THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

French revolution is considered as the most important landmark in human

history. The revolution occurred in1789 and swept away the existing political
institutions, overthrew the French Monarchy and aimed at establishing
An egalitarian society and responsible government. The revolution began with
the siege of Bastille on July 14, 1789 and continued until the rise of Napoleon
Bonaparte to power.
FRENCH SOCIETY DURING THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
The term ‘Old Regime’ is usually used to describe the society and institutions
of France before 1789 French Society before 1789 .French society before 1789
was divided into three estates; it was called a society of estates .
The estates constituted as follows:
(i) The First Estate - the First Estate consisted of the clergy. The clergy were
exempted from paying taxes to the king.
(ii) The Second Estate - the Second Estate consisted of nobility was also
exempted from taxes. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These
included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants.
(iii) The Third Estate - the Third Estate consisted of big businessmen,
merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants and artesian , landless labor ,
servants, etc. the Third Estate comprised both rich and poor persons.

(a) Causes of the French Revolution:

Political Causes:
(i) The political structure of the French state was highly unpopular with the
people who were burdened with heavy taxes and insecure conditions of life
and property.
(ii) Divine rights of the kings, despotism and tyranny of the French monarchs
topped by the extravagance and inefficiency of the Bourbon Kings.
(iii) Louis XV indulged in a life of ease and pleasure, was not interested in
administrative reforms or the welfare of the people.
(iv) Louis XVI though good natured was completely under the influence of
incompetent and corrupt ministers and a domineering queen, Marie
Antoinette.
(v) Absence of any representative body to voice the need of the people. Local
bodies called Parliament were courts of Justice rather than voices of people.
Social Forces:
(i) The unfair division of French society and its feudal nature were also
responsible for the revolution.
(ii) The first two estates enjoyed all the privileges and benefits in the society.
The third estate was fraught with inequalities and discriminations. Most of the
burden of taxation was borne by the least privileged and most impoverished
third estate.
(iii) Middle class was most receptive to new ideas and values as they were
educated and had a broader outlook, Denied the whole ideas, rights and
privileged existence where the main qualification is that of birth and instead
favored the criterion of merit.
Economic Unrest:
(i) In the 18th century the condition of common man had become pathetic,
problem of subsistence due to failure of crops, increase in the prices of food
grains
(ii) In the second half of the 18th century the French economy had started
expanding. but its financial impact was uneven, hardest hit were the Third
Estate
(iii) Between 1689 and 1783 French fought several long and exhausting wars
which proved to be disastrous both in terms of French Manpower and
finances, not only led to mounting debts but interest on these debts also
multiplied.
(iv) To meet its mounting costs the government increased taxes. Peasantry
was the hardest hit who owned the minimum land and paid the maximum
taxes.
(v) Taxes were Tailed the direct land tax, salt tax known as Gazelle, feudal
dues or payments were taken by nobility and taxes know as Tithe was taken
by the Church.

A growing middle class envisages an end to Privileges:

(i) The French Revolution drew its strength from the ideas of philosophers
and thinkers of the time, groups of intellectuals classified by scholars
according to their thinking,
(ii) Physiocrates, Philosophers and some others were grouped as liberals
depending on their ideologies.
(iii) Greatest thinkers were Francois Marie, Arouet de Voltaire, Jean Jacques
Rousseau, Charles Louis Montesquieu, John Locke and Diderot to name a few.
(iv) Through their teachings and writings they stirred the people to action,
revolutionized the minds of the people and prepared them for the great
changes ahead.
Contribution of the thinkers:
(i) Charles Montesquieu – A noblemen by birth, he become a lawyer and a
judge. He preferred constitutional
Monarchy in France, he popularized the theory of powers within the
government between the legislative, the Executive and the judiciary in his
book “The Spirit of the Laws”
(ii) Francis Aronet Voltaire – He was another outstanding philosopher of the
revolution. He wanted the people to think about their material life on earth
and forget about heaven. He condemned the Church which supported the
Ignored the poor.
(iii) Jean Jacques Rousseau – he is regarded as the architect of the French
Revolution. In the famous book “The Social Contract”, he proved that the
government was the result of a social contract between the people on one
hand and ruler on the other. So if the ruler didn’t fulfill the contract, the
people had the right to withdraw their loyalty to him and bring down the
tyranny of the ruler by revolting against him.
(iv) John Locke – he was a great political thinker. He wrote “Two Treatises of
Government “in which he sough to refute the doctrine of the divine and
absolute right of monarch.

THE OUT B REAK OF THE REVOLITION

On 5 may 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly to the Estate General to
pass proposals for new taxes. The Estate General was a political body. The
three estates sent their representatives to his body. Each of the three Estates
had a one vote each. The first estate and the second estate had sent 300
representatives each. They were seated in rows facing each other on two
sides. The third estate had sent 600 representatives. They required
Standing at the back. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the
assembly. New taxes could be proposed only after the Estate General gave its
approval to the king’s proposal. Since the first estate and the second estate
were exempted from paying taxes, it was a foregone conclusion that
the king’s proposals on new taxes would get the approval of the Estate
General.
(a) The Tennis Court Oath:
Voting in the Estate General in the past had been conducted according to the
principle that each estate had one vote. Members of the third Estate
demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where
Each member would have one vote. When the king rejected this proposal,
members of the third Estate walked out of the assembly in protest.
The representatives of the Estate on 20 June assembled in the hall of an
indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a
National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a
Constitution of France that would limit the powers of the monarch. While the
National assembly was busy at Versailles the rest of France seethed with
turmoil, on 14 July the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the
Bastille.

(b) ‘Storming of the Bastille’:

On the morning of July 14, 1789 the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. a
severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of bread rose. Bakers
exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. Crowds of angry women
stormed into the shops. The army was ordered by the king to move into the
city. It was rumored that the army would be ordered to
open fire upon the citizens. Thousands of persons gathered and decided to
from a people’s militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in
search of arms. Bastille was a dreaded fortress-prison. it was hated by
all because it stood for the despotic power of the king. Protestors stormed into
the Bastille in search of arms. The commander of Bastille was killed; the
prisoners were released. The fortress was demolished .Louis XVI finally
accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that
his powers would from now on be checked by a constitution. On the Night of 4
August 1789, the Assembly passed a decreed abolishing the feudal
system of obligations and taxes.

(c) France becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:

(i) The National Assembly completed the drafting of the constitution in 1791.
Power was now separated and assigned to different institutions-the
legislature, executive and judiciary making France a constitutionally
monarchy.
(ii) The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National
Assembly, which was indirectly elected.
(iii) The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen. Rights such as the Right of life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion,
equality before law were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights.

(d) The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen:

(i) Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
(ii) The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and
inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance
to oppression.
(iii) The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual
may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
(iv) Liberty consists of the power, to do whatever is not injurious to others.
(v) The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
(vi) Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to
participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All
citizens are equal before it.
(vii) no man be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by
the law.
(viii) every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take
responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
(xi) for the maintenance of the public force and the expenses of
administration a common tax is indispensable ; it must be assessed equally on
all citizens in proportion to their means.
(x) since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of
it, unless a legally established public
necessity requires it. in that case a just compensation must be given in
advance Le-Barbier painted the declaration of the rights of man and citizens in
1790. Majority of people at that time could not read and write, so he used
many symbols to convey the content of the declaration of rights.
(i) Figure on the right represented France and figure on the left symbolized
the law
(ii) The broken chain – Stands for the act of becoming free.
(iii)The bundle of rods - it implies that strength lies in unity as one can be
easily broken but not an entire bundle.
(iv)The eye within a triangle radiating light – Eye stand for knowledge, the
rays of sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance
(v) Scepter – It is a symbol of royal power.
 (vi) Snake biting its tail to form a ring, a symbol of eternity.
(vii) Red cap – Cap worn by a slave upon becoming free.
(viii) Blue, White, Red – these are National colours of France.
(xi) winged woman – Personification of the law.
(x) The law tablet – the law is same for all.

FRANCE ABOLISHES MONARCHY AND BECOMES A REPUBLIC

(i) Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret
negotiations with the King of Prussia.
(ii) The National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia
and Austria. People saw this as a war of the people against kings and
aristocracies all over Europe.
(iii) The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the
people. Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who
wished to disuses government policies and plan their own form of action. The
most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its name
from the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris.
(iv) In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large
number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices
of food. On the morning of august 10 they stormed the Palace of the
Toiletries and held the king himself as hostage for several hours.
(v) Elections were held. The newly elected assembly was called the
Constitution. On 21 September 1792 it abolished the monarchy and declared
France a Republic.
(vi) Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charges of treason. On
21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde.

(a) The Reign of Terror:

The period in between 1793-94 is referred as the “Reign of Terror”.
(i) During this period Robespierre, who was the government of France
followed a policy of severe control and punishment.
(ii) Ex-nobles and clergy, even members of his own party who did not agree
with his methods were arrested, impressments.
(iii) France witnessed the guillotine of thousands of nobles and innocent men
who supported.
(iv)Robespierre issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on prices. Churches
were shut down.
(v) Finally Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794.
(b) A directory Rules France:
The reign of terror ended in 1794. The Jacobin government fell, and a new
constitution was prepared by an elected convention providing for a
republican from a government with a legislature and an executive body called
the Directory. Directory was an executive made up of five members. Directors
often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them.
The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rice of
a military dictator, napoleon Bonaparte.

DID WOMAN HAVE A REVOLUTION

(i) Most women of the third estate had to work for a living, did not have a
access to education or job training. Working women had also to for their
families; their wages were lower than those of men.
(ii) In order to discuss and voice their interests woman stated their own
political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in
different French cities. One of their main demands was that women enjoy the
same political rights as men.
(iii) In the early the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped
to improve the lives of women, creation of state schools, schooling made
compulsory for all girls, could be no longer forced to get into marriage
against their will, Divorce could be applied for by both women and men.
Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small
businesses.
(iv) During the Region of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering
closure of women’s clubs and banning their political actives.
(v) The fight for the vote was carried out though an International suffrage
movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century’s. It was
finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

(a) The Abolition of Slavery:

(i) Slavery was rampant in the European colonies of the Caribbean and the
Americans. The slaves were mostly used on sugar, coffee, indigo and tobacco
plantation. Their demand was because of their availability and low costs
(ii) in a debate in the Constituent Assembly in October 1790, to safeguard
commercial interests of ‘planters’ two parties holding opposite views emerged
. The group that safeguarded planters’ interests but pledged to maintain
order in the colonies came up around the Mosaic Club founded in August 1789
and their adversaries were the Society of the Friends of the Blacks founded in
1783. The outcome of the debate was that I served the purpose of drawing
attention to the condition of slaves and sowed seeds of future political
divisions.
(iii) On February 4, 1794 the Convention (National Assembly) ended slavery
in the France Colonies. Napoleon Bonaparte revoked the decree in 1802,
slavery was finally abolished from the France Colonies in 1848.

THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY:

The France Revolution produced great effects not only in France but also on
the whole of Europe.
(a) Effect on France:
The France Revolution put on end to the arbitrary rule in France and paved
the way for the establishment of a republic there. The special privileges of the
high order were abolished and lead to the regeneration of France on
the basis of social equality. The declaration of the right of man granted
freedom and individual liberty to all without any distraction of class or creed.
Many reforms were introduced in the administration. The higher and
Important posts in the state were opened to talented people. All were granted
religious freedom. The Napoleonic code introduced an uniform system of law
for France and made it quite clear and simple.

(b) Effects on Europe:

(i) Equality - the France Revolution had a great influence on Europe. Equality
was one of the main principal of France Revolution. It implied the equality of
all before law and abolition of privileges enjoyed by the upper order
in the society. it established social, economic and political equality in the
European countries.
(ii) Liberty - Revolutionary idea of liberty was hailed all over Europe. it
implied social, political and religious
Freedom. the declaration of rights of made people understand the importance
of personal liberty and rights.
(iii) Sovereignty – the France revolution emphasized the fact that
sovereignty recites in the general public and
law should be based on the will of the people. It infused the spirit of
nationalism and patriotisms in the people.

(c) Global impact:

(i) The France Revolution had a global impact which was felt equality in India.
(ii) The UN charter of Human Right also embodies the principles of the
Revolution as laid down in the Declaration of Right of Man and Citizens.
THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte himself Emperor of France. He set out to
conquer neighboring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and
creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. Napoleon saw
his role as a modernizer of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the
protection of private property and a
uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system
.initially, many saw Napoleon as a
liberation who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the Napoleonic
armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force. He was finally
defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Some Important Dates:

1774 – Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing
discontent within society of the Old Regime.
1789 – Convection of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly,
the Bastille is stormed, and peasant revolts in the countryside.
1791 – A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to
guarantee basic rights to all human beings.
1792-93 France becomes a republic, the king is beheaded. Overthrow of the
Jacobin republic, a Directory rules France.
1804- Napoleon becomes emperor of France, annexes large parts of Europe.
1815- Napoleon defeated at Waterloo.
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EXERCISE