Module 1

What is Research?

Research comprises of two words, "Re" and "search". While "Re" implies a repetitive or iterative
process, "Search" denotes, making a thorough examination of or looking over carefully in order to find
something. Different researchers have defined research in various ways due to its wide scope. But, in
general, research can be defined as a scientific process where new facts, ideas, and theories are
established and/or proved in different areas of knowledge. Research aims at adding to the existing
stock of knowledge for the betterment of world.

Research involves scientific and systematic analysis of a research area and concluding the findings with
appropriate reasoning. It is a systematic as well as an object-oriented process. The process of research
begins with identifying the research problem; following data collection; data analysis, and ends with
conclude the findings. It should be conducted in an unbiased manner, without manipulating the
findings. Research plays a vital role in management decision making by analyzing the situation
systematically and finding new ways to support the operations. For example, a company may conduct
research to know the consumer reviews about certain products.

Research can be carried-out using various methods and techniques which are collectively called as
research methods. Research methods are the tools and techniques for analyzing and collecting data
so that meaningful outcomes can be extracted from the problem being studied. Research
methodology can be defined as the scientific procedure to solve various problems related to research.
It has a wider scope than research methods, as in addition to methods and techniques, the researcher
designs different methodologies for different research problems. Research methodology varies
according to the research problem. Therefore, it is concerned with the application of research
methods as per the requirement.

According to Waltz and Bausell:

"Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems
or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships."

According to Clifford Woody:

"Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested

solutions, Collecting, Organizing and Evaluating data, Making deductions and reaching Conclusions to
determine they fit the formulating hypothesis."

What is Good Research? (Essential Criteria of a Good Research)

A good research should qualify in following essential criteria :

1) Clearly Defined Objectives:

The objectives of a research study should be clearly defined. If the objectives of research are
well defined, then there would be clear road map in front of the researcher to follow. It helps
the researchers to determine the type of data required to conduct the research efficiently.

2) Ethically Conducted:
A researcher should abide by the ethical standards laid down to conduct a research accurately.
The research data and the limiting factors should be properly scrutinized, explained, and
 documented to maintain a level of transparency with the readers. The data should not be
altered to match the findings. The results of the research study should be properly
documented and the conclusions should be based on proper evidences.

3) Flexibility:
Research involves re-examining the data till correct findings are arrived. This is possible only
if the research approach is flexible in nature. There should always be scope to add en
significant data or change the existing data as per the requirement.

4) Reliability:
Reliability refers to the repeatability of a research, tool, procedure, or instrument. The degree
of reliability of a research study depends on the degree of similarity in research results. A
research, is called reliable when it produces similar results for different samples drawn from
the same population under similar conditions and procedures. For example, a researcher may
study the effect of a course in written English on the final grades for a group of students. The
results of this study will be reliable, if the same study on another group of students has similar
outcomes.

5) Validity:
Validity is measure of the applicability of the research. It refers to the suitability and efficiency
of the research Instrument or procedure regarding the research problem. It measures the
accuracy of an instrument in measuring the problem. It is a measurement of applicability of
the research. Validity is the basis of deciding whether a research conclusion, assumption, or
proposition is true or false. The validity of research is maintained by defining the concepts as
clearly as possible.

6) Accuracy:
A research is called accurate, if the process of research, instruments, and tools are related to
each other. It checks to see that the research tools are being selected appropriately. For
example, if a research is carried-out on mental patients, the use of observation would be
appropriate to collect data, because in case of questionnaire or interview, they may not be
able to answer or may answer incorrectly.

7) Credibility of Sources:
Credibility means that the research data should be taken from trustworthy sources. Although
the use of secondary data in research allows the researcher 10 complete the research within
the time frame, but he loses the credibility, as the secondary data are usually manipulated
and hence relying exclusively it can lead to erroneous and faulty on it can research
conclusions. A researcher should try to use primary data as much as possible. If primary data
is not available, then specific amount of secondary data can be used. But, conducting a
research completely based on secondary data can harm the credibility of the research.

8) Generalisable Results:
The degree to which the result of a research can be applied to the bigger population is called
as generalisability. While carrying-out a research, the researcher selects a small sample from
a target population. Hence, the sample and the research findings represent the target
population. If the research results can be applied to other samples from the similar
population, then the research findings can be considered as generalisable.
Nature of Research

Research can be characterized by following points :

1) Systematic Activity:
Research follows a systematic procedure to analyse a research problem in a better way. A
research cannot be conducted in a haphazard manner. A researcher can come to a step only
when the previous one completed.

2) Logical Process:
The basic tenet of research is logic. All the assumptions and analyses undertaken are based
on certain logic. Research is a scientific, systematic, and planned investigation to understand
the underlying problem.

3) Iterative Process:
Research is an iterative process. Sometimes it becomes necessary for the researcher to review
the work of earlier stages, which makes it cyclic in nature. Often it becomes harder for the
researcher to find out the starting and ending points.

4) Based on Empirical Evidences:

Research studies are empirical in nature. Every step in research is carried-out using various
scientific tools and techniques. Every step in research is checked for accuracy and is based on
observable experiences or empirical evidences. Therefore, quantitative research is easier to
validate than qualitative research, which is more conceptual in nature.

5) Controlled In Nature:
The researchers often control the effect of variables by allowing only some variables to vary
so that their effect can be tested. Due to this reason, controlling the variables in a scientific
research is much easier than controlling the factors in a social research. Hence in research, it
is very essential to control the variables carefully.

Importance of Research

Research plays a vital role for an organisation as it provides valuable information to the managers that
help them in decision-making at various stages of operation. Research helps the management in
following ways:

1) Recognizes the Potential Opportunities and Threats:

For any strategy to be successful, the organisation needs to have a very good understanding
of the environment in which operates. Research is a tool with which management is able to
scan its environment and identify various opportunities and problems existing in the
environment By scanning and researching extensively, management understand the
environmental can situations efficiently. This helps to formulate strategies in accordance with
the situations to overcome the prevailing problems and exploit the opportunities to the
fullest.
 2) Assessment of Problems and Opportunities:
Researching the problems and opportunities help the managers to estimate and analyse
them. It allows the managers to identify the existing problems and the factors responsible for
the problems. Research facilitates the managers in identifying, exploring, refining and
quantifying the opportunities existing in the environment. Along with these, it helps in setting
the priorities in case of multiple opportunities.

3) Selection of Best Alternative Action:

Research assists the managers in selecting the best among the alternative courses of action.
The various alternatives evaluated using specific evaluation criteria set by the researcher.
Researchers forecast the necessary future activities to be taken with properly analyzing the
scenario which in turn helps in planning. Research can also suggest strategies that managers
should use in planning properly and preventing it from failing. For example, a company can
research the best possible strategy for positioning of a product.

4) Evaluating the Course of Action:

Research can be used to see if the planned course of action has been implemented in way was
intended to. It allows the managers to estimate the extent to which a given activity or project
is executed as per the direction. It helps to identify the potential factors that can affect the
execution. Research is also carried-out to evaluate and control the strategies implemented for
executing the project.

5) Analyzing the Competition:

The organisations need to study the market and the level of prevailing competition in it To
fulfill this objective, organisations conduct research to collect the information regarding the
purchasing trends, competitor's strategy, market share of competitor firms, etc. This allows
managers to formulae strategies that can help them in achieving their targets. For example,
Pepsi Co. can conduct a research to know the strategies adopted by Coca Cola.

The Hallmarks of scientific research

Following are the points of the Hallmarks scientific research:

1. Purposiveness

2. Rigor

3. Testability

4. Replicability

5. Precision and confidence

6. 0bjectivity

7. Generalizability

8. Parsimony
1) Purposiveness
The supervisor or the manager of an organization has started the research for a specific
purpose. Focus on increasing employee commitment to the organization, as this will be
beneficial in many ways. i.e increase performance level, decrease turnover and less absentees
of employees.

2) Rigor
Rigor suggests carefulness, honesty, and the degree of accuracy in research investigations. In
the case of our example, let us say the manager of an organization asks 10 to 12 of its
employees to suggest that how can we increase the level of commitment to it. It lacks rigor
for the following reasons
1. The conclusions are incorrectly drawn because they are based on the opinions of a
few employees whose views may not be representative of all employees.
2. The way in which framing and answer questions would lead to bias or incorrect
answers.

3) Testability
The manager or researcher develops a hypothesis on how employee commitment can be
improved, and then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests on data collected
for the purpose. For instance, the researcher may hypothesize that those employees who
observe greater opportunities for participation in decision making will have a higher level of
commitment.

4) Replicability
We repeat the test of hypotheses again and gain for the better outcomes. We will place
greater faith and trust in these findings and conclude if the same findings are based on data
collected by other organizations using similar methods. To put it differently, hypothesis test
results should be supported again and again when the same type of research is repeated in
other similar cases. We will gain confidence in the scientific context of our research. In other
words, our thoughts have been supported by chance, but they reflect the true state of affairs
in people.

5) Precision and confidence

Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a sample. In other words,
precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the results on the basis of the sample, to what
really exists in the universe. While Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations
are correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of our results will be true and there is only a 5% chance of our
being wrong. This is also known as the confidence level.

6) Objectivity
The conclusions reached on the interpretation of the results of the data analysis should be
objective, that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings based on actual data, not
on our independent or emotional levels. For example, if the hypothesis is about organizational
commitment, a lot of time and effort can be wasted in finding ways to create opportunities
for staff participation in decision-making.
 7) Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to
other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by
research, the more useful the research is to the users.

8) Parsimony
It can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the important factors that
influence it. Such a good conceptual theoretical model can be realized through unstructured
and structured interviews with the concerned people, and a thorough literature review of the
previous research work in the particular problem area.

Types of Research
Various types of research are classified as follows:

1) On the Basis of Application:

Based on application, research can be classified in following two types:

i) Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research:

Pure research is also known as "basic research" or "fundamental research". It is the most basic form
of research. The objective of this research is to provide models and theories regarding some
phenomenon. This type of research seeks to obtain knowledge about a particular subject rather than
its practical usage, testing of hypotheses and theories. Basic research is carried-out to discover and
gain better insight about a specific phenomenon, without considering the problem and its direct
practical application. For example, designing a research model for reading behavior among teenagers
has no practical application and it simply contributes to the area of knowledge.

Basic research can take one of the following forms :

a) Discovery:
When the objective of a basic research is to discover, then it tries to find new explanations or
ideas about a particular issue based on empirical evidences. For example, the theory given by
Charles Darwin on "the survival of the fittest".

b) Invention:
 Designing new methods and techniques can be the prime purpose of basic research. For
example, inventing the concept of total quality management.

c) Reflection:
Here, the researchers analyse the, theories, models, or techniques in some different
organisational or social contexts. For example, applying the concept of Herzberg's Two Factor
Theory on Indian Army.

ii) Applied/Practical/Need-Based/Action Based Research:

Applied research is also called as "practical research", "need-based research" or "action-based

research". While basic research emphasizes on enhancing the existing knowledge without any
practical application, applied research on the other hand, applies the existing knowledge, theories,
and methods to solve particular issue. Basically, it is the practical application of the concepts provided
by basic research. It tries to solve the existing problems faced by businesses, society, and government.
Applied research tries to provide the solutions to eradicate the various types of practical problems
related to real life and social life.

For example, when a sociologist tries to find out the reason for crime, or the factors that lead a person
to become criminal, is the area of pure research. But, when the sociologist tries to find out how the
behavior of a criminal can be controlled, it falls in the purview of applied research.

2) On the Basis, of Objectives :

Following Researches can be conducted on the basis of objectives:

I. Exploratory/Formulative Research:
Exploratory research is also known as "formulative research". The basic objective of this
research is to explore the unknown facts or phenomena that are not previously defined. In
exploratory research, researchers seek to gain better knowledge about a situation, and
formulate new concepts and theories by developing and testing hypotheses. A hypothesis
becomes difficult to be formulated when the theory is too general or too specific. Here,
exploratory research is needed to obtain the knowledge that is useful in developing
hypothesis, so that further investigation can be performed. Exploratory research helps the
researchers to find out the best research methods, research designs, and data collection
techniques for various research objectives.

For example, exploratory research can be used to determine the reasons behind the higher
terrorism rule in a country than other nations.

II. Descriptive/Statistical Research :

Descriptive research can be defined as the research that tries to explain the characteristic
features of the population under study. This research is based on the concept of 'reflective
thinking' that discusses about the objectives and assumptions regarding a research
study. Descriptive research is concerned with answering the questions like who, what, when,
where, and how regarding a phenomenon or situation. It can be carried out on all those areas
which are quantitative in nature. The descriptions in this research are used to calculate the
 frequencies, averages, central tendencies, etc. Sometimes, it is better to conduct a survey
before carrying out the descriptive research.

For example, a research can be conducted to examine the causes behind a specific kind of
disease in a particular area.

III. Experimental/Causal/Explanatory Research :

Experimental research, also called "causal research" or "explanatory research", is carried out
to identify the causes I any effect. It determines the effects on dependent variable due to the
changes in independent variable. In experimental research, two similar groups are chosen for
measuring the experimental effects. The group which is exposed to treatment is called the
'experimental group, and the group which is kept constant is called "control group'. After the
treatment is imposed on the experimental group, the effect is measured by comparing it with
'control group. The treatment effects are thus identified. The outcomes of the experimental
research are not always straight and direct due to the variability factors. Hence, to measure
the results accurately, it is necessary to keep the control group constant while modifying
experimental group.

For example, a primary school teacher may want to evaluate a new technique for teaching
mathematics in comparison to the standard teaching method.

3) On the Basis of Extent of Theory :

On the basis of extent of theory research can be classified in two types :

i. Theoretical Research:
Theoretical research seeks to add new knowledge by discovering new ideas and theories with
the help of existing theories and explanations. But, the major emphasize is on studying rather
than testing the theories and models, In other words, it is based on secondary data instead of
primary data. Besides many benefits, theoretical research has always been the subject of
criticism. The reason behind various arguments is that theoretical research has no test
component. Many researchers say that theories are easy to formulate without the need of
evidence, which is why it should not be considered as a proper academic research. But, the
basis of this argument is not true. Every research needs conceptualization. Theoretical
research strives to gain knowledge about the existing theories to improve the body of
knowledge through addition of value to it.

For example, an organisation may conduct a research on its employees and their motivation
levels based on Herzberg's two-factor theory.

ii. Empirical Research:

Empirical research is data-oriented. This kind of research provides insights through
observation or experiences. In this research, the primary data are collected, analysed and
tested to prove some hypotheses. Empirical research can be conducted through both the
qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, Major researches conducted on health
issues usually adopt empirical research. Instead of theories, empirical research is based on
observation and measurements. It attempts to develop new ideas by collecting primary data.
Hence, the basic, difference between theoretical and empirical research is that, in theoretical
 research the researcher arrives at the conclusions based on existing literature, while in
empirical research the researcher takes a step further and collects the data to test the theory.

For example, measurement of noise pollution in cities to find out the exposure to sound faced
by the citizens.

4) On the Basis of Methodology :

Based on methodology adopted, research can be of two types :

i. Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research is conducted to study and analyse the human behavior. It is considered
as a preliminary stage of quantitative research. research is carried out when there is a need
to Qualitative develop new ideas and theories that can be tested and analysed afterwards
quantitative measures. It tries using findings in a broad level. The p objective of qualitative
research is evaluate and The prime to get an in-depth knowledge about a particular behavior
by collecting fresh and new information by using various techniques. The perceptions of
respondents about their environment, the impact of environment on the behavior of
respondents, etc., can be understood with the help of qualitative research.

An example of qualitative research can be, conducting a survey to know the target customers
habits and buying preferences for launching a new product

ii. Quantitative Research:

Quantitative research is contrary to qualitative research. is a scientific technique that analyse
the data using statistical measures for concluding the outcomes of a research problem.
Various researches on science, social science, education, etc., are conducted with the help of
quantitative research. In quantitative research is carried out in a structured way to develop
and test various hypotheses using mathematical and statistical techniques. For example, a
research can be conducted to compare the effect on crime rule due to gun buyback program.

5) Other Types:

Along with the above major research types, there are, some other types of research:

I. Evaluation Research:
Evaluation is defined in many ways as per the objective of the research study, the techniques
applied, or the application of outcomes. Usually, it can be defined as the systematic
measurement and judgement about a situation to provide the feedback. The evaluation is
always based on some criteria. The most common criteria used for evaluating an object are
benefits, efficiency, sustainability, applications, etc. Generally, the emphasis of evaluation
research is on the utilitarian benefits an object. It strives to understand an activity or an object
by assessing and examining it, based on some criteria. In other words, it is a comparative
analysis. where the original objectives of study are assessed to determine way of their way of
accomplishment, so that it can improved. It can also take the form of summative study, where
conclusions are made to infer the shortcomings of the study.

For example, a manufacturing firm can evaluate its performance after using just-in time
method in its production system.
 II. Action/Participatory Research:
Action research is also called as "participatory research", where active problem-solving is done
by the individuals of a team in an organisation to improve the method of solving issues. In this
process, the employees of an organisation contribute collectively to bring the change through
the research process. Action research is also practiced by big institutions to enhance the
strategies and techniques adopted by them for their operations. Action research is an
organised form of investigation which is collective and evaluative in nature. It tries to correlate
the problem-solving methods with the research of analysis so that future changes in an
organisation can be predicted.

For example, a research can be conducted to know the best applicable method for certain
type of students.

III. Historical Research :

Historical research is an organised to collect the data regarding historical events, analyzing
them, and interpreting the events. It is carried-out to identify the causes, effects, and trends
regarding past occurrences to improve the present and future. Many modern practices and
techniques can be developed and improved with the help of historical data. Usually, the
approach used for historical research is qualitative in nature, but sometimes quantitative
measures can be adopted. Historical research tries to identify, the past forces that affect the
present.

An example of historical research can be finding out major earlier organisational practices that
can be implemented in contemporary organisations.

IV. Ex-Post-Factor :
Ex-post factor research is a systematic effort to trace-back the causes resulting in specific
effect. In this research, the actions that has caused the effects are identified, which are then
imposed on some other similar set of circumstances. It is conducted after the completion of a
phenomenon or occurrence. Ex-post factor research is a scientific analysis of independent and
dependent variables. Since, the phenomenon has already occurred, therefore, the researcher
has no direct control over the independent variables causing the effects. Thus, the conclusions
regarding the variables and their relations are made without direct involvement.

For example, forensic research department may attempt to find the causes for certain crime.

What is the Scale?

A scale is a device or an object used to measure or quantify any event or another object.

Levels of Measurements
There are four different scales of measurement. The data can be defined as being one of the four
scales. The four types of scales are:

• Nominal Scale
• Ordinal Scale
• Interval Scale
 • Ratio Scale

Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers serve as “tags” or “labels”
to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals with the non-numeric variables or the
numbers that do not have any value.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

• A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories. In this measurement
mechanism, the answer should fall into either of the classes.

• It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.

• The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect of numbers
in the nominal scale is “counting.”

Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M- Male

F- Female

Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.

Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of data without
establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the “order.” Ordinal data is
known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped, named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

• The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

• It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable

• Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the rankings of
those variables

• The interval properties are not known

• The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the identified order of
variables

Example:

• Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.

• Ratings in restaurants
 • Evaluating the frequency of occurrences

• Very often

• Often

• Not often

• Not at all

• Assessing the degree of agreement

• Totally agree

• Agree

• Neutral

• Disagree

• Totally disagree

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative measurement
scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In other words, the variables
are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in which the presence of zero is arbitrary.

Characteristics of Interval Scale:

• The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values

• It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables

• To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values between the
variables

• The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any numerical values
to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.

Example:

• Likert Scale

• Net Promoter Score (NPS)

• Bipolar Matrix Table

Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of variable
measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals. The ratio scale has
a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

 • Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

• It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature

• It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly added,
subtracted, multiplied, divided. Mean, median, and mode can be calculated using the ratio
scale.

• Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows unit
conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.

Example:

An example of a ratio scale is:

What is your weight in Kgs?

• Less than 55 kgs

• 55 – 75 kgs

• 76 – 85 kgs

• 86 – 95 kgs

• More than 95 kgs

Sources of Error in Measurement

• Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study.

• Thus, objective is often not met with in entirety.
• The researcher must be aware about the sources of error in measurement.
• The following are the possible sources of error in measurement.

(a) Respondent:

• At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings or it may just be
possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit has ignorance.
• All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of "guesses". Similarly, transient factors
like fatigue, boredom, anxiety etc. may also limit the ability of respondent to respond
accurately and fully.

(b) Situation:

• Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement.

• Any condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interview
respondent rapport.
• For instance, if some one else is present, he can distort responses by joining in or merely by
being present.
• If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain
feelings.
(c) Measurer:

• The interviewer can distort responses by "rewording" or "re-ordering" questions.

• His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondent.
• Careless mechanical processing may district the findings.
• Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faculty tabulation and or statistical
calculations, particularly in the data analysis stage.

(d) Instruments:

• Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument.

• The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous
meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, etc. are a few things that make the
measuring instrument defective and many result in measurement errors.

Scaling

• In research use quite often face the problem of measurement, specially when the concepts to
be measured are complex and abstract, and we do not possess the standardized measurement
tools.
• In other words, we can say that while measuring attitudes and opinions, we face the problem
of their valid measurement.
• As such we should study some procedures which enable us to measure abstract concepts
more accurately.
• This brings us to the study of scaling technique.

Meaning of Scaling:

Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and
other concepts.

This is done by in two ways:

• Making a judgement about some charecteristic of an indisvidual and this placing him directly
on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristics, and
• Constructing questionnaires in such away that the scores of individual's responses assign him
a place on a scale.

It may be stated that a scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of some
characteristics e.g. preference, favourableness etc.) and the lowest point along with several
intermediate points between these two extremes points.

These scale points positions are so related to each other that when the first point happens to be the
highest point, the second point indicate a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as compared
to the third point and so on.

Thus, the term 'scaling' is applied to the procedures for attempting to determine quantitative
measures of subjective abstract concepts.
Scale Classification Bases:

The number assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly classified on the following
basis:

• Subject orientation,
• response form,
• degree of subjectivity,
• scale properties,
• number of dimensions, and
• scale construction technique.

(i) Subject orientation:

• Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics of the respondent who completes
it or to judge the stimulus object which is presented to the respondent.
• In respect of the farmer, we presume that the stimuli-presented are sufficiently homogeneous
so that the between stimuli variation small compared to the variation among respondents.
• In the latter approach, we ask the respondent to judge some specific object in terms of one
or more dimensions and we presume that the between respondent variation well be small as
compared to the variation among the different stimuli presented to the respondents for
judging.

(ii) Response form:

• Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and comparative.

• Categorical scales are also known as rating scales.
• These scales are used when respondent scores some object without direct reference to other
objects.
• Under the comparative scales, which are also known as ranking scales, the respondent is asked
to compare two or more objects.
• In this sense the respondent may state that one object is superior to the other. The essence
of ranking is infact, a relative comparison of a certain property of two or more objects.

(iii) Degree of subjectivity:

• With this basis the scale data may be based on whether we measure subjective personal
preferences or simply make non-preference judgements.
• In the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which person he favours or which
solution he would like to see employed, whereas in the latter case he is simply asked to judge
which person is more effective in some aspect or which solution will taken fewer resources
without reflecting any personal preference.

(iv) Scale properties:

• Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
scales.
• Nominal scales merely classify without indicating order, distance or unique origin, ordinal
scales indicate magnitude relationship of 'more than' or 'less than', but indicate no distance
or unique origin. Interval scales have both order and distance values, no unique origin. Ratio
scales posses all these features.
(v) Number of dimensions:

• In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as 'uni-dimensional' and 'multidimensional'

scales under the former we measure only one attribute of the respondent or object; whereas
multi-dimensional scaling recognises the can object might be described better by using the
concept of an attribute space of 'n' dimensions.

Precautions to the Researchers

By taking following precautions, researchers can overcome the problems:

1) Training of Researchers:

The foremost necessity is to thin the researchers in various aspects of research methodology. This
objective can be achieved by conducting various training sessions for the researchers that will help
them in enhancing their knowledge and skills.

2) Association among Organisations:

In India, there is a need of a strong association among various organisations and research institutions
to conduct the research in a proper way. This can be achieved by communicating the requirements
with each other. This coordination and support will lead to enhance the quality in research work with
valid and reliable outcomes.

3) Building Trust:

Researchers should try to build trust by not misusing the data provided by the companies or individual
respondents. The research institutions should provide assurance to the respondents regarding the
confidentiality of their data.

4) Centralized Database:

All the organisations and research institutions together should create a centralized database for
maintaining the records of their conducted researches. This will allow the researchers to refer and
analyse the previously conducted researches for their work thereby minimizing the repetitive research
works.

5) Compilation and Revision:

The repetition of research work can be minimized by periodically analyzing the related research works.
The researchers should be attentive about the research problems being studied by other researchers,
and current requirements of different industries.

6) Top Management Support:

Management should also support the researchers in their research studies. They should try to
facilitate all the possible data to the researchers for conducting research properly. Management can
also allow access to the various libraries for efficient research work.

Types of Business Problems Encountered by the Researcher

Unlike other nations, in India, the need and importance of research is not yet realized. Hence, it faces
several barriers which are as follows:

1) Lack of Fund:

Researchers need sufficient fund to conduct a research properly. But, companies do not sufficiently
allocate funds for the research and development activities. Due to the lack of sufficient fund, several
research projects either get delayed or do not proceed further.

2) No Centralized Database:

There is no centralized database system available for research in India, due to which it is very difficult
to find the information about already conducted related researches. The consequence of this barrier
is the repetition in research works which is carried out by different organisations.

3) No Coordination among Researchers:

Research work requires a strong code of conduct to be followed. The researchers do not follow the
norms due to which they have no coordination. This results in difference of opinion among them which
in turn affects the quality, of research work.

4) Lack of Library Management:

The libraries in India are not managed properly. There is lack of books, journals, and reports in libraries,
due to which the crucial time of researchers are wasted in finding the useful information from
available material.

5) Absence of Ethics In Research:

Researchers in India have no proper knowledge about the domain due to which they copy the material
from other research works instead of conducting the research on their own. As a result, the accuracy
and validity of the research outcomes are highly unreliable. The absence of ethics in research is one
of biggest problem that can be solved by following the ethical norms while researching.

6) Lack of Proper Contacts between Research Departments:

Research is a well co-ordinated activity of the concerned departments conducting it. The lack of
coordination among the researchers of the related departments leads to biasness in the research. Due
to this barrier research works lack the huge amount of primary data may remain unavailable to the
researchers which may hamper the quality of research.

7) No Trust on Researchers:

Many of the organisations do not cooperate with the researchers due to lack of trust. Companies show
unwillingness to share information, because of the risk of misuse of data.

8) Lack of Skilled Researchers:

Research is a systematic procedure and requires the researcher be well-trained in collecting data,
sampling and analysis. But, the researchers in India have no expertise in research methodology. Most
of the research guides have no knowledge regarding the tools and techniques used in research. This.
lock of skilled manpower is a big limiting factor in the research environment in India, as it directly
affects the reliability of research work being done. Hence, the organisations should train their
researchers in specified area of knowledge.
9) Data Manipulation:

Researchers often manipulate the data to present it the way they want. The reason behind this
manipulation is the lack of confidence on the outcome of the research activity. This results in a false
picture of a research work and leads to severe impact on both the accuracy and validity of research.
The researchers conduct their activities on the basis of mere theoretical knowledge which is not
sufficient, since the knowledge of theory and its application are two different aspects. Hence, a proper
knowledge of theory as well as correct practical implementation is necessary for a good research work.

10) Costly Affair:

Printing and publishing the research work proves to be costly for the research associates. If the
research paper is to be published internationally then it requires more fund, which is not affordable
for many researchers.