Linear Algebra

Dr. K. Muthuselvan
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus
Course Code: 23MAT117

January 1, 2025

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Introduction

Linear Algebra is a branch of mathematics that focuses on

vector spaces and linear mappings between these spaces.
It provides a framework for working with systems of linear
equations, matrices, and vector operations.
Linear algebra is foundational to many areas of mathematics,
science, and engineering, and it is extensively used in fields
like computer science, physics, and machine learning

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Continued...

The idea of a vector arises in the study of various physical

applications. Many physical entities like mass, temperature
and so on. These are characterized in terms of a real numbers
and are called scalars.
Other physical entities such as the velocity of a particle or
force acting at a point determined only when both magnitude
and direction are specified.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Difference between set and space

A space in mathematics refers to a structured set equipped with

additional properties or rules that allow for specific operations or
relationships between its elements. A set is a collection of distinct
objects or elements

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Vector Space

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Vector Space

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Note:

Vector spaces with real scalars will be called real vector spaces
and those with complex scalars will be called complex vector
spaces. There is a more general notion of a vector space in
which scalars can come from a mathematical structure known
as a “field.”
In 1844 Hermann Grassmann published his "Theory of
Extension" which included foundational new topics of what is
today called linear algebra.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Examples

The zero vector space.

R n is a vector space.
The vector space of infinite sequences of real numbers.
The vector spaces of 2 × 2 matrices.
Let V be the set of all functions from R → R. Let f , g ∈ V
we define

(f + g)u = f (u) + g(u)

(kf )u = k(f (u)).

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Not vector space

R is not a vector space over scalar C.

R × R is not a vector space over R is defined by
k(u, v ) = (ku, k 2 v ).

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Subspaces

Definition 0.1
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W is
itself a vector space under the vector addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V.

Theorem 0.2
W is a subspace of V if and only if it is closed under addition and
scalar multiplication

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Continued...

Note: In general, to show that a nonempty set W with two

operations is a vector space one must verify the ten vector space
axioms. However, if W is a subspace of a known vector space V,
then certain axioms need not be verified because they are
“inherited” from V. For example, it is not necessary to verify that
u + v = v + u holds in W because it holds for all vectors in V
including those in W. On the other hand, it is necessary to verify
that W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication since it is
possible that adding two vectors in W or multiplying a vector in W
by a scalar produces a vector in V that is outside of W .

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.3
{0} and V are subspaces of any vector space V. They are called te
trivial subspaces of V.

Example 0.4
W = {(a, 0, 0)/a ∈ R} is a subspace of R 3 , for let
u = (a, 0, 0), v = (b, 0, 0) ∈ W and α, β ∈ R. Then
αu + βv = α(a, 0, 0) + β(b, 0, 0) = (αa + βb, 0, 0) ∈ W . Hence W
is a subspace of R 3 .

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.5
Lines Through the Origin Are Subspaces of R 2 . If W is a line
through the origin of R 2 , then adding two vectors on the line or
multiplying a vector on the line by a scalar produces another vector
on the line, so W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.6
Lines Through the Origin Are Subspaces of R 3 . If u and v are
vectors in a plane W through the origin of R 3 ,then it is evident
geometrically that u +v and ku also lie in the same plane W for any
scalar k. Thus W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.7
A Subset of R 2 That Is Not a Subspace.

Example 0.8
Set of all symmetric matrices.

Example 0.9
A Subset of Mnn That Is Not a Subspace.

Example 0.10
The Subspace C (−∞, ∞)

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Linear Combination and Span

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Example 1: The Standard Unit Vectors Span Rn

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Example 2: A Spanning Set for Pn

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Example 3: Linear Combination

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Continued...

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.11
In V3 (R), let e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), and e3 = (0, 0, 1).

Solution. Let S = {e1 , e2 , e3 }. Then

L(s) = {αe1 + βe2 + γe3 : α, β, γ ∈ R}

= {(α, β, γ) : α, β, γ ∈ R}
= V3 (R).

Thus V3 (R) is spanned by {e1 , e2 , e3 }.

Example 0.12
In Vn (R), let e1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, ...., 0), e2 =
(0, 1, 0, 0, ....., 0), ......, en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 1).

P.T Vn (R) is spanned by {e1 , e2 , ...., en }.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Linear Independence and Dependence

Theorem 0.13
A non-empty set S = {v1 , v2 , ...., vr } in a vector space V is linearly
independent iff the only coefficients satisfying the vector equation:

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + .... + kr vr = 0

are k1 = k2 = .... = kr = 0.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 If W (x ) = 0 is linearly dependent.
If W (x ) ̸= 0 is linearly independent.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.14
Show that the vectors (2, 1, 4), (1, −1, 2) and (3, 1, −2) are linearly
independent.

Example 0.15
Show that the vectors (1, 7, 5), (−7, 20, −2) and (3, −2, 4) are
linearly independent.

Example 0.16
Show that the vectors (1, 2, 1, 0), (1, 3, 1, 2), (4, 2, 1, 0) and
(6, 1, 0, 1) are linearly independent.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.17
Use the Wronskian to show that f1 = 1, f2 = e x , f3 = e 2x are
linearly independent.

Example 0.18
Use the Wronskian to show that f1 = x , f2 = sinx .

Theorem 0.19
If the functions f1 , f2 , f3 , ..., fn have n-1 continuous derivatives on
the interval (−∞, ∞), and if the Wronskian of these functions is
not identically zero on (−∞, ∞), then these functions forms a
linearly independent set of vectors in C (n−1) (−∞, ∞).

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Coordinates and Basis

In analytic geometry one uses rectangular coordinate systems to

create a one-to-one correspondence between points in 2-space and
ordered pairs of real numbers and between points in 3-space and
ordered triples of real numbers. In linear algebra coordinate
systems are commonly specified using vectors rather than
coordinate axes.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Basis and Dimension

Definition 0.20
If S = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn }is a set of vectors in a finite-dimensional
vector space V, then S is called a basis for V if:
S spans V.
S is linearly independent.

Definition 0.21
The dimension of a finite-dimensional vector space V is denoted by
dim(V) and is defined to be the number of vectors in a basis for V.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 Example 0.22
The Standard Basis for R n

Example 0.23
Show that the vectors v1=(1,2,1),v2=(2,9,0),and v3=(3,3,4)form
a basis for R 3 .

Example 0.24
The Standard Basis for Mmn

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Exercise Problems in Vector space

The set of all real numbers with the standard operations of

addition and multiplication.
The set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (x , 0) with the
standard operations on R 2 .
The set of all n-tuples of real numbers that have the form
(x,x,...,x) with the standard operations on R n .
The set of all triples of real numbers with the standard vector
addition but with scalar multiplication defined by
k(x , y , z) = (k 2 x , k 2 y , k 2 z).
The set of all 2 × 2 invertible matrices with the standard
matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
 " #
a 0
The set of all 2 × 2 matrices of the form with the
0 b
standard matrix addition and scalar multiplication
The set of all real-valued functions f defined everywhere on
the real line and such that f(1) = 0 with the operations.
The set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (1,x) with the
operations (1, y1 ) + (1, y2 ) = (1, y1 + y1 ) and k(1,y)= (1,ky).
The set of polynomials of the form a0 + a1 x with the opera
tions (a0 + a1 x ) + (b0 + b1 x ) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x and
k(a0 + a1 x ) = (ka0 ) + (ka1 )x

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra
Exercise Problems in subspace

Which of the following are subspace of R3

All the vectors of the form (a,0,0).
All vectors of the form (a,1,1).
All vectors of the form (a, a+c, c).
All the vectors of the form (a, a+c+1, c).
All vectors of the form (a,b,0).

Dr. K. Muthuselvan Assistant Professor Department of Mathematics Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham | Chennai Campus Course Code:

Linear Algebra