Climate Change

Litigation
A Handbook

edited by

Wolfgang Kahl
Marc-Philippe Weller

2021
Published by
Verlag C.H.Beck oHG, Wilhelmstraße 9, 80801 München, Germany,
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Author, in: Kahl/Weller, Climate Change Litigation, 2021, p. XY

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 Foreword from the Editors

This handbook investigates important legal issues that emerge from the highly topical
discourse on climate protection. Experts from all over the world share their knowledge
on “Climate Change Litigation”, illuminating different legal perspectives: international
law, European law, as well as national public and private law.
In addition, the present volume gives an overview of ongoing lawsuits and their
relevant legal frameworks in different jurisdictions, including, inter alia, the United
States, Canada, Australia, the UK, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Brazil, and Germany.
Climate change is one of the greatest societal challenges of our time. Its legal coverage
is in the process of establishing itself as an independent branch of environmental and
international law and will most likely become one of the major legal markets of the
future.
Building upon this development, our handbook aims to pave the way for further legal
research on climate change and upcoming legal proceedings in order to help protect our
climate.
Wolfgang Kahl and Marc-Philippe Weller
Heidelberg University

V
 Table of Content

Foreword from the Editors....................................................................................................................... V

List of Abbreviations.................................................................................................................................. XVII
List of Authors............................................................................................................................................. XXIX

INTRODUCTION
CLIMATE CHANGE AS A CHALLENGE FOR GLOBAL GOVERNANCE,
COURTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS (Voigt)
I. Introduction: climate change – a global threat ........................................................................... 2
II. Challenges (and possibilities) for global governance and international law......................... 3
III. The role of courts............................................................................................................................... 7
1. Addressing the causes of climate change ................................................................................. 7
2. Addressing the consequences of climate change .................................................................... 12
3. Response measures to climate change ...................................................................................... 13
IV. Major legal issues ............................................................................................................................... 14
V. Potential role for litigation in national courts ............................................................................. 17

PART 1
FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS
A. Liability for climate damages, sustainability and environmental justice
(Kloepfer/Neugärtner) .............................................................................................................................. 21
I. Introduction: global warming’s spatiotemporal strangeness – “tricky” to imagine ............ 23
II. Random sampling: Lliuya v. RWE – approaching liabilities for climate damages
inductively ............................................................................................................................................ 23
1. The case Lliuya v. RWE................................................................................................................ 23
2. Three exemplary issues: statute of limitations, rivalling Rechtsregime, adequate
causation .......................................................................................................................................... 24
3. Trying to imagine “strange” ‘spaces’, ‘times’ and ‘agents’ .................................................... 26
III. Key frameworks: ‘sustainability’, ‘environmental justice’ – and ‘ecological justice’............ 26
1. Integrative frameworks for “evaluating environmental decisions”..................................... 26
2. First encounters, some basic definitions, some common(?) ground.................................. 27
3. Some traps: ‘lucid dreams’ of harmony, ‘greenwashing’ and anthropocentrist blind
spots .................................................................................................................................................. 30
4. ‘Ecological justice’ – ‘space’, ‘time’ and ‘agency’ in the Anthropocene............................. 31
IV. Times, spaces (and agents) of global warming............................................................................ 33
1. Times of global warming ............................................................................................................. 33
2. Spaces of global warming............................................................................................................. 37
V. Coda: “more time tunnels of different sizes”............................................................................... 43
B. Climate damages and the ‘Polluter Pays’ Principle (Rehbinder) ............................................... 45
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 46
II. Historical development and state of recognition ........................................................................ 46
1. Historical development................................................................................................................. 46
2. State of recognition........................................................................................................................ 47
III. Legal nature ......................................................................................................................................... 48
1. Principle or rule?............................................................................................................................ 48
2. Legal effects ..................................................................................................................................... 49
IV. Functions .............................................................................................................................................. 51
1. Diversity of functions.................................................................................................................... 51
2. Internalisation vs. instrumental orientation ............................................................................ 52
3. Redistribution of costs vs. material responsibility.................................................................. 53

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V. Contents and limits............................................................................................................................ 54
1. Generalities ...................................................................................................................................... 54
2. Protected assets............................................................................................................................... 54
3. Identification of the polluter (originator)................................................................................. 55
4. Causation and accountability ...................................................................................................... 56
5. Delimitation from the common burden principle ................................................................. 57
VI. Instruments.......................................................................................................................................... 58
1. Generalities ...................................................................................................................................... 58
2. Liability in particular..................................................................................................................... 59
VII. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 60
C. The role of courts in climate protection and the separation of powers (Payandeh) .......... 62
I. Introduction: the judicialization of climate change governance.............................................. 64
II. Analysis: structures of judicial involvement in climate protection......................................... 66
1. Venues .............................................................................................................................................. 66
2. Protagonists ..................................................................................................................................... 69
3. Goals ................................................................................................................................................. 70
III. Contextualization: factors influencing the role of courts.......................................................... 72
1. Procedural rules and the competences of courts.................................................................... 72
2. Substantive law and the legal order in general ....................................................................... 73
3. Political and social environment ................................................................................................ 75
IV. Evaluation: the legitimate functions of courts in climate protection ..................................... 76
1. Climate change litigation between law and politics............................................................... 76
2. The suitability of judicial engagement with climate change ................................................ 78
3. The effectiveness of climate change litigation ......................................................................... 79
V. Conclusion: potential and limitations of judicial climate protection ..................................... 80
D. Climate change and duties to protect with regard to fundamental rights (Gross) ............. 81
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 82
II. Constitutional foundations............................................................................................................... 83
1. Protection of the environment.................................................................................................... 83
2. Protection of human rights ......................................................................................................... 84
III. The Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights.................................................. 85
1. The protection against dangerous activities............................................................................. 85
2. The protection against natural disasters................................................................................... 87
3. Open questions............................................................................................................................... 87
IV. The legal problems of positive obligations ................................................................................... 88
1. Individual rights ............................................................................................................................. 88
2. Access to courts.............................................................................................................................. 90
3. Causation ......................................................................................................................................... 91
4. Scope of obligations....................................................................................................................... 92
5. Separation of powers..................................................................................................................... 94
V. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 95

PART 2
PROCEDURAL ISSUES AND CONFLICT OF LAWS
E. Arbitration proceedings (Lennarz)..................................................................................................... 97
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 98
II. Climate change disputes ................................................................................................................... 99
1. Disputes resulting from material damages............................................................................... 99
2. Disputes over natural resources.................................................................................................. 99
3. Disputes resulting from international climate treaties .......................................................... 99
4. Disputes resulting from transformation of the economy ..................................................... 99
5. Climate finance disputes .............................................................................................................. 100
6. Corporate disputes......................................................................................................................... 100
III. Arbitration proceedings .................................................................................................................... 100
1. Arbitration law ............................................................................................................................... 101
2. Enforceability .................................................................................................................................. 101

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3. Arbitration agreement................................................................................................................... 102
4. Confidentiality ................................................................................................................................ 102
5. Flexibility of proceedings ............................................................................................................. 103
6. Selection of arbitrators.................................................................................................................. 104
7. Involvement of third parties........................................................................................................ 104
8. Involvement of states .................................................................................................................... 104
9. Applicable law................................................................................................................................. 105
10. Claims based on tort ..................................................................................................................... 105
IV. Suitability of arbitration proceedings for climate change disputes......................................... 105
1. Political and public law claims ................................................................................................... 105
2. Claims for damages and for specific performance against companies.............................. 106
3. Disputes over natural resources.................................................................................................. 106
4. Disputes arising from international climate protection treaties.......................................... 107
5. Disputes resulting from the implementation of international climate treaties................ 108
6. Disputes due to transformation towards Green economy ................................................... 110
7. Disputes arising from climate finance ...................................................................................... 111
8. Corporate disputes......................................................................................................................... 113
V. Arbitral institutions and climate change....................................................................................... 114
1. Permanent Court of Arbitration, The Hague.......................................................................... 114
2. International Court of Arbitration of the ICC, Paris ............................................................ 115
VI. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 118
F. Conflicts of jurisdiction and the applicable law in domestic courts’ proceedings
(Kieninger) .................................................................................................................................................. 119
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 120
1. Road map......................................................................................................................................... 120
2. Cross‐border elements giving rise to questions of private international law................... 121
3. No universal rules with respect to jurisdiction and Choice of Law................................... 122
II. State immunity and “political question doctrine” ...................................................................... 123
1. State immunity ............................................................................................................................... 123
2. “Political question doctrine” as a limitation to cross‐border proceedings ....................... 125
III. Jurisdiction........................................................................................................................................... 125
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 125
2. Brussels Ibis Regulation and Lugano Convention.................................................................. 127
3. EU Member States’ autonomous rules on jurisdiction ......................................................... 132
4. United States: Personal jurisdiction of state and federal courts.......................................... 133
IV. Choice of Law...................................................................................................................................... 138
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 138
2. EU: Liability in tort (delict) according to the Rome II Regulation .................................... 139
3. Autonomous PIL: Property law.................................................................................................. 146
4. US conflict of laws......................................................................................................................... 146

PART 3
STATE LIABILITY UNDER INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN LAW
G. Environmental liability in international law (Wolfrum)............................................................. 149
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 150
II. Notion – environmental liability – what does it mean and what is the purpose in the
context of a liability regime?............................................................................................................ 151
III. Development of a regime on environmental liability: From liability for transboundary
harm to genuine international environmental liability ............................................................. 152
1. Introduction – first jurisprudence.............................................................................................. 152
2. Development of the treaty law on civil liability...................................................................... 153
3. International treaties on the protection of the environment of international common
spaces: A paradigmatic shift? ...................................................................................................... 156
4. Customary international law: Does there exist an international regime on environ-
mental liability? .............................................................................................................................. 160
IV. Concluding observations: Necessary features of a regime on international environmen-
tal liability............................................................................................................................................. 161

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1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 161
2. Liability for lawful or only illegal activities.............................................................................. 161
3. Intensity of harm ........................................................................................................................... 163
4. Liability for not establishing precautionary measures or an adequate response system 163
5. The matter of causality ................................................................................................................. 164
6. Fault based or strict liability........................................................................................................ 164
7. Calculating the amount of compensation to be paid and limits ........................................ 165
8. The potential claimant.................................................................................................................. 165
H. The international law and policy implications of climate change litigation: sustainable
developments in international investment law and policy related to renewable energy,
climate change mitigation and adaptation (Cordonier Segger/Arvan/Byron/Srinivas) ......... 166
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 168
II. International policy & treaty commitments to climate justice & investment in carbon
neutral/negative sustainable development .................................................................................... 169
III. Climate change litigation guiding investment risk assessment & decision‐making ........... 173
IV. Innovations in investment law & policy related to clean energy, climate change and
sustainable development ................................................................................................................... 182
1. Treaty & policy developments .................................................................................................... 183
2. Investment treaty disputes ........................................................................................................... 188
V. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................................... 196
I. The Paris Climate Agreement and liability issues (Franzius/Kling) .......................................... 197
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 199
II. The Paris Agreement and the legal nature of its provisions.................................................... 200
1. The Paris Agreement – binding or not binding? ................................................................... 200
2. Obligations in the main action areas......................................................................................... 201
3. Compliance and enforcement ..................................................................................................... 207
III. The Paris Agreement in the courtroom........................................................................................ 208
1. Interplay between the international and national level......................................................... 208
2. The Paris Agreement in domestic litigation ............................................................................ 209
3. Rights‐based litigation................................................................................................................... 210
4. Adjudication in planning decisions ........................................................................................... 212
5. Some general remarks: the importance of considering the national context................... 214
IV. Conclusion and outlook.................................................................................................................... 215
J. Liability of EU Member States under EU law (Purnhagen/Saurer)............................................ 217
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 218
II. Greenhouse gas reduction obligations of EU Member States under EU law....................... 219
III. EU Member State liability within the non‐ETS sector: the obligation to purchase surplus
allocations from other Member States as financial sanction.................................................... 221
IV. Financial sanctions within the infringement procedure as liability mechanism ................. 223
V. Liability of EU Member States under Francovich doctrine?..................................................... 224
1. The origins, function and reasoning and doctrinal embedding of non‐contractual
Member State liability as developed by the Court ................................................................. 225
2. The Francovich criteria for state liability and climate law cases......................................... 226
3. Does the nature of the breach of Union law require a different yardstick in climate
law cases? ......................................................................................................................................... 235
VI. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 236

PART 4
CLIMATE CHANGE LITIGATION – NATIONAL REPORTS
K. Climate change litigation in the United States (Farber) ............................................................. 237
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 237
II. Jurisdictional issues............................................................................................................................ 238
1. Standing............................................................................................................................................ 239
2. Personal jurisdiction...................................................................................................................... 241
3. Subject matter jurisdiction........................................................................................................... 242
III. Public law litigation ........................................................................................................................... 244

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1. Litigation under the Clean Air Act............................................................................................ 244
2. Litigation over disclosure of climate impacts. ......................................................................... 247
3. Adaptation issues ........................................................................................................................... 247
4. Non‐statutory claims..................................................................................................................... 249
IV. Tort liability ......................................................................................................................................... 250
1. Nuisance law and climate change .............................................................................................. 250
2. Causation issues ............................................................................................................................. 251
3. Litigation prospects ....................................................................................................................... 252
V. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 252
L. Climate change litigation in Canada (Jodoin/McGinn)................................................................. 253
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 254
II. Climate law and governance in Canada ....................................................................................... 255
III. Litigation relating to the authority of the federal government to address climate change 258
1. Syncrude Canada Ltd. v. The Attorney General of Canada ................................................ 258
2. The GHG pollution pricing reference cases ............................................................................ 259
IV. Litigation relating to the obligation of governments and public bodies to address climate
change ................................................................................................................................................... 262
1. Cases involving a failure of public bodies to adequately consider GHG emissions....... 262
2. Litigation relating to the Kyoto Protocol ................................................................................. 264
3. Rights‐based climate lawsuits...................................................................................................... 266
V. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 269
M. Climate change litigation in Brazil (Wedy).................................................................................... 271
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 272
II. Climate change law and litigation in Brazil ................................................................................. 274
III. Legal remedies which may be used in climate litigation in Brazil.......................................... 279
IV. Climate litigation in Brazil: analyses of cases .............................................................................. 281
1. Precedent of the Supreme Federal Court ................................................................................. 281
2. Precedents by the Brazilian Superior Court of Justice .......................................................... 283
V. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 286
N. Climate change litigation in Australia (Bell‐James)...................................................................... 288
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 289
II. Climate change through the environmental impact assessment process .............................. 290
1. Early cases........................................................................................................................................ 291
2. The Queensland coal mine cases................................................................................................ 292
3. Adani before the Federal Court.................................................................................................. 296
4. New development – Rocky Hill decision ................................................................................. 297
5. Future directions and negative regulatory responses............................................................. 298
III. Emerging avenues for climate change litigation ......................................................................... 299
1. Corporate law.................................................................................................................................. 299
2. Human rights law .......................................................................................................................... 301
3. Operators of emissions‐intensive industries ............................................................................ 302
IV. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 303
O. Climate change litigation in the United Kingdom (Ohdedar/McNab).................................... 304
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 306
1. Background to climate change litigation in the UK .............................................................. 307
2. Early history of climate litigation in the UK: 1990s to the mid‐2000s ............................. 307
II. Litigating climate targets: holding the government to account ............................................... 308
1. Plan B takes on the UK climate mitigation target ................................................................. 308
2. Human rights and climate change in the courts .................................................................... 309
3. The path to net zero: winning the political battle, losing the legal battle ........................ 310
III. Litigating the transition to a low carbon society: clean energy, airports, and fracking ..... 311
1. Litigation on wind and solar projects ....................................................................................... 311
2. Anti‐fracking cases ........................................................................................................................ 315
3. Litigation against airport expansion .......................................................................................... 316
IV. Criminal prosecution of climate activism: an emerging area of climate litigation ............. 319
V. Conclusions and the future climate litigation in the UK.......................................................... 322

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P. Climate change litigation in Italy (Butti) ......................................................................................... 324
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 324
II. Regulatory and planning framework on climate change in Italy............................................ 325
1. Mitigation measures ...................................................................................................................... 325
2. Adaptation measures..................................................................................................................... 328
III. “Giudizio universale” (the last judgment): a high‐profile case to be litigated by the first
months of 2020 ................................................................................................................................... 329
IV. Local court cases that are relevant to climate change litigation in Italy ............................... 333
V. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 335
Q. Climate change litigation in France (Epstein/Deckert)................................................................. 336
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 337
II. Climate change litigation in public law......................................................................................... 338
1. Available remedies ......................................................................................................................... 338
2. Injury ................................................................................................................................................ 340
3. Illegal act or conduct..................................................................................................................... 341
4. The causal link between the damage and the misconduct................................................... 345
III. Climate change litigation in private law ....................................................................................... 346
1. Making French companies eco‐friendly through business law ........................................... 348
2. Conditions and limits to the engagement of climate change civil liability: analysis of
the difficulties and solutions to overcome them..................................................................... 356
R. Climate change litigation in the Netherlands – the Urgenda case and beyond
(Van der Veen/De Graaf) ....................................................................................................................... 363
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 363
II. The Urgenda case............................................................................................................................... 365
1. The District Court judgment....................................................................................................... 365
2. The Court of Appeal ruling......................................................................................................... 366
3. The Supreme Court decision....................................................................................................... 367
4. Analysis and critique..................................................................................................................... 369
III. Other developments in the Netherlands....................................................................................... 372
1. Friends of the Earth versus Shell................................................................................................ 372
2. The Climate Act ............................................................................................................................. 373
3. The Climate Agreement ............................................................................................................... 375
IV. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................................... 377
S. Climate change litigation in Germany (Weller/Nasse/Nasse) ...................................................... 378
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 380
II. The scientific bases of climate change........................................................................................... 382
1. The climate system ........................................................................................................................ 382
2. Greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases.................................................................................. 383
3. Detection and attribution of climate change........................................................................... 385
III. Climate change litigation and private international law ........................................................... 386
IV. International jurisdiction of national courts ................................................................................ 387
1. General forum, Art. 4 of Regulation No. 1215/2012.............................................................. 387
2. Special forum of the tort, Art. 7 No. 2 of Regulation No. 1215/2012................................ 388
3. Special forum of the joinder of parties, Art. 8 No. 1 of Regulation No. 1215/2012....... 391
V. Applicable law ..................................................................................................................................... 392
1. Scope of the tort statute ............................................................................................................... 392
2. Choice of law, Art. 14 Rome II................................................................................................... 392
3. Environmental tort statute, Art. 7 Rome II ............................................................................. 392
4. Interim result .................................................................................................................................. 398
VI. Liability under German law ............................................................................................................. 398
1. Compensation for already occurred damages ......................................................................... 398
2. Protection from future impairments ......................................................................................... 401
3. Proof of causality as central hurdle of private climate actions ........................................... 402
VII. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 403

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PART 5
LIABILITY FOR CLIMATE DAMAGES – GERMANY AS AN INTERNATIONAL PIONEER?
T. Liability for climate damages under the German law of torts (Wagner/Arntz) ................... 405
I. The German law of non‐contractual liability: an overview...................................................... 407
1. Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 407
2. The law of delict............................................................................................................................. 407
3. Nuisance law ................................................................................................................................... 408
4. Strict liability ................................................................................................................................... 409
II. A prominent case in German courts: Saúl Ananías Luciano Lliuya vs. RWE AG ............. 410
III. The law of delict ................................................................................................................................. 412
1. Negligence liability, Section 823 (1) BGB................................................................................. 412
2. Breach of statutory duty, Section 823 (2) BGB....................................................................... 422
3. Actio doli, Section 826 BGB......................................................................................................... 423
IV. Strict liability ....................................................................................................................................... 423
V. Law of nuisance .................................................................................................................................. 423
1. Actio negatoria, Section 1004 BGB ............................................................................................ 423
2. Section 906 (2) cl. 2 BGB and Section 14 cl. 2 BImSchG..................................................... 426
VI. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 427
U. Liability for climate change damages under the German Environmental Liability Act
(Nitsch) ....................................................................................................................................................... 429
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 430
II. Basic principles of the UmweltHG................................................................................................. 431
III. Nature of liability ............................................................................................................................... 433
IV. Facilities subject to the UmweltHG ............................................................................................... 434
1. Basic principles ............................................................................................................................... 434
2. Annex 1 catalogue.......................................................................................................................... 434
V. Damages subject to the UmweltHG............................................................................................... 435
1. Basic principles ............................................................................................................................... 435
2. Climate change damages subject to the UmweltHG?............................................................ 436
VI. Environmental impact....................................................................................................................... 437
1. Basic principles ............................................................................................................................... 437
2. Environmental impact in the form of climate change .......................................................... 438
VII. Causation.............................................................................................................................................. 439
1. Basic principles ............................................................................................................................... 439
2. Presumption of causation ............................................................................................................ 442
3. Causation in cases of climate change damages....................................................................... 442
VIII. Temporal scope of application ........................................................................................................ 445
IX. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 446
V. Climate protection and compliance in German corporate law (Habersack/Ehrl) ................ 447
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 450
1. Climate protection in current accounting and stock corporation law .............................. 450
2. The company’s external and internal relationships ............................................................... 451
3. Delimiting the object of study .................................................................................................... 452
II. The perspective of economic analysis and legal functionalism ............................................... 452
1. The internalization of negative externalities as a guidance objective ................................ 452
2. Efficiency of lawfulness and compliance duties for legal enforcement ............................. 453
III. Climate protection and current corporate law ............................................................................ 455
1. Corporate management and the objectives of stock corporation law ............................... 455
2. Duty of lawfulness and compliance responsibility (under stock corporation law),
§§ 91 (2), 93, 116 p. 1 AktG........................................................................................................ 456
3. CSR reporting duties ..................................................................................................................... 459
4. CSR and corporate interest.......................................................................................................... 461
IV. Conclusion and prospects ................................................................................................................ 464

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W. Investor‐led action for climate and business sustainability (Duve/Hamama) ..................... 466
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 469
II. Climate change arrived in the investment community ............................................................. 470
III. Why is investor‐led action needed? ............................................................................................... 471
1. Insufficient political measures..................................................................................................... 471
2. Changing regulatory frameworks ............................................................................................... 473
3. Need for more sustainable investments.................................................................................... 474
4. Business dimension of the investor’s‐led action for climate................................................ 474
IV. Time for investor‐led action ............................................................................................................ 475
1. Invest responsibly........................................................................................................................... 475
2. Divest from non‐sustainable businesses ................................................................................... 476
3. Stay invested and take action ...................................................................................................... 477
V. What can investor‐led action achieve?.......................................................................................... 477
1. Investor’s dialogue with management....................................................................................... 478
2. Corporate decisions and the public arena................................................................................ 479
3. Adopting climate change shareholder resolutions ................................................................. 480
4. Insisting on disclosure and climate change reporting........................................................... 481
5. Acting as thought leaders............................................................................................................. 483
6. Taking a seat and action .............................................................................................................. 484
7. Litigating as last resort.................................................................................................................. 485
VI. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 486
X. Liability for climate damages under the Environmental Damage Act (Kahl/Stürmlinger) .. 487
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 488
II. The concept of environmental damage......................................................................................... 489
1. Damage to species and natural habitats ................................................................................... 489
2. Water damage................................................................................................................................. 490
3. Land damage................................................................................................................................... 491
4. Restriction of the concept of environmental damage............................................................ 491
5. Climate damages as environmental damages within the meaning of the EDA .............. 492
III. Responsible party ............................................................................................................................... 496
1. Category of persons concerned................................................................................................... 496
2. Direct causation.............................................................................................................................. 497
3. Responsible party for climate damages within the scope of the EDA .............................. 499
IV. Legal effects.......................................................................................................................................... 502
1. Obligations of the responsible party.......................................................................................... 502
2. Powers of the authorities.............................................................................................................. 503
3. Selection of disturbers................................................................................................................... 504
4. Bearing of costs .............................................................................................................................. 504
V. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 505
Y. The role of non‐governmental organizations for climate change litigation
(Verheyen/Pabsch) .................................................................................................................................... 507
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 509
1. NGO’s as representatives of the environment ........................................................................ 509
2. NGO’s and climate litigation in practice.................................................................................. 510
3. Climate litigation in Germany by defendants ......................................................................... 512
II. NGO independent access to court as exception to the rule – the German standing rules
in a nutshell ......................................................................................................................................... 513
III. Formal role of NGO’s in climate litigation against the state ................................................... 516
1. Standing in project related actions ............................................................................................ 516
2. Compliance with climate protection targets or other rules of climate law ...................... 516
3. Climate litigation against the state: Climate legislation ........................................................ 523
IV. Passive legal status of NGO’s .......................................................................................................... 525
1. Intervention..................................................................................................................................... 525
2. Amicus Curiae – “friend of the court” ..................................................................................... 525
V. Perspective climate litigation to enforce climate law ................................................................. 525
1. Obligations under the EU Governance Regulation................................................................ 526
2. The EU Climate Change Regulation ......................................................................................... 527

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3. National climate protection law ................................................................................................. 528
4. Actions for adjustment and compensation .............................................................................. 530
VI. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 530

PART 6
CONCLUSIONS
LIABILITY FOR CLIMATE DAMAGES –
SYNTHESIS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS (Kahl/Weller)
I. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 535
II. Fundamental questions ..................................................................................................................... 537
1. Sustainability and environmental justice.................................................................................. 537
2. Polluter‐pays principle.................................................................................................................. 538
3. The role of the legislature and the judiciary............................................................................ 538
4. Duties of protection....................................................................................................................... 539
III. Procedural issues and Conflict of Laws ........................................................................................ 540
1. Procedures before civil courts ..................................................................................................... 540
2. Applicable law................................................................................................................................. 541
3. Arbitration proceedings................................................................................................................ 541
IV. State liability under international and European law ................................................................ 541
V. Climate change litigation: country reports ................................................................................... 543
1. USA ................................................................................................................................................... 543
2. Canada.............................................................................................................................................. 544
3. Brazil ................................................................................................................................................. 544
4. Australia ........................................................................................................................................... 544
5. United Kingdom ............................................................................................................................ 545
6. Italy.................................................................................................................................................... 546
7. France ............................................................................................................................................... 546
8. Netherlands ..................................................................................................................................... 548
VI. Liability for climate damages – Germany as an international pioneer?................................ 549
1. Environmental Damage Act ........................................................................................................ 549
2. Role of the NGOs .......................................................................................................................... 550
3. Corporate climate responsibility................................................................................................. 550
4. Delictual climate change liability................................................................................................ 551
VII. Tendencies and prospects................................................................................................................. 551
1. Primacy of the legislature, supplemental function of the courts ........................................ 551
2. Basic right or state objective: climate protection in the national constitutions?............. 552
3. Emission reduction objectives in the constitution?................................................................ 553
4. Private enforcement....................................................................................................................... 554
5. Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 558
Index ................................................................................................................................................................. 561

XV
 List of Abbreviations

2nd Cir. .............................. U.S. Court of Appeals for the 2nd Circuit
9th Cir. ............................... U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit
A/RES ................................. Resolutions of the UN General Assembly, indicating the session in
which it was adopted and the date of adoption
A1P1 ................................... Article 1 of the First Protocol [to the European Convention on
Human Rights]
AC ....................................... Aarhus Convention
ACCC ................................. Aarhus Convention Compliance Committee
ACHR ................................ American Convention on Human Rights
AcP ..................................... Archiv für die civilistische Praxis
addtl. supp. ....................... additional supply
Admin ................................ Administrative division
AG ....................................... Advocate-General
AG ....................................... stock corporation (Aktiengesellschaft)
AG ....................................... Die Aktiengesellschaft (journal)
AJIL .................................... American Journal of International Law
AktG ................................... German Stock Corporation Act (Aktiengesetz)
ALI ...................................... American Law Institute
Am. Indian L. Rev. .......... American Indian Law Review
Am. Rev. Int‘l Arb. .......... American Review of International Arbitration
AMF ................................... French Financial Markets Authority (Autorité des marchés financiers)
Ann. Econ. Finance ......... Annals of Economics and Finance
AO ...................................... Advisory Opinion
APA .................................... Austria Presse Agentur
Apple .................................. Apple Inc.
Approx. .............................. Approximately
Ariz. St. L.J. ....................... Arizona State Law Journal
Art. ...................................... Article
ASEAN ............................... Association of South-East Asian Nations
AtG ..................................... Atomgesetz
ATS ..................................... Alien Tort Statute
AVR .................................... Archiv des Völkerrechts
BA ....................................... Bachelor of Arts
Bayer ................................... Bayer AG
BB ........................................ Betriebs-Berater (journal)
BBC ..................................... British Broadcasting Corporation
BBVA ................................. Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria
BCG .................................... Boston Consulting Group
BCL ..................................... Bachelor of Civil Law
BCSC .................................. Supreme Court of British Colombia
BeckOGK ........................... Beck’scher Online-Großkommentar
BeckOK .............................. Beck’scher Online-Kommentar
BeckOK BGB .................... Beck’scher Online-Kommentar zum BGB
BeckOK ZPO .................... Beck’scher Online-Kommentar ZPO
BeckRS ............................... beck-online.RECHTSPRECHUNG
BEIS .................................... [Department for] Business Energy & Industrial Strategy
Beschl. ................................ Beschluss
Beyerlin/Marauhn ........... Beyerlin/Marauhn, International Environmental Law, Hart/Beck 2011
BGB .................................... Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (German Civil Code)
BGBl. .................................. Bundesgesetzblatt
BGE .................................... Entscheidungen des Schweizerischen Bundesgerichts (jurisprudence of
the Swiss Bundesgericht)
BGH .................................... The German Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof)
BGH IPRspr ...................... case law of the BGH refering to international private law

XVII
 List of Abbreviations

BGHZ ................................. Decisions in civil cases of the German Federal Court of Justice
BImSchG ........................... Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz
BIT ...................................... Bilateral Investment Treaty
BKR .................................... Zeitschrift für Bank- und Kapitalmarktrecht
BL ........................................ Basic Law
BlackRock .......................... BlackRock Inc.
BMO ................................... Bank of Montreal
BMO GAM ....................... BMO Global Asset Management
BNatSchG .......................... Bundesnaturschutzgesetz
BoE ..................................... Bank of England
BP ........................................ BP plc
BRJ ...................................... Bonner Rechtsjournal
Brussels Ibis Regulation
(Reg.) .................................. Regulation on Jurisdiction and the Recognition of Judgments in Civil
and Commercial Matters from 2012
BT-Drs. .............................. Bundestags-Drucksache
Bugge, Justice .................... Bugge, The Polluter Pays Principle: Dilemmas of Justice in National
and International Contexts, in: Ebbeson/Okowa (eds), Environmental
Law and Justice in Context, Cambridge University Press 2009, p. 411
Bugge, Law and
Economics ......................... Bugge, The Principles of “Polluter Pays” in Economics and Law in:
van den Berg/Eide (eds), Law and Economics of the Environment,
Juridisk 1996, p. 54
BUND ................................ Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland (Association for
Environment and Nature Conservation Germany)
BUND e. V. ....................... Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz e. V.
BV ....................................... besloten vennotschap (limited liability cooperation)
BVerfG ............................... Bundesverfassungsgericht (German Federal Constitutional Court)
BVerfGE ............................ Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts
BVerfGG ............................ Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz
BVerwG ............................. Bundesverwaltungsgericht (Federal Administrative Court)
C .......................................... Celsius
C40 ...................................... C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group
CA ....................................... Court of Appeal (Cour d’appel)
CAA .................................... Clean Air Act
CAA .................................... Administrative Court of Appeal (Cour administrative d’appel)
CalPERS ............................. California Public Employees’ Retirement System
CalSTRS ............................. California State Teachers’ Retirement System
Camb. L.J. .......................... Cambridge Law Journal
Cass. civ. ............................ Court of Cassation, Civil Chamber (Cour de cassation, chambre civil)
Cass. crim. ......................... Court of cassation, Criminal Chamber (Cour de cassation, chambre
criminelle)
CBA .................................... Commonwealth Bank of Australia
CBDR ................................. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
CCA .................................... Climate Change Act 2008
CCLR .................................. Carbon & Climate Law Review
CCS ..................................... Carbon Capture and Storage
CDP .................................... Carbon Disclosure Project
CDU ................................... Christlich Demokratische Union
CE ....................................... Council of State (Conseil d’Etat)
CEENRG ........................... Centre for Energy, Environment & Natural Resources Governance
CEO .................................... Chief Executive Officer
CER ..................................... Certified Emissions Reduction
CERCLA ............................ US Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation dand
Liability Act
CETA ................................. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement
CETS .................................. Council of Europe Treaty Series
cf .......................................... see, compare
CFR ..................................... Charter of Fundemental Rights
Ch. ...................................... Chapter

XVIII
 List of Abbreviations

Charter ............................... Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

CISDL ................................ Centre for International Sustainable Development Law
Civ ....................................... Civil division
CJ (as in Preston CJ) ...... Chief Justice
cl. ......................................... clause
CLC .................................... Liability Convention
CLGI ................................... Climate Law and Governance Initiative
Climate L. Rep. ................ Climate Law Reporter
CLR ..................................... Centre for Legal Resources
CLS ..................................... Columbia law school
CMA ................................... Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the
Paris Agreement
CO2 ..................................... Carbon Dioxide
Col. J. Envtl. L. ................. Columbia Journal of Environmental Law
Colo. J. Int. Env. L. &
Pol. ...................................... Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy
Colum. L. Rev .................. Columbia Law Review
COM .................................. Commission
CONAMA ......................... national environment commission
Cons. constit. .................... Constitutional Council (Conseil constitutionnel)
CoP ..................................... Conference of the Parties
COP 21 .............................. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 21st
Conference of the Parties
Cornell L. Rev. ................. Cornell Law Review
CORSIA ............................. Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation
COVID-19 ........................ Coronavirus disease 2019
CPTPP ............................... Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Part-
nership
Crim ................................... Criminal division
CRISPP .............................. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy
CSP ..................................... Concentrated Solar Power
CSR ..................................... Corporate Social Responsibility
CSU .................................... Christlich-Soziale Union
Cth ...................................... Commonwealth
D. ......................................... Decree (décret)
DALY ................................. disability adjusted life years
DB ....................................... Der Betrieb (journal)
DC ....................................... District Council
DCC .................................... Dutch Civil Code
DCGK ................................ German Corporate Governance Code
de Sadeleer, Principles .... de Sadeleer, Environmental Principles – From Political Slogans to
Legal Rules, Oxford University Press 2002
de Sadeleer, Pro Natura .. de Sadeleer, The Polluter-Pays Principle in EU Law – Bold Case Law
and Poor Harmonisation, in: Backer/Fauchauld/Voigt (eds), Pro Nat-
ura, Festskrift til Hans Christian Bugge, Universitetsforlaged 2012, p.
405
Deakin LR ......................... Deakin Law Review
DGIR .................................. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationales Recht
Doc ..................................... Document
DÖV ................................... Die öffentliche Verwaltung
DPhil .................................. Doctor of Philosophy
DStR ................................... Das deutsche Steuerecht
Duke J. Comp. & Int’l L . Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law
Dupuy/Viñuales ............... Dupuy/Viñuales, International Environmental Law, 2nd ed., Cam-
bridge University Press 2018
DVBl. .................................. Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt
EACOP .............................. East African Crude Oil Pipeline
e.g. ....................................... Exempli gratia (for example)
e. V. ..................................... eingetragener Verein
EAA .................................... Environmental Appeal Act

XIX
 List of Abbreviations

EC ....................................... European Commission

ECBI ................................... European Capacity Building Initiative
ECCHR .............................. European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights e. V.
ECE ..................................... UNECE, Economic Commission for Europe
ECHR ................................. European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
ECJ ...................................... European Court of Justice
ECLI ................................... European Case Law Identifier
ECR ..................................... European Court Reports
ECT ..................................... Energy Charter Treaty
ECtHR ................................ European Court of Human Rights
ed./eds. ............................... editor/editors
eec ....................................... European economic community
EEELR ................................ European Energy and Environmental Law Review
EGBGB ............................... Einführungsgesetz zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch (German Introduc-
tory Act to the Civil Code)
EGC .................................... General Court of the European Union
EIA ...................................... Environmental Impact Assessment
EL ........................................ Ergänzungslieferung
ELD ..................................... Environmental Liability Directive
Env. L. ................................ Environmental Law
Env. L. Rep. ....................... Environmental Law Reporter
EnWG ................................ Energiewirtschaftsgesetz
EnWZ ................................. Zeitschrift für das gesamte Recht der Energiewirtschaft
EOG Resources ................ EOG Resources, Inc.
EPA ..................................... United States Environmental Protection Agency
EPA ..................................... U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Epiney ................................ Epiney, Umweltrecht der Europäischen Union, 3rd ed., Nomos 2013
EPL ..................................... Environmental Policy & Law
ER ........................................ Energierecht
ESD ..................................... ecologically sustainable development
ESG ..................................... Environmental, Social and Governance
esp. ...................................... especially
ESR ..................................... Effort Sharing Regulation
et al. .................................... and others
et seq. ................................. et sequens (and the following)
ETS ..................................... Emission Trading System
EU ....................................... European Union
EU ETS .............................. EU Emissions Trading System
EuGH ................................. Gerichtshof der Europäischen Union
EuGHE ............................... Entscheidungssammlung des EuGH
EUR .................................... Euro
EurUP ................................ Zeitschrift für europäisches Umwelt- und Planungsrecht
EuZPR/EuIPR ................... Europäisches Zivilprozess- und Kollisionsrecht
EWCA ................................ England and Wales Court of Appeal
EWHC ............................... England and Wales High Court
ex. ........................................ example
f., ff. ..................................... following
F.; F.2d or F.3d ................. Federal Reporter
F.Supp.; F.Supp. 2d or
F. Supp 3d ......................... Federal Supplement
FAS ..................................... Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung
FATMA ............................. foundation of the environment
FAZ ..................................... Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
FC ........................................ Federal Court
FCA .................................... Federal Court of Appeal
FCR ..................................... Federal Court Report
FET ..................................... Fair and equitable agreement
Fiduciary Duty Report ... Fiduciary Duty in the 21st Century – Final Report
file ref. ................................ file reference
FIT ...................................... Feed-in Tariff

XX
 List of Abbreviations

Fla. L. Rev. ........................ Florida Law Review

fn./s ..................................... footnote/s
Fordham Int’l L.J. ............ Fordham International Law Journal
FS ........................................ Festschrift
FSB ...................................... Financial Stability Board
FT ........................................ Financial Times
GIC ..................................... Global Investor Coalition on Climate Change
FTA ..................................... Free Trade Agreement
G20 ..................................... Group of Twenty
G7 ....................................... Group of Seven
Ga. St. L. Rev. ................... Georgia State Law Review
GAOR ................................ General Assembly Official Records
GATT ................................. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GBRMP .............................. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
GBRWHA ......................... Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area
GCF .................................... Green Climate Fund
GDP .................................... Gross Domestic Product
GEIA .................................. Green Energy Investment Agreement
Geo. Int’l Envtl. L. Rev. .. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review
Georgetown L.J. ............... Georgetown Law Journal
GG ...................................... Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Grundgesetz der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland)
GHDHA ............................ Gerechtshof Den Haag (Court of lower instance in the Nederlands)
GHG ................................... Greenhouse Gas
GLJ ...................................... German Law Journal
Global Risks Report
2020 .................................... The Global Risks Report 2020, World Economic Forum in partnership
with Marsh & McLennan and Zurich Insurance Group
GmbH ................................ company with limited liablility (Gesellschaft mit beschränkter
Haftung)
GOBReg ............................. Geschäftsordnung der Bundesregierung
GOBReg ............................. Geschäftsordnung der Bundesregierung
GPR .................................... Zeitschrift für das Privatrecht der Europäischen Union
GPR .................................... Zeitschrift für das Privatrecht der Europäischen Union
GWP ................................... global warming potential
Harv. Bus. Rev. ................ Harvard Business Review
Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. ......... Harvard Environmental Law Review
Harv. L. Rev. ..................... Harvard Law Review
HFC .................................... Hydrofluorcarbon
HGB .................................... German Commercial Code (Handelsgesetzbuch)
HPflG ................................. Haftpflichtgesetz
HR ....................................... Hoge Raad (Supreme Court for Civil and Criminal Matters in the
Nederlands)
HSBC .................................. HSBC Holdings plc
i.a. ........................................ inter alia
I.C.J. .................................... International Court of Justice
I.C.J. Reports .................... Case Reports of the International Court of Justice
i.e. ........................................ Id est (that is)
IACtHR .............................. Inter-American Court on Human Rights
IASB ................................... International Accounting Standards Board
IBAMA .............................. Brazilian institute for the environment and natural resources
IBDF ................................... Brazilian institute of forest development
Ibid. ..................................... Ibidem (lat.); in the same place
ICAO .................................. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
ICCPR ................................ International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR .............................. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
ICJ ....................................... International Court of Justice
ICLQ ................................... International & Comparative Law Quarterly
ICSID ................................. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
ICTSD ................................ International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development

XXI
 List of Abbreviations

Id. ........................................ Idem (same author)

IEHC .................................. High Court of Ireland
ILC ...................................... International Law Commission
ILM ..................................... International Legal Materials
IMO .................................... International Maritime Organization
Inc. ...................................... Incorporated
Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies
infra .................................... see below
ING ..................................... ING-DiBA AG
INPE ................................... national institute of spacial research
IoT ...................................... Internet of Things
IPC ...................................... Independent Planning Commission
IPCC ................................... Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPCC ................................... Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IRENA ............................... International Renewable Energy Agency
IPRax .................................. Praxis des Internationalen Privat- und Verfahrensrechts
IRENA ............................... International Renewable Energy Agency
ISBA ................................... International Seabed Authority
ISO ...................................... International Organization for Standardization
ISPRA ................................. Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale (Institute
for Environmental Protection and Research)
ITEK ................................... Indigenous traditional ecological knowledge
ITLOS ................................. International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
IWRZ ................................. Zeitschrift für Internationales Wirtschaftsrecht (journal)
IZVR ................................... Internationales Zivilverfahrensrecht
J (as in Dowsett J) ........... Judge or Justice
J. Envtl. L ........................... Journal of Environmental Law
J. En. & Nat. Res. L. ........ Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law
Jan. ...................................... January
JANA .................................. JANA Partners LLC
JBl. ....................................... Juristische Blätter
JEEPL ................................. Journal for European Environmental and Planning Law
JETL .................................... Journal of European Tort Law
JETL .................................... Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning
JPL ...................................... Journal of Planning Law
jurisPK-BGB ..................... juris PraxisKommentar BGB
JuS ....................................... Juristische Schulung
JZ ......................................... JuristenZeitung
Kap. .................................... Kapitel
KJ ........................................ Kritische Justiz
km ....................................... kilometres
Kritischen Aktionäre ...... Dachverband der Kritischen Aktionärinnen und Aktionäre (Umbrella
Association of Critical Shareholders)
KSG .................................... Bundes-Klimaschutzgesetz
L R ...................................... Law Review
L. .......................................... Law (loi)
L.Ed.; L.Ed. 2d .................. United States Supreme Courts Reports, Lawyers’ Edition
LCIL .................................... Lauterpacht Centre for International Law
LDC .................................... Least developed countries
leg cit .................................. legis citatae
LG ....................................... Landgericht (German Regional Court)
LGERA ............................... Local Government and Environmental Reports of Australia
LL.M. .................................. Master of Laws
LLB ..................................... Bachelor of Laws
LLC ..................................... Limited Liability Company
Ltd. ...................................... Limited

XXII
 List of Abbreviations

LUCLUF ............................ Regulation (EU) 2018/841 of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 30 May 2018 on the inclusion of greenhouse gas emissions
and removals from land use, land use change and forestry in the 2030
climate and energy framework, and amending Regulation (EU) No
525/2013 and Decision No 529/2013/EU (Text with EEA relevance)
PE/68/2017/REV/1,OJ 2018, L 156/1
LuftVG ............................... Luftverkehrsgesetz
LULU ................................. locally unwanted land use
m ......................................... metres
M&A .................................. Mergers and Acquisitions
MBRE ................................. Brazilian emission reduction market
MDR ................................... Monatsschrift für Deutsches Recht – MDR Zeitschrift für Zivil- und
Zivilverfahrensrecht
Melb. Univ. Law Rev. ..... Melbourne University Law Review
MEM .................................. Master of Environmental Management
Minn. L. Rev. .................... Minnesota Law Review
mn., mns. ........................... margin number(s)
MPEPIL ............................. Max Planck Encyclopedia for Public International Law
MPhil .................................. Master of Philosophy
MüKo ................................. Münchener Kommentar
MüKoBGB ......................... Münchener Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch
MüKoZPO ........................ Münchener Kommentar zur Zivilprozessordnung
MünchKomm ................... Münchener Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch
MW .................................... Megawatt
n. ......................................... note
N.Y.U. J. Int’l L. & Pol ... New York University Journal of International Law and Politics
NAFTA .............................. North American Free Trade Agreement
NAP .................................... National Adaptation Plan
NAS .................................... National Adaptation Strategy
NASA ................................. national aeronautics and space administration
NDC ................................... National Determined Contributions
NECP ................................. National Energy and Climate Plan
Ned Jur .............................. Nederlandse Jurisprudentie
NEMA ................................ National Environmental Management Act
NES ..................................... National Energy Strategy
NGO ................................... Non-Governmental Organisation
NIMBY .............................. not in my backyard
NJOZ .................................. Neue Juristische Online Zeitschrift
NJW .................................... Neue Juristische Wochenschrift (journal)
NJW-RR ............................ Neue Juristische Wochenschrift – Rechtsprechungs-Report
No. ...................................... Numero (number)
NOx .................................... nitrogen oxides
NPPF .................................. National Planning Policy Framework
NRO ................................... Nichtregierungsorganisation
NSW ................................... New South Wales
NSWLEC ........................... New South Wales Land and Environment Court
NuR .................................... Natur und Recht
NVwZ ................................. Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht (journal)
NYT .................................... New York Times
NZG .................................... Neue Zeitschrift für Gesellschaftsrecht (journal)
OECD ................................. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OECD, Accidental Pol-
lution .................................. OECD, Recommendation on the Application of the Polluter-Pays
Principle to Accidental Pollution, C (89) 99
OGH ................................... Oberster Gerichtshof (Supreme Court for Civil and Commercial
Matters in Austria)
OJ ........................................ Ontario Judgement
OJ EU ................................. Official Journal of the European Union
ÖJZ ..................................... Österreichische Juristen-Zeitung
OLG .................................... Oberlandesgericht (German Higher Regional Court)

XXIII
 List of Abbreviations

ONCA ................................ Ontario Court of Appeal

ONSC ................................. Ontario Superior Court of Justice
OPA .................................... US Oil Pollution Act
Orlando .............................. Orlando, Liability, in: Krämer/Orlando (eds), Principles of Environ-
mental Law, Edward Elgar 2018, p. 272
Ors ...................................... Others
P (as in MacDonald P) .. President
p. .......................................... page
PA ....................................... Paris Agreement
Pac. Rim L. & Pol’y J. ..... Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal
PACTE ............................... Action Plan for Growth and Transformation of Businesses (Plan
d’action pour la croissance et la transformation des entreprises)
PAD .................................... Planning and Development
para ..................................... paragraph
PAWP ................................ Paris Agreement Work Programme
PHG .................................... Produkthaftungsgesetz
PLC ..................................... private limited company
plc ....................................... Public Limited Company
PNMC ................................ national policy on climate change
Pol’y Sciences ................... Policy Sciences
PPP ..................................... Polluter-Pays Principle
PRI ...................................... Principles for Responsible Investments
Proelss ................................ Proelss, Polluter-Pays, in: Aguila/Viñuales (eds), A Global Pact for the
Environment – Legal Foundations, Cambridge University Press 2019,
p. 85
publ. .................................... publisher
PV ....................................... Photovoltaic
QCA ................................... Queensland Court of Appeal
QCCS ................................. Quebec Superior Court
QLC .................................... Queensland Land Court
Qld ...................................... Queensland
QLRT ................................. Queensland Land and Resources Tribunal
QSC .................................... Queensland Supreme Court
R&D .................................... Research and Development
RWE ................................... RWE AG
RabelsZ .............................. Rabels Zeitschrift für ausländisches und internationales Privatrecht
(Rabel Journal of Comparative and International Private Law)
RCRA ................................. US Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RECIEL .............................. Review of European Community and International Environmental
Law
Reg. ..................................... Regulation (EU)
Rev. ..................................... Review (revue)
RG ....................................... Reichsgericht
RGZ .................................... Entscheidungen des Reichsgerichts in Zivilsachen
RIAA .................................. Reports of International Arbitral Awards
RIW .................................... Recht der internationalen Wirtschaft
RL ........................................ Richtlinie
RSC ..................................... Revised Statutes of Canada
RSO ..................................... Revised Statutes of Ontario
RWE ................................... RWE AG, formerly Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk AG
s (as in s 269) ................... Section
S. .......................................... Seite (page)
S.A. ...................................... Société Anonyme
S.Ct. .................................... Supreme Court Reporter
SA ........................................ Sociedade Anónima
sad ....................................... deforestation alert system
San Diego J. Climate &
Energy L. ........................... San Diego Journal of Climate and Energy Law
Sands/Peel ......................... Sands/Peel, Principles of International Environmental Law, 4th ed.,
Cambridge University Press 2018

XXIV
 List of Abbreviations

SASB ................................... Sustainability Accounting Standards Board

SBI ....................................... Subsidiary Book for Implementation
SC ........................................ Statutes of Canada
SC ........................................ Senior Counsel
SCC ..................................... Supreme Court of Canada
Schwartz, Principles ........ Schwartz, The Polluter-Pays Principle, in: Krämer/Orlando (eds),
Principles of Environmental Law, Edward Elgar 2018, p. 260
Schwartz, Research
Handbook ......................... Schwartz, The polluter-pays principle, in: Fitzmaurice/Ong/Merkouris
(eds), Research Handbook on International Environmental Law, Ed-
ward Elgar 2010, p. 243
SCR/RCS ............................ Supreme Court Report
SDG .................................... Sustainable Development Goals
SEA ..................................... Strategic Environmental Assessment
sect ...................................... section
SEED .................................. School of Environment, Enterprise & Development
sent ..................................... sentence
Shareholder Action The Shareholder Action Guide – Unleash Your Hidden Powers to
Guide .................................. Hold Corporations Accountable
Shell .................................... Royal Dutch Shell
SIAESP ............................... Union of the sugar industries in the state of São Paulo
SIDS .................................... Small island developing states
Siemens .............................. Siemens AG
SIFAESP ............................ Union of the alcohol manufacturing industries of the state of São
Paulo
SKCA .................................. Saskatchewan Court of Appeal
SO2 ..................................... Sulfur dioxide
SPD ..................................... Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands
SRU ..................................... Sachverständigenrat für Umweltfragen
STF ...................................... supreme federal court
STJ ...................................... superior court of justice
StVG ................................... Straßenverkehrsgesetz
SUP ..................................... Strategische Umweltprüfung
supra ................................... see above
TA ....................................... Administrative Tribunal (Tribunal administratif)
TAR .................................... Tribunale Amministrativo Regionale (Regional Administrative Court)
TCFD ................................. Task Force on Climate Related Financial Disclosures
TEC ..................................... Treaty establishing the European Community
TEHG ................................. Treibhausgas-Emissionshandelsgesetz
TEL ..................................... Transnational Environmental Law
TEU .................................... Treaty of the European Union
Tex. Int. L. J. ..................... Texas International Law Journal
TFEU .................................. Treaty on Functioning of the European Union
TGI ..................................... Court of First Instance (Tribunal de grande instance)
The Hon ............................ The Honourable
Trillium .............................. Trillium Asset Management
TUI ..................................... TUI AG
U. Chi. L. Rev. .................. University of Chicago Law Review
U. Colo. L. Rev. ................ University of Colorado Law Review
U. Pa. L. Rev. .................... University of Pennsylvania Law Review
U.Pitt.L.Rev. ...................... University of Pittsburgh Law Review
U.S. ..................................... United States (of America)
UBA .................................... Umweltbundesamt
UBS ..................................... UBS Group AG
UK ....................................... United Kingdom
UKSC ................................. United Kingdom Supreme Court
ULR .................................... Uniform Law Review
UMAG ............................... German Act on Corporate Integrity and Modernisation of Avoidance
and Rescission Rights (Gesetz zur Unternehmensintegrität und Mo-
dernisierung des Anfechtungsrechts)

XXV
 List of Abbreviations

UmweltHG ........................ Umwelthaftungsgesetz

UmweltR ............................ Umweltrecht
UmwRG ............................. Umwelt-Rechtsbehelfsgesetz
UN ...................................... United Nations
UN FCCC ......................... United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNCITRAL ...................... United Nations Commission On International Trade Law
UNCLOS ........................... UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNEP ................................. United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP FI ............................ United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative
UNFCCC ........................... United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNTC ................................ United National Treaty Collection
UNTS ................................. United Nations Treaty Series
UNTS ................................. United Nations Treaty Series
UPR .................................... Umwelt- und Planungsrecht
Urt. ...................................... Urteil
US ....................................... United States
USA .................................... United States of America
USchadG ........................... Umweltschadensgesetz
USD .................................... United States Dollar
UTR .................................... Umwelt- und Technikrecht
UVP .................................... Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung
UVPG ................................. Gesetz über die Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung
v. .......................................... versus/von
Va. J. Int’l L. ..................... Virginia Journal of International Law
Vanguard ........................... Vanguard Group
VersR .................................. Zeitschrift für Versicherungsrecht, Haftungs- und Schadensrecht
VG ...................................... Verwaltungsgericht
vol. ...................................... volume
VwGO ................................ Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung
VwVfG ............................... Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz
WBGU ............................... Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung für Globale Umwelt-
veränderungen
WD ..................................... Wissenschaftlicher Dienst
WEF .................................... World Economic Forum
WEF/BCG Report ........... The Net Zero Challenge: Fast Forward to Decisive Action, Insight
Report in collaboration with Boston Consulting Group
WHG .................................. Wasserhaushaltsgesetz
WM .................................... Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und Bankrecht (journal)
WMO ................................. World Meteorological Organization (Weltorganisation für Meteorolo-
gie)
WP ...................................... Write Petition
WSJ ..................................... The Wall Street Journal
WTO .................................. World Trade Organisation
WWF .................................. World Wide Fund For Nature
Yale J. Int’l L. Online ...... Yale Journal of International Law online
Yale L.J. .............................. Yale Law Journal
YbPIL ................................. Yearbook of Private International Law
ZaöRV ................................ Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht
ZEuP ................................... Zeitschrift für Europäisches Privatrecht
ZfU ...................................... Zeitschrift für Umweltpolitik und Umweltrecht
ZGR .................................... Zeitschrift für Unternehmens- und Gesellschaftsrecht (journal)
ZHR .................................... Zeitschrift für das gesamte Handelsrecht und Wirtschaftsrecht (jour-
nal)
ZIP ...................................... Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht (journal)
ZPO .................................... Zivilprozessordnung (German Code of Civil Procedure)
ZUR .................................... Zeitschrift für Umweltrecht (journal)
ZZPInt ................................ Zeitschrift für Zivilprozess International

XXVI
 List of Authors

Arvid Arntz is a doctoral researcher at the chair for Private Law, Commercial Law and Economic
Analysis of Law in the Law Faculty of Humboldt-Universitaet zu Berlin, Germany.
Timothy Arvan, BA (Hons.) (University of Michigan), MPhil (Cantab), is Associate Fellow at the
Centre for International Sustainable Development Law (CISDL), and Secretariat Coordinator at
Climate Law and Governance Initiative (CLGI).
Justine Bell-James, LLB(Hons), GradDipLegalPrac, PhD(QUT) is Associate Professor at the
University of Queensland School of Law in Brisbane (Australia).
Luciano Butti, Lecturer of International Environmental Law, Department of Environmental
Engineering, University of Padua (I); Life Member at the Clare Hall College, University of
Cambridge (UK); Of Counsel at B&P Law Firm, Verona and Milan (Italy).
Chantalle Byron, BSc (Acadia University), LLB Hons (University of Essex), LLM (Cantab), is
Associate Fellow at the CISDL, and Secretariat Coordinator at Climate Law and Governance
Initiative (CLGI).
Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, DPhil (Oxon), MEM (Yale), LLB/BCL (McGill), BA Hons, is
CISDL Senior Director, Full Professor of Law, School of Environment, Enterprise & Development
(SEED) at the University of Waterloo (Canada).
Kars de Graaf is professor of Public Law and Sustainability, Groningen Centre of Energy Law and
Sustainability (GCELS), Faculty of Law, University of Groningen (The Netherlands) and chair of
the Dutch Environmental Law Association.
Katrin Deckert, docteur en droit, D.E.A./D.E.S.S. (Univ. Paris 1), LL.M. (HU Berlin), is Associate
Professor (Maître de conférences) at Paris Nanterre University (France).
Christian Duve is a professor and one of the co-founding partners of the law firm V29 Legal
PartGmbB in Frankfurt am Main.
Max Ehrl, Notary Assessor at the Bavarian Chamber of Notaries and director of the German
Notaries’ Association, Berlin. Formerly he was Professor Habersack’s research assistant.
Aude-Solveig Epstein holds a Master’s degree in Economic Law from Sciences Po Paris and a Ph. D
from the University of Nice. She is an Assistant Professor (Maître de conférences) at Paris Nanterre
University.
Daniel Farber holds the Sho Sato Chair in Law and is the director of the Center for Law, Energy,
and the Environment at the University of California, Berkeley.
Claudio Franzius, Prof. Dr., is professor for public law and director of the Research Center for
Europan Environmental Law, University of Bremen, Law Faculty.
Thomas Gross is Professor of Public Law, European Law and Comparative Law at the University
of Osnabrueck.
Mathias Habersack holds the Chair of Private and Business Law at the Ludwig-Maximilians-
University Munich.
Olga Hamama is co-founding partner of the law firm V29 Legal PartGmbB in Frankfurt am Main.
Sébastien Jodoin is an Assistant Professor in the McGill Faculty of Law, where he holds the
Canada Research Chair in Human Rights and the Environment.
Wolfgang Kahl, Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c., is professor for public law, director of the Institute of German
and European Administrative Law and director of the Research Center for Sustainability Law,
University of Heidelberg, Law Faculty.

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 List of Authors
Eva-Maria Kieninger, Prof. Dr., is professor for German and European Private Law and Private
International Law at the Julius-Maximilians-University Wuerzburg.
Anne Kling is a doctoral researcher at the Research Center for European Environmental Law
(FEU) at the University of Bremen.
Michael Kloepfer, Prof. em. Dr., Humboldt University of Berlin; emeritus professor for constitu-
tional law and administrative law, European Union law, environmental law, public finance and
economic law; director of the Environmental Law Research Centre.
Thomas Lennarz is a partner at CMS in Stuttgart and the head of CMS’s German dispute
resolution group.
Morgan McGinn is a Research Associate with the Canada Research Chair in Human Rights and
the Environment and a BCL/JD student at the McGill Faculty of Law.
Steven McNab is a partner at Cleantech Cadre.
Jan-Marcus Nasse, Dr., was a research assistant at the Institute of Environmental Physics at
Heidelberg University.
Laura Nasse is a research assistant at the Institute for Comparative Law, the Conflict of Laws and
International Business Law at Heidelberg University.
Rico David Neugärtner, LL.M. (Cornell), Humboldt University of Berlin; research assistant for
constitutional law and environmental law; doctoral student in constitutional law, comparative law,
law and the humanities.
Stephanie Nitsch is a research and teaching assistant (post doc) at the Department for European,
International and Comparative Law, University of Vienna (Austria).
Birsha Ohdedar is a lecturer at the School of Law and Human Rights Centre at the University of
Essex.
Séverin Pabsch, attorney of law (Hamburg).
Mehrdad Payandeh, Dr. iur., LL.M. (Yale), is Professor of International Law, European Law, and
Public Law at Bucerius Law School, Hamburg, and a Member of the United Nations Committee on
the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
Kai Purnhagen, Chaired Professor of Food Law, University of Bayreuth, Faculty of Life Sciences:
Food, Nutrition and Health (Campus Kulmbach).
Eckard Rehbinder is an Emeritus Professor of Economic and Environmental Law and Compara-
tive Law at the Law Faculty of the Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main.
Johannes Saurer, Prof. Dr. LL.M. (Yale), is Professor for Public Law, Environmental Law, Law of
Infrastructure and Comparative Law at the University of Tuebingen.
Pavan Srinivas, BA LLB Hons (National Law School of India University), LLM (Cantab), is
Associate Fellow at the CISDL, and Secretariat Coordinator at Climate Law and Governance
Initiative (CLGI).
Marie-Christin Stürmlinger is a doctoral researcher at the Institute of German and European
Administrative Law and at the Research Center for Sustainability Law, University of Heidelberg,
Law Faculty.
Gerrit van der Veen is professor of Environmental Law, Faculty of Law, University of Groningen
(The Netherlands) and lawyer/partner at AKD, Rotterdam (The Netherlands).
Roda Verheyen, attorney of law (Hamburg).
Christina Voigt, Prof. Dr., PhD (Oslo), LL.M. Hons (Auckland), is professor of law at the
University of Oslo, Department of Public and International Law, chair of the Climate Change
Specialist Group of the IUCN World Commission on Environmental Law, senior legal counsel at
CISDL and co-chair of the Paris Agreement’s Implementation and Compliance Committee
(PAICC).

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 List of Authors
Gerhard Wagner, Prof. Dr. LL.M. (University of Chicago), holds the chair for Private Law,
Commercial Law and Economic Analysis of Law in the Law Faculty of Humboldt-Universitaet zu
Berlin, Germany. He is also an external member of the Max-Planck-Institute of Private Law in
Hamburg.
Gabriel Wedy, Ph.D and LL.M in environmental and climate change law. He is a federal judge and
a professor of the graduate and undergraduate programmes of Universidade do Vale do Rio dos
Sinos (Unisinos), environmental law professor at the Brazilian Federal Judiciary Superior School.
Marc-Philippe Weller, Prof. Dr., Licencié en droit (Montpellier), is director of the Institute for
Comparative Law, the Conflict of Laws and International Business Law at Heidelberg University.
Rüdiger Wolfrum, Prof. Dr. Dres h.c., is director emeritus of the Max Planck Institute for
Comparative Public Law and International Law, Heidelberg and member of the Law Faculty,
University of Heidelberg.