2. Bow collector and 3. Pantograph collector.

To ensure even pressure on OHE, the gear equipment must, be flexible in order to follow
variations in the sag of the contact wire. Also, reasonable precautions must be taken to prevent
the collector from leaving the overhead wire at points and crossings.
The Trolley Collector
This collector is employed on tramways and trolley buses and is mounted on the roof of the
vehicle. Contact with the OH wire is made by means of either a grooved wheel or a sliding shoe
carried at the end of a light trolley pole attached to the top of the vehicle and held in contact with
OH wire by means of a spring. The pole is hinged to a swivelling base so that it may be
reversed for reverse running thereby making it unnecessary for the trolley wire to be accurately
maintained above the centre of the track. Trolley collectors always operate in the trailing
position. The trolley collector is suitable for low speeds up to 32 km/h beyond which there is a
risk of its jumping off the OH contact wire particularly at points and crossing.
The Bow Collector It can be used for higher speeds. As shown in Fig. 18, it consists of two roof
mounted trolley poles at the ends of which is placed a light metal strip (or bow) about one metre
long for currentcollection. The collection strip is purposely made of soft material (copper,
aluminium or carbon) in order that most of the wear may occur on it rather than on the trolley
wire. The bow collector also operates in the trailing position. Hence, it requires provision of
either duplicate bows or an arrangement for reversing the bow for running in the reverse

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direction. Bow collector is not suitable for railway work where speeds up to 120 km/h and
currents up to 3000 A are encountered. It is so because the inertia of the bow collector is too high
to ensure satisfactory current collection.

FIG 18 Bow Collector

The Pantograph Collector

Its function is to maintain link between overhead contact wire and power circuit of the electric
locomotive at different speeds under all wind conditions and stiffness of OHE. It means that
positive pressure has to be maintained at all times to avoid loss of contact and sparking but the
pressure must be as low as possible in order to minimize wear of OH contact wire. A
diamond‘type single-pan pantograph is shown in Fig. 43.5. It consists of a pentagonal
framework of high-tensile alloy-steel tubing. The contact portion consists of a pressed steel pan
fitted with renewable copper wearing strips which are forced against the OH contact wire by the
upward action of pantograph springs. The pantograph can be raised or lowered from cabin by
air cylinders.

FIG 19 Pantograph Collector

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 Questions

Part A
1. What is trolley bus?
2. Write the advantages of electric traction.
3. What are the factors to be considered while selecting a motor for a given service?
4. Why do series motors are preferred for DC traction.
5. Draw the speed –time curve of an electric train for mainline service.
6. What is meant by electric braking?
7. Name the various system of traction.
8. What are tramways?

Part-B
1. Write short notes on
A ) Tractive effort b). Specific energy consumption
2. A train is required to run between two stations 1.6 Km apart at an average speed of 43
Kmph.The run is to be made to a simplified quadrilateral speed time curve. If the maximum
speed is to be limited to 64 Kmph. Acceleration to 2 Kmphps & coasting & braking retardation
to 0.16 and 32 Kmphps respectively, determine the duration of acceleration, coasting and
braking periods.
3. Explain three methods of electric braking employed in traction; bring out their merits &
Demerits.
4. Discuss the ‘bridge’ transition and ‘shunt’ transition methods used during starting of
traction motors. Compare their performance & state their applications.
5.Explain the requirements of ideal traction and show which drive satisfies almost all the
requirements?
6. Derive expression for
i) Tractive effort for propulsion of a train on level track
ii) Tractive effort for propulsion of a train up & down a gradient.

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Uppal.S.L. “Electrical Power”, Khanna Publishers, 9th Edition, 2001.

2. J.B. Gupta, “Utilization of Electric Power and Electric Traction”, Kataria & Sons publishers,
Delhi, 9 th Edition, 2004.
3. R.K.Rajput, “Utilization of Electrical power”, Laxmi Publications, 2006.
4. Leonard L.Grigsby, ”Electric power generation, transmission and Distribution”, CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis Group, 2012.
5. S.Sivanagaraju, M.Balasubba Reddy and D.Srilatha, ”Electric Energy-Generation, Utilization
and Conservation” Pearson, 2012.