Modern Hybrid

Machining and Super

Finishing Processes
This book captures the recent breakthroughs in subtractive manufacturing and
difficult-to-machine, material-based, modern machining techniques. It illustrates
various combinations of hybrid machining and super finishing, and outlines the
critical area profile accuracy, high-precision machining, high tolerance, surface
quality, chipping, and cracking for converting into new applications.
Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes: Technology and
Applications provides scientific and technological insights on subtractive manufacturing
routes. It covers a wide range of micromachining parts, electronic components,
metrological devices, and biomedical instruments on materials such as titanium,
stainless steel, high-strength temperature-resistant alloys, fiber-reinforced composites,
and ceramics, refractories, and other difficult-to-machine alloys. The book emphasizes
machined surface accuracy and quality of surface, productivity, and automatization.
It also covers creating complex, intricate, and complicated shapes for difficult-to-
machine materials. The book goes on to offer an investigation on electrochemical
discharge machining, abrasive-based nano-finishing, and rotary ultrasonic machining-
based parametric combination, as well as discuss the latest trends in hybrid machining
combined processes.
This book is a firsthand reference for commercial organizations mimicking modern
hybrid machining processes by targeting difficult-to-machine, materials-based
applications. By capturing the current trends of today’s manufacturing practices,
this book becomes a one-stop resource for scholars, manufacturing professionals,
engineers, and academic researchers.
Sustainable Manufacturing Technologies:
Additive, Subtractive, and Hybrid
Series Editors: Chander Prakash, Sunpreet Singh, Seeram Ramakrishna,
and Linda Yongling Wu

This book series offers the reader comprehensive insights of recent research
breakthroughs in additive, subtractive, and hybrid technologies while emphasizing
their sustainability aspects. Sustainability has become an integral part of all
manufacturing enterprises to provide various techno-social pathways toward
developing environmental friendly manufacturing practices. It has also been found
that numerous manufacturing firms are still reluctant to upgrade their conventional
practices to sophisticated sustainable approaches. Therefore this new book series is
aimed to provide a globalized platform to share innovative manufacturing mythologies
and technologies. The books will encourage the eminent issues of the conventional
and non-conventual manufacturing technologies and cover recent innovations.

Manufacturing Engineering and Materials Science

Tools and Applications
Edited by Abhineet Saini, B. S. Pabla, Chander Prakash, Gurmohan Singh,
Alokesh Pramanik

Manufacturing Technologies and Production Systems

Principles and Practices
Edited by Abhineet Saini, B. S. Pabla, Chander Prakash, Gurmohan Singh,
Alokesh Pramanik

Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Technology and Applications
Edited by Ankit Sharma, Amrinder S. Uppal, Bhargav P. Pathri, Atul Babbar,
Chander Prakash

For more information on this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Sustainable-

Manufacturing-Technologies-Additive-Subtractive-and-Hybrid/book-series/
CRCSMTASH
 Modern Hybrid
Machining and Super
Finishing Processes
Technology and Applications

Edited by Ankit Sharma, Amrinder Singh Uppal,

Bhargav Prajwal Pathri, Atul Babbar, and
Chander Prakash

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
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© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Ankit Sharma, Amrinder Singh Uppal, Bhargav Prajwal
Pathri, Atul Babbar, and Chander Prakash; individual chapters, the contributors
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ISBN: 978-1-032-35429-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-35662-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-32790-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905
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Contents
About the Editors ......................................................................................................xi
List of Contributors ................................................................................................ xiii
Preface....................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge

Machining Process ...............................................................................1
Satadru Kashyap
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................1
1.2 Electrochemical Discharge Machining (ECDM) ........................ 2
1.2.1 Electrochemical Discharge Drilling (ECDD).................. 3
1.2.2 Electrochemical Discharge Turning (ECDT) .................. 4
1.2.3 Electrochemical Discharge Milling ................................. 6
1.2.4 Electrochemical Discharge Dressing ............................... 6
1.2.5 Wire Electrochemical Discharge Machining
(WECDM) .......................................................................6
1.2.6 Die-sinking Electrochemical Discharge Machining
(DS-ECDM) .....................................................................7
1.2.7 Electrochemical Discharge Trepanning...........................7
1.3 ECDM-Based Triplex Hybrid Methods .......................................8
1.3.1 Powder Mixed ECDM (PM-ECDM) ...............................8
1.3.2 Rotary Electrochemical Discharge Machining
(R-ECDM) .......................................................................8
1.3.3 Electrochemical Discharge Grinding (ECDG) ................ 9
1.3.4 Vibration-Assisted Electrochemical Discharge
Machining (VAECDM) ...................................................9
1.3.5 Magnetic Field–Assisted Electrochemical
Discharge Machining (MAECDM) ................................. 9
1.4 Effects of Process Parameters ................................................... 10
1.4.1 Electrolyte Properties .................................................... 10
1.4.2 Tool Electrode Properties .............................................. 10
1.4.3 Gas Film Properties ....................................................... 11
1.5 Future Prospective of ECDM Process ....................................... 11
1.6 Conclusion.................................................................................. 12

Chapter 2 A Review of Process Parameters of Rotary Ultrasonic

Machining .......................................................................................... 19
Jaspreet Singh, Chandandeep Singh, Kanwaljit Singh
2.1 Introduction of Advanced Machining Process .......................... 19
2.1.1 Evaluation of USM to RUSM ........................................ 21
2.2 Rotary Ultrasonic Machining Principle..................................... 21
2.3 Components of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining........................... 22
v
vi Contents

2.3.1 Ultrasonic Spindle.......................................................... 22

2.3.2 Ultrasonic Power ............................................................ 22
2.3.3 Data Acquisition System ................................................ 22
2.3.4 Coolant ........................................................................... 23
2.4 Mechanism of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining ............................ 23
2.5 Applications of RUSM ...............................................................24
2.6 Process Parameters and the Response of RUSM .......................24
2.6.1 Material Removal Rate ..................................................24
2.6.2 Surface Roughness .........................................................25
2.6.3 Tool Wear Rate ..............................................................25
2.7 Summary....................................................................................25
2.8 Conclusion.................................................................................. 29
2.8.1 Material Removal Rate (MRR) ..................................... 29
2.8.2 Surface Roughness (SR)................................................. 29
2.8.3 Tool Wear Rate (TWR) .................................................. 29

Chapter 3 Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method on

Machining Characteristics for Ductile Substrates:
A Future Direction ............................................................................. 35
Ankit Sharma, Atul Babbar, Kamaljeet Singh, Anoop Kumar Singh,
Naveen Mani Tripathi, Dhaval Jaydev Kumar Desai
3.1 Outlook to the Machining Process ............................................ 35
3.2 Machining Conditions ............................................................... 36
3.2.1 Flood Machining............................................................ 36
3.2.2 Dry Machining............................................................... 36
3.2.3 MQL Machining ............................................................ 36
3.2.4 Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL)
Technique ....................................................................... 37
3.3 MQL Input Characteristics ........................................................ 38
3.3.1 Coolant Flow Rate (CFR) .............................................. 38
3.3.2 Nozzle Tool Distance ..................................................... 38
3.3.3 Nozzle Elevation Angle (NEA) .....................................40
3.4 Performance Characteristics ......................................................40
3.4.1 Material Removal Rate (MRR) .....................................40
3.4.2 Surface Roughness (SR)................................................. 41
3.4.3 Surface Texture .............................................................. 41
3.5 Review on the Performance Characteristics Parameters ........... 43
3.5.1 Cost of Cutting Fluid ..................................................... 43
3.5.2 Environment and Human Health ................................... 43
3.5.3 Workpiece Specification, Mode of Cooling, and
Other Output Characteristics ......................................... 45
3.6 Conclusion and Future Scope .................................................... 51
Contents vii

Chapter 4 Comprehensive Study on Electrochemical Discharge

Machining ..........................................................................................60
Santosh Kumar, Rakesh Kumar, Mohit Kumar
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................60
4.1.1 History of ECDM........................................................... 61
4.1.2 Working Principle of ECDM ......................................... 62
4.1.3 Distinct Process Parameters of ECDM.......................... 63
4.1.4 Applied DC Voltage ....................................................... 63
4.1.5 Types of Electrolyte ....................................................... 63
4.1.6 Effect of Adding Abrasives ............................................64
4.1.7 Inter-electrode Gap ........................................................64
4.2 Distinct Types of Materials Used in ECDM .............................. 65
4.2.1 Glass, Ceramics ............................................................. 65
4.2.2 Super Alloy .................................................................... 65
4.2.3 Composites .....................................................................66
4.2.4 Steel Plates .....................................................................66
4.3 ECDM Variants .........................................................................66
4.3.1 Electrochemical Discharge Milling ...............................66
4.3.2 Electrochemical Discharge Drilling .............................. 67
4.3.3 Electrochemical Discharge Turning .............................. 67
4.3.4 Electrochemical Discharge Dressing ............................. 67
4.3.5 Environmental Concern and Material Removal
Mechanism ..................................................................... 68
4.4 Future Scope .............................................................................. 69
4.5 Conclusion.................................................................................. 70
4.5.1 Declaration of Competing Interest................................. 70
4.5.2 Acknowledgement .......................................................... 70

Chapter 5 Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes:

Principle, Challenges, and Current Applications ............................... 77
Manoj Kumar, Mohit Kumar, Ankit Sharma, Atul Babbar
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 78
5.2 Different Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes ...............80
5.2.1 Traditional Finishing Operations ...................................80
5.2.2 Advanced Finishing Operations .................................... 81
5.3 Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM) Process ................................ 82
5.3.1 Abrasive Media .............................................................. 85
5.4 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) .................................... 85
5.5 Other Abrasive Based Finishing Operations .............................92
5.6 Research Challenges of Advanced Abrasive-Based
Finishing Processes.................................................................... 95
5.7 Conclusions ................................................................................97
viii Contents

Chapter 6 Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer

Composites: A Review ..................................................................... 107
Rahul Mehra, Santosh Kumar, Satish Kumar
6.1 Introduction to Machining of Polymer Composite
Materials .................................................................................. 107
6.2 Literature Survey ..................................................................... 108
6.3 Defects during Conventional Machining of Composites ......... 111
6.4 Non-conventional Machining of Polymer Composites ............ 115
6.5 Conclusions .............................................................................. 118

Chapter 7 Optimization of Machining Parameter Using Electric

Discharge Machining on Fabricated Aluminium-Based
Metal Matrix Composite .................................................................. 125
Rajinder Kumar, Navdeep Singh, Harish Kumar Garg
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 125
7.2 Experimental Detail ................................................................. 128
7.2.1 Fabrication of Work Materials ..................................... 128
7.2.2 Property Analysis of Al/(SiCp + Al2O3p)—
MMC ............................................................................ 129
7.3 Tensile Test............................................................................... 129
7.4 Density Test.............................................................................. 130
7.4.1 Procedure Followed to Measure Density ..................... 131
7.5 Hardness Test ........................................................................... 131
7.6 Experimental Conditions and Procedure ................................. 132
7.7 Results and Discussions ........................................................... 133
7.7.1 Parametric Interaction Effect on Surface
Roughness Height ........................................................ 134
7.8 Parametric Interaction Effect on MRR.................................... 135
7.8.1 Single Objective Optimization for SR ......................... 138
7.8.2 Single Objective Optimization for MRR ..................... 140
7.9 Conclusion and Future Outlook ............................................... 141
7.10 Future Scope ............................................................................ 141

Chapter 8 Experimental Investigation on Surface Texture of Inconel-

800 with Hybrid Machining Method Using Optimization
Technique ......................................................................................... 147
Satish Kumar, Harvinder Singh, Rahul Mehra, Aneesh Goyal
8.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 147
8.2 Materials and Methods ............................................................ 148
8.2.1 RSM ............................................................................. 148
8.3 Results and Discussions ........................................................... 151
8.3.1 Investigation of SR ....................................................... 151
8.4 SEM Micrograph Analysis ...................................................... 153
8.5 Conclusion................................................................................ 155
Contents ix

Chapter 9 Advanced Finishing Processes for Cylindrical Surface

Finishing: A Review ......................................................................... 161
Manpreet Singh, Gagandeep Singh, Mohammad Alshinwan
9.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 161
9.2 Cylindrical Surface Finishing Processes ................................. 161
9.2.1 Conventional Finishing Processes ............................... 161
9.2.2 Lapping ........................................................................ 162
9.2.3 Honing ......................................................................... 162
9.2.4 Grinding ....................................................................... 163
9.3 Advanced Finishing Processes without Externally
Controlled Forces ..................................................................... 164
9.3.1 Abrasive Flow Finishing (AFF) Process ..................... 164
9.3.2 Elastic Emission Machining (EEM) Process............... 164
9.3.3 Chemo-mechanical (CMP) Process ............................. 165
9.4 Advanced Finishing Processes with Externally
Controlled Forces ..................................................................... 166
9.4.1 Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF) Process ............. 166
9.4.2 Static Flexible Magnetic Abrasive Brush
(S-FMAB) Process ....................................................... 167
9.4.3 Magnetic Float Polishing (MFP) Process .................... 167
9.5 Magnetorheological Fluid (MRF) ........................................... 168
9.6 Conclusion................................................................................ 170

Index ...................................................................................................................... 181

About the Editors
Dr. Ankit Sharma holds the position of Head of the Chitkara University publi-
cations division of the Research and Innovation Network (CURIN) Department,
Chitkara University, Punjab, India. He has more than ten years of experience in aca-
demics, research, consulting, training, and industry. Dr. Sharma is also organizing
an international conference-ICEMSMCI 2023 and serving as the general chair and
convenor. He has authored numerous national and international publications in SCI,
Scopus, and Web of Science–indexed journals. He has filed/published 30 plus inter-
national patents. He is also the book series editor of the CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
published series entitled “Innovations in Smart Manufacturing for Long-Term
Development and Growth”. He is the editor of three CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
books with several more in the pipeline. He is the managing and special issue editor
of several international journals with databases of SCIE, ESCI, and Scopus-indexed.
He has delivered a number of invited seminars and keynote talks on international
(USA, China, India) platforms and awarded with best research paper awards.

Mr. Amrinder Singh Uppal is working as the lead mechanical engineer in Merla
Wellhead Solutions, Houston, Texas. He is a licensed professional engineer in Texas,
USA. He has more than ten years’ industrial experience in the designing and manu-
facturing of high-pressure equipment that is used in the oil and gas industry. He has
coauthored national and international publications. He has been reviewing research
articles of various peer review.

Dr. Bhargav Prajwal Pathri is currently working as Assistant Professor in the

School of Technology, Woxsen University, Hyderabad. He has completed his PhD
from Malaviya National Institute of Technology (MNIT), Jaipur. He received his
master’s in automotive engineering from Coventry University, UK. He received his
bachelor’s in mechanical engineering from JNTU Hyderabad. His research interests
include ceramic machining, tool design, advance manufacturing processes, rapid
prototyping, bio-printing, bio-materials, and CAD/CAM. He has published articles
in more than 25 different international journals. He is also reviewer for many reputed
journals. He worked as a product design faculty at Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia.

Dr. Atul Babbar is working as Deputy Dean at the Research and Development
Department of SGT University, Gurugram. His research contribution includes, but
is not limited to, sustainable manufacturing, modern machining, and additive manu-
facturing. He has authored more than 50 research articles and book chapters in vari-
ous international/national Web of Science and Scopus journals. He holds the position
of series editor and editor of several Taylor & Francis book series and books, respec-
tively. He is also working as a guest editor for several journals. He has been granted
numerous national and international patents. He has been reviewing research articles
from various peer-reviewed SCI and Scopus-indexed journals.

xi
xii About the Editors

Dr. Chander Prakash is Pro-Vice Chancellor, Research & Development, Chitkara

University, Punjab, India and serving Professor at Department of Mechanical
Engineering. He served as Dean Research & Development at SVKM’s Narsee
Monjee Institute of Management Studies, Deemed-to-be-University, Mumbai,
India and Lovely Professional University, India. He is a Ph.D. alumnus of Panjab
University, Chandigarh. He is also an Adjunct Professor (Honorary position) at the
Institute for Computational Science, Ton Duc Thang University, Vietnam. He is a
dedicated teacher who embraces student-centric approaches, providing experien-
tial learning to his students. He is a passionate researcher with diversified research
interests- developing materials for Biomedical and Healthcare applications, addi-
tive manufacturing, and developing and exploring new cost-effective manufacturing
technologies for biomedical industries. He has published over 397 (326 SCI/Scopus)
scientific articles in peer-reviewed, reputable, top-grade journals, conferences, and
books. Dr. Prakash is a highly cited researcher at the international level, and he has
8010 citations, an H-index of 50, and an i-10 index of 173. He is among India's Top
1% of leading Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering scientists, Research.com. He
holds 38 ranks in India and 1590th rank in the world. He also consistently appeared
in the top 2% of researchers as per Stanford Study in 2021, 2022, and 2023. Dr.
Prakash edited/authored 25 books, serving as a Series editor of 2 books and as Guest
Editor of several peer-reviewed journals.
He is an Editorial board member of Journal of Magnesium and Alloys (Elsevier,
IF-17.6, SJR 2.4, Q1), Nanofabrication (IF-2.9, Q2); International Journal on Interactive
Design and Manufacturing, IJIDeM (Springer, IF-2.1); Cogent Engineering (Taylor &
Francis, WOS, IF: 1.9), High-Temperature Materials and Processes (De-Gruyter, IF:
1.5), Journal of Electrochemical Science and Engineering (WOS, IF: 2.1), HYPERLINK
"https://www.springer.com/journal/42824/"Materials Circular Economy: Science,
Engineering, and Sustainability (Springer). He is working on Research commercialisa-
tion and has published 18 patents. His 4 patents were granted. Dr. Prakash raised over
1.2 million USD in grants from various national and international bodies, including
the Ministry of Science & Technology India, UKIERI-DST and SERB Government
of India.

Dr. Prakash organized various international conferences and faculty develop-

ment programs. He was acknowledged with the Research Excellence Award for
the best and most highly productive researcher in 2019, 2020, and 2021 by Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab.
Contributors
Dr. Mohammed Alshinwan is currently working at the Faculty of Information
Technology, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan. He received a
PhD degree from the Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea, in 2017. He was an
Assistant Professor at Amman Arab University, Jordan. Currently, he is an Associate
professor at an Applied science private university, in Jordan. His research interests
in computer networks, Mobile networks, information security, AI, and optimization
methods.

Dr. Atul Babbar is working as Deputy Dean at the Research and Development
Department of SGT University, Gurugram. His research contribution includes, but
is not limited to, sustainable manufacturing, modern machining, and additive manu-
facturing. He has authored more than 50 research articles and book chapters in vari-
ous international/national Web of Science and Scopus journals. He holds the position
of series editor and editor of several Taylor & Francis book series and books, respec-
tively. He is also working as a guest editor for several journals. He has been granted
numerous national and international patents. He has been reviewing research articles
from various peer-reviewed SCI and Scopus-indexed journals.

Mr. Dhaval Jaydev Kumar Desai currently working as a Senior Piping Engineer
at Worley ECR, Texas, 77584, USA. His area of interest is in the domains of oil
and gas, refining, petrochemicals, polyethylene, renewable energy, hydrocarbon and
advanced manufacturing.

Dr. Aneesh Goyal is an Assistant professor in the Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Chandigarh Group of College, Landran, Mohali, Punjab India.

Dr. Harish Kumar Garg is working as an Assistant Professor in the Mechanical

Engineering Department. Earlier he served in the Mechanical Engineering Department
at Chandigarh Engineering College, Landran, and Chandigarh University. He has
completed his PhD from SLIET Longowal. He has an M. Tech from NIT Jalandhar
and a B. Tech from SBSCET, Ferozepur. He has more than 18 years of teaching
experience. His area of interest is Hybrid Composite materials, non-conventional
machining, and Micro and nano machining processes. He is a member of the board
of studies at DAV University, Jalandhar. He is a lifetime member of ISTE. He is a
faculty incharge of the Robotic Club in the university and has guided students to
participate in technical events at various renowned institutes like IITs, PEC, NIT,
and CU and has won top positions.

Dr. Manoj Kumar is working as an assistant professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, at Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab India. He is an
experienced researcher with expertise in manufacturing, surface engineering, and
materials processing. Dedicated to advancing knowledge and fostering a passion for

xiii
xiv Contributors

learning among students. Skilled in conducting research, optimizing processes, and

publishing impactful findings. Adept at utilizing various instrumentation and soft-
ware tools for surface characterization and analysis. Strong track record of deliver-
ing lectures, mentoring students, and contributing to departmental activities.

Mr. Mohit Kumar is a PhD Scholar & currently MR at Auxein Medical Private
Limited Sonipat Haryana. His research interests includes Additive Manufacturing,
Surface Engineering etc. He has published many research articles of SCI & SCIE
journal and having more than 9 years’ experience in research & industry.

Dr. Mohit Kumar is working as an assistant professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, at Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab India.

Dr. Rajinder Kumar is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, I.K.G Punjab Technical University, Kapurthala, Punjab,
India.

Mr. Rakesh Kumar is a PhD Research Scholar in the Department of Mechanical

Engineering at Chandigarh University, Punjab, India, and also worked as a Assistant
Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Chandigarh Group of
Colleges, Landran, Mohali, Punjab (India). He is currently working as a research
Engineer in the department of Regulatory Affair at Auxein Medical Private Limited
Sonipat Haryana. His research interests includes Additive Manufacturing, Biodiesel
Production and Surface Engineering and having more than 13 years’ experience in
teaching & industry.

Dr Satish Kumar is an Associate professor in the Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Chandigarh Group of College, Landran, Mohali, Punjab India.

Dr. Satadru Kashyap is currently working as an Assistant professor in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering at Tezpur University, Napam, Sonitpur,
Assam (India). His research interest is in advanced manufacturing, material science,
polymer composites, and ceramics. He is having more than ten years of academic,
research, and industrial experience. He has published several articles in peer-
reviewed journals.

Dr. Santosh Kumar is working as Associate Professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering at Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran, Mohali,
Punjab (India). He has done his M.Tech. with distinction in 2015. He has more than
9 years of teaching & research experience. His research interests includes Surface
Engineering, Coating, Rapid Prototyping and Bio fuels on which he has published
more than 80 research articles. He has also published many patent, participated in
many international conference, organize FDP, write books etc.

Dr. Rahul Mehra is an Associate professor in the Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Chandigarh Group of College, Landran, Mohali, Punjab India. More
Contributors xv

than 12 years of working experience in the Research and Education Field. Published
more than 20 international and national research papers. Worked as service Engg. at
Honeywell Automation India Ltd for 1 Year.

Dr. Ankit Sharma holds the position of Head of the Chitkara University publi-
cations division of the Research and Innovation Network (CURIN) Department,
Chitkara University, Punjab, India. He has more than ten years of experience in aca-
demics, research, consulting, training, and industry. Dr. Sharma is also organizing
an international conference-ICEMSMCI 2023 and serving as the general chair and
convenor. He has authored numerous national and international publications in SCI,
Scopus, and Web of Science–indexed journals. He has filed/published 30 plus inter-
national patents. He is also the book series editor of the CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
published series entitled “Innovations in Smart Manufacturing for Long-Term
Development and Growth”. He is the editor of three CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
books, with several more in the pipeline. He is the managing and special issue editor
of several international journals with databases of SCIE, ESCI, and Scopus-indexed.
He has delivered a number of invited seminars and keynote talks on international
(USA, China, India) platforms and awarded with best research paper awards.

Prof. Anoop Kumar Singh is a professor of research in the department of the

Chitkara University Research and Innovation Network (CURIN) Department,
Chitkara University, Punjab, India. He has more than 36 years of experience in aca-
demics, research, and the aviation industry. His field of interest includes manufac-
turing technology, minimum quality l; lubrication, clean technology, roto-dynamic
machines, and optimization. He is a fellow of the Institution of Engineers (India) and
a life member of the Indian society of Technical Education. He has filed 15 patents,
authored 40 research papers, and guided several PhD and M.E. Scholars. He has
organized an international conference on Materials and Manufacturing Technology
(AMMT-2011).

Dr Chandandeep Singh is working as an assistant professor in the Mechanical

Engineering department at Punjabi University, Punjab, India. His research interest
is in the areas of Production and Industrial Engineering, CAD/CAM, Die-Casting
Sustainable Green Development, Advanced Manufacturing and Maintenance
Techniques. He is a Life member of the International Association of Engineers. iv).
Senior Member of UAMAE under The IRED (Institute of Research Engineers and
Doctors. He has published more than 50 research papers and he has been the author/
editor of several books with international publishers (Taylor & Francis and Wiley).

Dr. Gagandeep Singh is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering at Baba Farid College of Engineering and Technology,
Bathinda, India.

Mr. Jaspreet Singh is working as an assistant professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering at Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India.
xvi Contributors

Dr. Kamaljeet Singh is currently employed in the Department of Academics, Pune

Institute of Business Management, Pune, India. He is an instrumental researcher in
the domain of advanced manufacturing and non-conventional machining processes
with more than fifteen years of experience.

Dr. Kanwaljit Singh is working as an assistant professor in the department of

Mechanical Engineering, Punjab State Aeronautical Engineering Collage, Patiala,
Punjab, India. His specialization is in non-conventional machining (ultrasonic
machining, chemical assisted ultrasonic machining, electric discharge machining,
and water jet machining), and conventional machining (friction stir welding, CNC,
and DNC).

Dr. Manpreet Singh is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering at Baba Farid College of Engineering and Technology,
Bathinda, India. He is passionate about bridging academia and industry through
innovative research. Proudly contributed to a series of groundbreaking publications
in advanced finishing techniques, advanced manufacturing techniques and opti-
mization techniques earning recognition for my research contributions. Dedicated
to fostering an intellectually stimulating environment for students, guiding them
towards academic excellence. Committed to innovation, with several patent applica-
tions showcasing my drive to make a positive impact on society.

Dr. Navdeep Singh is an assistant professor in the Department of Mechanical

Engineering, at Sant Baba Bhag Singh University, India.

Mr. Harvinder Singh is a researcher from the Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Chandigarh Group of College, Landran, Mohali, Punjab India.

Dr. Naveen Mani Tripathi is an assistant professor at Assam Energy Institute,

Sivasagar, Assam (A center of Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology),
India. He received his PhD from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva,
Israel. He has vast international exposure in the domain of Powder and granules rhe-
ology, advanced manufacturing, materials, and pipelines. He has published several
research papers in reputed journals.
Preface
The book entitled Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes:
Technology and Applications aims to present comprehensive and most recent break-
throughs in the multidisciplinary area of subtractive manufacturing and difficult-
to-machine, material-based, modern machining techniques. The focused theme
illustrates various combinations of hybrid machining and super finishing in order to
suit the best complex difficult-to-machine, materials-based applications for provid-
ing superior finished surface quality and exceptional productivity. Along with this, it
will outline the critical areas, exemplified as profile accuracy, high-precision machin-
ing, the effect of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), surface texture, high toler-
ance, surface quality, chipping, and cracking for converting into new applications.
By reading this book, buyers gain access to practical guidelines and real-world case
studies that can directly enhance their knowledge and expertise in hybrid machining
and super finishing processes and advancements in electrochemical discharge machin-
ing, rotary ultrasonic machining, abrasive-based nano-finishing processes, electric dis-
charge machining, hybrid machining, and advanced finishing processes. Since this
book will capture the aforementioned trends of today’s modern hybrid machining
practices, hence, we are highly confident that this contribution will benefit all the read-
ers in different aspects.

xvii
 1 A Brief Review on
Electrochemical
Discharge Machining
Process
Satadru Kashyap

1.1 INTRODUCTION
With ever-growing improvements in technology, applications in the micro and
nanoscale has risen in varied booming domains, such as biomedical, MEMS, micro-
fluidics, etc. (Judy, 2001; Haeberle & Zengerle, 2007; Dario et al., 2000; Sharma
et al., 2020a). However, catering to these industries has become a huge challenge, as
they demand high quality and intricacy with optimal use of resources. In this regard,
non-conventional machining techniques have played a paramount role in producing
machined components at the micro scale. Non-conventional machining techniques
can be broadly classified based on the use of energy principles as follows:

(a) Chemical energy—employed by techniques such as chemical machining

technique which is used in the machining of intricate designs on differ-
ent materials with good surface finish. However, they suffer from disad-
vantages, such as substandard dimensional accuracy and low productivity
rates (Çakir et al., 2007).
(b) Mechanical energy—Ultrasonic machining and abrasive jet machining
employs mechanical energy to erode particles from the surface in order to
machine brittle and hard materials. However, these processes are unsuit-
able for machining ductile materials (Cheema et al., 2015; Yuvaraj &
Kumar, 2015; Sharma et al., 2022a).
(c) Thermal energy—Techniques such as laser beam machining (LBM),
electric discharge machining (EDM), micro electric discharge machining
(μ-EDM) and wire cut electric discharge machining (WCEDM) employ
thermal energy in order to remove materials from a component. While
LBM is efficient in machining metals, ceramics as well as glass, however,
the presence of a heat-affected zone hinders its extensive usage in indus-
tries (Sharma et al., 2022b; Shirk & Molian, 1998). Additionally, EDM
processes can only be employed on conducting materials (Geng et al.,
2014).

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-1 1
2 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Further, few studies were reported while machining ductile and brittle materials
using various machining techniques which shows a futuristic approach to machining
techniques (Akhai & Rana, 2022; Babbar et al., 2019, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d,
2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d, 2022; Kalia et al., 2022; Khanduja et al., 2021; Kumar
et al., 2021; Parikh et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021; Rana &
Akhai, 2022; Sharma & Jain, 2020; Sharma et al., 2018, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2020,
2020a, 2021, 2021a, 2022, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2023a, 2023b; Singh et al., 2021,
2022, 2023).
Thus, there was an imminent requirement for a machining technique that could
machine at the micro level with sound dimensional accuracy without consider-
ation of material properties, such as hardness, strength, ductility or conductivity.
Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM) is a hybrid non-conventional machin-
ing process that involves the principles of electric discharge machining (EDM) and
electrochemical machining (ECM) (Allesu et al., 1992). Developed in 1968 by Kura
Fuji, it is used for machining/micromachining both conductive and non-conductive
materials such as glass and ceramics irrespective of their properties, such as ductil-
ity, hardness, etc. Initially, this process was employed in drilling of glass and ceram-
ics (Kurafuji & Suda, 1968; Sarkar et al., 2006). Subsequently, it was extended to
stainless steels and composites (Tandon et al., 1990; Khairy & Mcgeough, 1990) and
was employed in micro fabrication applications, such as deep drilling, micro dies,
micro profiling and micro grinding (Khairy & Mcgeough, 1990; Jain & Chak, 2000;
Furutani & Maeda, 2008; Schopf et al., 2001; Peng & Liao, 2004). However, this
process also has its limitations, such as low accuracy and low aspect ratios. In order
to overcome these, the basic ECDM process has been modified with the inclusion of
external energies which has yield superior consequences.

1.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (ECDM)

ECDM process has been diagrammatically represented in Figure 1.1, and this
involves a DC source providing current between a cathode (tool electrode) and an
anode (additional electrode) both immersed in an electrolyte. The tool electrode is
stationed directly above the materials to be machined. Due to the formation of an
electrolytic cell, bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen gas emerges at the two electrodes
as a result of electrolysis. However, above a critical voltage, the amount of hydrogen
emerging at the tool surpasses the generation rate of gas bubbles at the surface of
the electrolyte. Due to the accumulation of hydrogen gas bubbles near the tool elec-
trode and, subsequently, coalescing of smaller bubbles to form larger gas bubbles,
a film of hydrogen gas is developed around the tool (Bhattacharyya et al., 1999).
This hydrogen film serves as an insulator around the tool electrode which ceases the
current flow to the tool electrode, thereby generating soaring electric field in excess
of 10 V/mm. Presence of high-current density and electric field across the dielec-
tric hydrogen film generates an arc discharge (Wuthrich et al., 2005a). During this
arc discharge, huge bombardment of electrons occurs on the surface of the work-
piece from the tool side which raises the temperature of the workpiece at the loca-
tions of bombardment, resulting in the melting and subsequent removal of material
(Kulkarni et al., 2002).
A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge Machining Process 3

FIGURE 1.1 Schematic view of the electrochemical discharge machining process.

The mechanism of arc discharge has been elaborated by numerous researchers

in different manners. Basak and Ghosh revealed the existence of soaring current
densities across thin conducting bridges in the hydrogen film near the tool elec-
trode. Presence of this high current density causes a boiling effect in the bridges
which leads to arc discharge (Basak & Ghosh, 1996). In another study, researchers
hypothesized that each gas bubble was a valve, and bursting of these bubbles under
high current densities lead to arc discharge (Jain et al., 1999) showed that the shape
of arc discharge was cylindrical as revealed through the markings on the workpiece
surface (Behroozfar & Razfar, 2016a). Arc discharge raises the electrolyte tempera-
ture which then improves the surface finish of the workpiece via chemical etching of
the surface (Yang et al., 2001). Overall, the arc discharge mechanism in ECDM is a
complex process which has not been completely elaborated yet and may be consid-
ered to be a combination of all previously mentioned.
ECDM process has been very successful in micro fabrication of hard and brittle
materials irrespective of their conductivity. Many modified variations of ECDM pro-
cess as shown in Figure 1.2 has been put forward in different applications before,
such as turning, milling, drilling, die-sinking and dressing. These are discussed in
the sections later.

1.2.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE DRILLING (ECDD)

ECDM process was earlier used in micro drilling of through and blind holes of con-
ductive materials, such as chromium, low alloy steels, nimonic alloys, titanium, etc.
The necessity of drilling is derived from the requirement of micro holes with high
aspect ratio in hard, thick and thin materials. Holes fabricated with ECDM process
yield high surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Controlled tool movement in the
4 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

vertical axis and the arc discharge mechanism affecting the workpiece surface make
the process complex. However, control of the process parameters via the electrolyte,
electrodes and power source (current and voltage) is paramount for effective electro-
chemical discharge drilling (ECDD) operation. ECDD process being a versatile pro-
cess was earlier used in the micro drilling of soda-lime glass (Maillard et al., 2007),
silicon wafers (Paul et al., 2014), e-glass fiber-epoxy composite (Manna & Narang,
2012) and steels (Coteaţă et al., 2008). It has also been used in developing polished
surfaces without any micro cracks, silica micro-scale devices and drill holes of 450
μm deep and 300 μm dia in 30 seconds (Mousa et al., 2009).
Effective machining demands efficient control of the process parameters, and the
parameters affecting micro drilling the most is the drilling depth and voltage involved
in machining (Maillard et al., 2007). The drilling diameter required is divided into
three different zones based on the drilling depth and voltage: (1) Zone A—machining
done at voltage (28–37V) and depth of 100 μm. Machining is conducted only in dis-
charge domain. Result yielded is a smooth cylindrical hole. (2) Zone B—machining
done at voltage (30V) and depth of 200 and 300 μm. Micromachining is conducted in
between the hydrodynamic and discharge domains which yield micro holes with ser-
rated outlines profiles. (3) Zone C—machining done at voltages in excess of 30V and
depths in excess of 100 μm. Electrolyte supply at tool is hindered, and as such, speed
of drilling depends on depth of drilling and not on the voltage (Maillard et al., 2007).
Additionally, liquid soap is added to the electrolyte as a surfactant in order to reduce
the film thickness. Addition of surfactant reduces the differences in energy in the
intermittent discharges which yield consistent results (Laio et al., 2013). Moreover,
superior machining rates are achieved with tool materials having higher thermal
conductivity in the discharge domains, but the same tool electrode material yields
lower machining rates in the hydrodynamic regime.
Thermally high conductive tool electrodes transfer more thermal energy at the
tool surface rather than at the workpiece area. This leads to higher machining rates
in the discharge domain than the hydrodynamic domain (Laio et al., 2013; Mousa
et al., 2009). Better material removal rates are achieved with rougher tool electrode
surface, as it facilitates better wettability and coalescing of the film of gas, thereby
providing stability in machining and hole size (Yang et al., 2010). Additionally,
spherical-tipped and curved tool surface facilitates better flow of electrolyte in the
tool region which decreases the contact area between the two electrodes, thereby
facilitating higher machining rates. It has been observed that the machining time
reduced by 83%, while the hole diameter reduced by 65% upon using spherical-
tipped tool surface as opposed to cylindrical tool used conventionally (Yang
et al., 2011). It has also been observed that tool materials such as tungsten carbide
and steel perform better than brass due to their inherent wear-resistant behavior
(Behroozfar & Razfar, 2016b).

1.2.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE TURNING (ECDT)

ECDM process has also been employed in machining of continuously rotating cylin-
drical workpieces as in case of turning. Hence, the terminology for this type of
machining has been coined as electrochemical discharge turning (ECDT).
A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge Machining Process 5

FIGURE 1.2 Electrochemical discharge machining with its different variants and process
parameters.

The rotating workpiece immersed in the electrolytic bath facilitates fresh elec-
trolyte being supplied at the tool-workpiece gap. Moreover, it has been observed
that optimum rotation of the workpiece being an important parameter would assist
in producing narrow, deep grooves with sharp edges on the workpiece surface.
However, higher rotation speeds would hinder proper machining due to the inability
of gas film formation the workpiece surface (Furutani & Maeda, 2008).
6 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

1.2.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE MILLING

In order to fabricate very intricate structure of the micro scale, electrochemi-
cal discharge milling has been employed successfully, especially on quartz and
glass substrates and while manufacturing micro channels, grooves and texturing
their surface (Paul & Hiremath, 2014; Nguyen et al., 2015; Changjian et al., 2012;
Ziki et al., 2012). A rotating cylindrical wheel which acts as the tool electrode
(cathode) traverses a predefi ned path in order to mill the workpiece. Machining
parameters such as rates of tool travel and rotation affect the machining process
the most. For machining micro grooves, a high tool rotation is used as it hinders
replacement of electrolyte at the tool electrode, thereby ensuring sharp edges on
these grooves with smaller width. Shallow grooves of the micro scale are pro-
duced with higher width at high travel speeds of the tool (Zheng et al., 2007a).
However, if a deeper micro groove is required, then the process of peeling off
workpiece material in a layer-by-layer manner is preferred which yields deep
grooves with good surface fi nish. This is due to the fact that at higher depths, the
electrolyte can easily flush of the debris material upon machining if the material
removal is done via layer-by-layer manner (Zheng et al., 2007a). It was earlier
reported that the results obtained by electrochemical discharge milling for cre-
ation of grooves, channels, pillars, etc., of the micro scale has been quite suc-
cessful (Caoa et al., 2009).

1.2.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE DRESSING

Dressing is the process of repairing a worn-out and dirty grinding tool in order to
restore its cutting ability. Electrochemical discharge dressing was coined due to the
ability of ECDM process in successfully dressing grinding tools in the micro scale
(Schöpf et al., 2001). Herein, the worn-out grinding wheel becomes the cathode
immersed in the electrolyte, and another secondary electrode is used as the anode to
create the electrical discharge. Energy delivered from the discharge process assists
in removing the dirty debris from the surface of the grinding tool by dissociating the
metallic bonds on the wheel. Removal of the debris yields newer grains from the
grinding tool. Role played by the electrolyte is paramount in this process, as it acts
as a cooling medium, debris removal/flushing medium and dielectric fluid. It was
observed that the grinding tools dressed through this process require only 50% of
the normal grinding forces. This was due to morphology of the grinding tool surface
(surface roughness) created through the efficient machining process (Sanjay & Rao,
2008).

1.2.5 WIRE ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (WECDM)

WECDM process involves a wire as the tool electrode (cathode) for accurate metal
removal in the micro scale (Bhuyan & Yadava, 2014). Two types of techniques, viz.
weight loading technique and reciprocating technique, were put forward in order
to ensure efficient contact between the cathode and anode (workpiece) for proper
discharge. In case of weight loading technique, the tool electrode (wire) and the
job to be machined is held near each other by the aid of mechanical force which
A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge Machining Process 7

hindered the removal of debris from the discharge site. The debris material then
assists in generating auxiliary discharges which yields dimensionally inaccurate
grooves with bad surface finish. However, in case of reciprocating technique of
WECDM, the workpiece is moved to and fro in order to facilitate the flushing of
the debris. This yields accurate groove profile with higher surface finish (Yang
et al., 2006). SiC abrasive particles are mixed with the electrolyte in order to
remove any insulating coating on the tool electrode (wire) which would otherwise
enhance the critical voltage. Additionally, these SiC particles act as finishing tools,
thereby removing any cracks of the micro level from the machined surfaces (Yang
et al., 2006). Slit depth is an important parameter for assessing the efficiency of
the process, and its highest ceiling is fixed at 2,000 μm. This slit depth is affected
greatly by the feed rate which can be used as high as 350 μm/min. If it is more
than 350 μm/min, the gas film at the tool electrode is intermittently broken down,
resulting in reduced slit depth (Kuo et al., 2013). Earlier, a new methodology of
flow of electrolyte was proposed, whereby a titrated electrolyte is supplied at the
discharge site in the form of droplets which reduces the release of toxic fumes dur-
ing the machining process, thereby reducing pollution (Kuo et al., 2013). WECDM
is a low-cost process which has been used in machining a variety of materials irre-
spective of their electrical conductivity such as quartz (Kuo et al., 2013), ceramics
(Tsuchya et al., 1985), glass (Bhuyan & Yadava, 2014) and composites (Jain et al.,
1991; Liu et al., 2009).

1.2.6 DIE-SINKING ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (DS-ECDM)

ECDM process can also be used in manufacturing of shallow dies with better mate-
rial removal rates than individual EDM and ECM processes (Khairy & Mcgeough,
1990; Panda & Yadava, 2011). Additionally, the DS-ECDM process provides dimen-
sional accuracy similar to EDM and better than ECM process (Khairy & Mcgeough,
1990). A hollow tool made of bronze (3.7 mm inner diameter and 9.4 mm outer diam-
eter) is used with a feed rate of 3–18 mm/min and 120 g/l electrolyte (NaClO3) with
a pulsed DC voltage (20–30V) in order to achieve high sinking results (Khairy &
Mcgeough, 1990).

1.2.7 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE TREPANNING

Trepanning is the method to creating deep holes by moving the tool electrode in an
orbital motion achieved by offsetting the tool axis from the spindle axis. ECDM
process is used efficiently to produce deep holes in brittle and hard materials in a
low-cost way. Earlier, deep holes were created in quartz (2.35 mm) and alumina
(1.35 mm) using this process (Jain & Chak, 2000). A modified abrasive particle
reinforced tool fed with a spring system is used earlier by Chak and Venkateswara
Rao (2008) in place of the conventional gravity fed tool in order to achieve better
surface finish and depth of hole. The high frequency discharge achieved by the
use of abrasives imparts higher material removal rates as well. Additionally, it was
also observed that a pulsed DC voltage would assist in better machining efficiency
(Sanjay et al., 2007).
8 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

1.3 ECDM-BASED TRIPLEX HYBRID METHODS

Further developments and modifications in the ECDM process has led to the devel-
opment of triplex hybrid methods whereby different energy sources are integrated
with ECDM constitution, thus developing a third energy source for discharge. On
the basis of this third energy source, the hybrid techniques are further classified into
primary and secondary techniques. Generation of energy via rotation of the tool or
modification of the electrolyte through the addition of powders consist of primary
techniques. While energy discharge for material removal obtained via mechanical
and magnetic forces consists of secondary hybrid processes. These triplex hybrid
processes can be further classified into the following sections:

1.3.1 POWDER MIXED ECDM (PM-ECDM)

Powder mixed ECDM is a triplex hybrid technique whereby abrasive particles are
mixed with the electrolyte as the third energy source for material removal process.
Abrasive particles such as graphite are used in this process which reduces the effect
of energy discharge on the workpiece surface, thus creating a superior surface finish.
The reason for reduction in the impact of energy discharge due to the presence of
conducting graphite particles may be two folded: (1) development of an intense elec-
tric field due to the presence of conductive abrasive particles at the machining area
produces a stable energy discharge, and (2) constant movement of abrasive particles
results in a continuous flow of charges in between the electrodes. It was previously
observed that the surface finish improved significantly with this process, upon addi-
tion of 10 mm graphite particles to NaOH electrolyte (Han et al., 2007).

1.3.2 ROTARY ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (R-ECDM)

In this process, the third energy is achieved from the rotation of the tool electrode
which facilitates drilling straight and smooth holes with a small entrance diameter
and no cracks. This is due to the fact that as the tool rotation, energy is spread uni-
formly over the machining area [51–72]. However, care must be taken in order to not
go beyond a critical tool rotation, as it creates huge electrolytic turbulence which
yields low machining rates due to an unstable discharge. It was observed that in
case of drilling pyrex glass with a 200 μm tool diameter, two distinct domains were
present—(1) from 500–1,500 rpm tool rotation, the hole entrance diameter gradu-
ally reduces with increasing tool rotation and (2) above 1,500 rpm, the hole entrance
increases due to reduced sparking discharge and long machining time (Zheng
et al., 2007b ). Parameter such as the gap distance in between the outer periphery of
the tool and the inner periphery of the hole is significant in obtaining deeper holes
with little or no taper. Hence, tools are being designed with the facility of reducing
or increasing the gap distance. The higher the gap, the smaller is the discharge effect
on the hole periphery walls, thus creating micro holes that are deep with reduced
taper (Zheng et al., 2007b). Moreover, superior surface finish is achieved through
the usage of shorter pulses. Previously, holes with aspect ratio of 11:1 were drilled
on borosilicate glass with a tungsten carbide constructed tool electrode (Jui et al.,
2013). Additionally, this process was successfully used in drilling micro-scale holes
A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge Machining Process 9

in pyrex glass (Zheng et al., 2007b), borosilicate glass (Jui et al., 2013) and different
types of steel (Coteata et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2014).

1.3.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE GRINDING (ECDG)

In this process, the third energy source employs machining via mechanical abra-
sive action in addition to electric discharge machining and electrochemical dissolu-
tion. The tool electrode consists of embedded abrasive grains with metallic bonding
in between which serve as a grinding tool which aids in the machining process
(El-Hofy, 2005). The metallic bonding network being conductive assists in spark
production (Sanjay & Rao, 2008). Feed rate of the tool electrode is paramount, as it
allows better contact between the tool (abrasive gains) and the workpiece. A mini-
mum amount of gap between the electrodes and higher surface area of contact (for
higher abrasion) will create a thin film of gas with higher sharp edges. This will in
turn yield higher material removal with better surface finish. This technique has
been previously used efficiently in the machining of cylinders (centerless grinding)
and deep holes of the micro scale (Schöpf et al., 2001), machining composites (Wen,
2009), glass and ceramics (Jain et al., 2002).

1.3.4 VIBRATION-ASSISTED ELECTROCHEMICAL

DISCHARGE MACHINING (VAECDM)
In case of VAECDM, vibration is applied to either of the electrodes (tool or work-
piece) or the electrolyte in order to regularize a continuous and uniform supply of
electrolyte at the electrodes (both the tool tip and the job surface) (Wuthrich et al.,
2006b; Han et al., 2009; Rusli & Furutani, 2012). With this process, it was possible
to drill 300 mm deep holes of the micro scale by applying 0–30 Hz vibrations at
the tool. Applying 1.7 MHz frequency vibrations to the electrolyte would produce
continuous and uniform discharge at the tool electrode which is significant in achiev-
ing higher depths while drilling micro hole with reduced taper (Han et al., 2009).
Additionally, the material removal rate increases by two folds on the application
of vibrations at the tool electrode (Wuthrich et al., 2006b). In addition to the fre-
quency of the vibrations, the amplitude plays a significant role in the machining
process. It was observed that amplitudes <2 mm produces pulsed discharges gener-
ating higher material removal than conventional ECDM process, thus, assisting in
creating deeper holes. However, amplitudes in the range of 2–3.5 mm yields reduced
material removal with better surface finish due to the generation of denser and wider
pulsed discharge (Rusli & Furutani, 2012).

1.3.5 MAGNETIC FIELD –ASSISTED ELECTROCHEMICAL

DISCHARGE MACHINING (MAECDM)
In this process, a magnetic field developed via a magnetic system installed as a mag-
netic tool chuck which holds the tool electrode. Due to the magnetic field devel-
oped at the tool electrode, a magneto hydrodynamic convection (MHD) occurs that
increases the electrolytic circulation. Enhanced circulation of the electrolyte hinders
10 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

stable formation of hydrogen gas bubbles, thus breaking them. Hence, a higher volt-
age is required to maintain a stable gas film at the tool electrode. This higher voltage
aids in improving the machining rates and its efficiency. Electrolyte circulation pre-
vents weakening of the gas film which ensures a stable discharge, thereby improving
the dimensional accuracy especially in creating deep holes (Liu et al., 2013; Cheng
et al., 2010a).

1.4 EFFECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETERS

Hybrid non-traditional machining techniques such as ECDM is an intricate process,
the efficiency of which is affected by a host of different parameters, such as electrode
gap, polarity, current, voltage, duty cycle (machining parameters), gas film, type of
electrode and its properties and tool electrode material and its geometry as shown
in Figure 1.2. Hence, the effects of these parameters are paramount for machining
efficiency.

1.4.1 ELECTROLYTE PROPERTIES

The main role of electrolyte in ECDM process is to etch the workpiece surface
chemically and form a stable gas film. A variety of electrolytes are used in ECDM
process, viz. NaCl, NaClO3, KOH, H2SO4, KCl and even water (Cao et al., 2009;
Yang et al., 2001). Additionally, electrolyte properties, viz. viscosity, concentration,
conductivity and temperature also affect the machining parameters significantly. It
was observed that electrolytes with alkaline nature such as KOH and NaOH aided
in improving the material removal rate in ECDM process when compared with
acidic (H2SO4 or HCl unable to machine glass) or neutral electrolytes (NaCl and KCl
results in lower machining rates) (Yang et al., 2001). In another study, it was revealed
that addition of soap solution (surfactant) reduces the gas film at the tool electrode
which in turn improves wettability and decreases the spark discharge; this improves
the surface finish (Jiang et al., 2015). Additionally, electrolytes with graphite powder
hinder cracks and enhance surface quality due to the abrasive action provided by
graphite powder (Han et al., 2007).
Among the alkaline electrolytes with similar concentration, KOH seemed to
improve the material removal rate more when compared with NaOH due to its low
viscosity which assists in enhancing the flushing rates at the tool electrode (Cao
et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2001). Acidic electrolytes are hazardous in nature due to
the fumes and gases exuded by them. Mineral water can be used as an eco-friendly
electrolyte and serves good purpose due to the presence of ions such as Na+, OH-,
and H3O+ in it. Thus, properties of electrolytes such as concentration, temperature,
conductivity, type and viscosity are paramount in defining the ECDM process.

1.4.2 TOOL ELECTRODE PROPERTIES

Properties of tool electrodes such as thermal conductivity, tool material, shape of the
tool electrode and availability of abrasive grains at the tool surface are paramount in
enabling an efficient machining process. Researchers have used a host of materials
A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge Machining Process 11

such as tungsten carbide, high-speed steel, high-carbon steel, copper and stainless
steel as the tool electrode. However, it has been revealed that tungsten carbide and
stainless steel yielded the best results due its high hardness, wear resistance, melting
point and low specific heat capacity. High thermally conductive materials used as the
tool electrode resulted in high machining efficiency in the discharge domain, while
the efficiency is limited in the hydrodynamic regime as a result of the drag force
created by the molten material in the upward direction (Mousa et al., 2009). Another
significant parameter affecting the machining characteristics is the tool electrode
geometry. Over the years, tool electrodes of different shapes and size were used
in machining, viz. conical, cylindrical, tubular, spherical, abrasive coated, textured
on the surface, etc. Earlier, it was revealed that needle-shaped tool yielded deeper
holes when compared with cylindrical shaped tools due to high spark discharge at a
concentrated place (Wuthrich et al., 2006a). Spherical electrodes reduced the con-
tact area between the electrodes, thereby enabling fresh supply of electrolyte at the
tool site which resulted in higher machining rates and stable gas film (Yang et al.,
2011). Tool electrodes with abrasive coating improved the machining rates due to
high spark discharge and extra abrasive action of the tool electrode. Additionally, an
insulated coating of abrasive particles in the inner periphery of a hollow electrode
resulted in enhanced surface finish and dimensional accuracy (Chak & Venkateswara
Rao, 2008). Earlier, usage of a flat side tool improved the electrolyte circulation at
higher machining depths due to a stable gas film and spark discharge. Hence, deeper
holes of the micro scale were possible by using flat side tool (Zheng et al., 2007b).
Moreover, tubular electrodes with higher inner diameter enabled better flushing
action by the electrolyte at the site of machining. This resulted in higher machining
rates (Zhang et al., 2016).

1.4.3 GAS FILM PROPERTIES

A gas film is formed at the tool electrode due the evaporation of the electrolyte and
coalescence of hydrogen bubbles at the tool surface. This gas film is instrumental
in defining the surface quality of the machined area, as it defines the surface finish
and formation of overcuts and delamination on the surface (Wuthrich & Ziki, 2009).
A stable gas film is important for efficient machining process and parameters, such
as electrolyte temperature, gas production rate, availability of fresh electrolyte, cur-
rent density and bubble removal rate (Vogt & Thonstad, 2003; Kelogg, 1950). It was
also revealed earlier that tool electrode geometry such as conical tool or tool with
insulated side assists in stable gas film formation resulting in better machining pro-
cess (Wuthrich et al., 2006b). Higher electrolyte circulation with a flat side tool also
aids in gas film stability, thereby improving machining rates (Cheng et al., 2010a).
Additionally, stability of the gas film is also dependant on electrolyte and tool elec-
trode temperature.

1.5 FUTURE PROSPECTIVE OF ECDM PROCESS

In this article, investigations carried out in the field of electrochemical discharge
machining (ECDM) have been discussed in context to the varied modifications and
12 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

processes developed in this area. Additionally, effects of the various process param-
eters in regard to these various modified forms of ECDM processes have been pre-
sented. Although extensive research has been researched out in this domain, there
are still potential for numerous developments and modifications to improve the effi-
ciency and versatility of the machining process.

• It has been revealed through the earlier survey that the ECDM process finds
extensive application in the drilling of micro holes and micro channels with
reduced taper and lower aspect ratios using ECDD and electrochemical dis-
charge milling processes. If the different types of textures on the surface
can be generated in these micro channels through this process, then it may
find significant applications in the fields of micro-fluidics.
• The properties of the electrolyte are paramount in the performance of
ECDM and its related machining processes. Hence, there is a tremendous
potential in developing an efficient, environmentally suitable and cheap
electrolyte which will increase the efficiency of the machining technique.
• Industrial applications always ask for low-cost but high-performance
processes which would produce high productivity and quality (surface
integrity and dimensional accuracy) through these machining processes
(i.e. ECD and its variants). Hence, developmental studies in tweaking the
process parameters and further modifications in the existing process in
order to achieve higher efficiency may be conducted.
• Researcher must review the feasibility of creating a system which facilitates
the fabrication of all the micromachining features in the same system. This
would increase the commercial viability of the machining process in the
fields of semiconductors and MEMS.
• Extensive research may also be conducted toward machining of new genera-
tion of materials, such as composites and super alloys with complex textures.

1.6 CONCLUSION
A brief survey on the research works conducted in the field of electrochemical dis-
charge machining and its different variants has been presented. The main conclu-
sions made from this study are as follows:

• ECDM process and its variants are significant non-traditional machining

techniques which can be applied for machining both ductile and brittle
materials and both conducting and non-conducting materials. It has been
widely employed in machining a host of different materials, such as glasses,
ceramics, steels, metals and composites.
• The main advantage of this process and its variants is the production of
machined features (holes, channels, profiles, etc.) of the micro scale on
hard-to-machine materials with superior MRR and surface finish.
• Variants of ECDM process such as R-ECDM, VAECDM and MAECDM
are employed to achieve even better MRR and drilling performance during
the creation of deeper holes with superior surface finish.
A Brief Review on Electrochemical Discharge Machining Process 13

• Other variants of ECDM process, viz. electrochemical discharge dress-

ing, is used in cleaning worn-out grinding tools of the micro scale; elec-
trochemical discharge turning is used in machining cylindrical features;
wire electrochemical discharge machining is used in segmenting materials;
and electrochemical discharge grinding is employed in creating holes on
cylindrical parts.

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 2 A Review of Process
Parameters of Rotary
Ultrasonic Machining
Jaspreet Singh, Chandandeep Singh,
Kanwaljit Singh

2.1 INTRODUCTION OF ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESS

Increasing competition in the market and rising demand for better product perfor-
mance have inspired the development of a wide variety and high-quality materials,
including ceramics, composites, carbides, glasses, diamonds, etc., that have superior
features like high hardness and instability, etc. These characteristics provide the
material its dominant performance; yet using conventional machining techniques, it
is challenging to precisely machine these materials. As a result, the material’s qual-
ity and several crucial attributes are degraded and large machining costs are gener-
ated. In recent years, many machining techniques utilizing various energy resources
like mechanical, electrochemical, and thermal have been developed to process these
materials (Jain & Jain, 2001; Jain, 2011; Wang et al., 2020a).
USM is one of these cutting-edge technologies and has the ability to work with
tough materials (Vinod & Khamba, 2010; Agarwal, 2015; Nath et al., 2012; Bhosale
et al., 2014). However, the abrasives in the slurry used for static USM cause some
dimensional abnormalities in regards of hole fineness, conicity, out of roundness,
and hole over size (Jain et al., 2011; Kataria et al., 2015). As a result, the static
USM method’s limitations were resolved by the development of the rotary ultra-
sonic machining method (Ning et al., 2016). A comprehensive approach is rotary
ultrasonic machining having collaboration of typical diamond grinding and ultra-
sonic machining operating principles to produce superior MRR and good surface
finish than USM and diamond grinding alone. When both traditional and ultrasonic
grinding take place at once in rotary ultrasonic machining, there is a removal of
material as microchips in addition to the grinding stroke (Churi, 2010; Khoo et al.,
2008; Legge, 1966, 1964). The work material is being fed into continuously while
still being vibrated ultrasonically by a spinning hollow drill enhanced with diamond
abrasive. The amount of coolant is continuously delivered along the center of the
drilling, brushing away fragments, preventing tool congestion, and cooling the cut-
ting zone (Pei et al., 1995; Churi et al., 2010; Jiao et al., 2005). Figure 2.1 shows
the essential parts of the RUM, including the ultrasonic transducer, spindle, electric
motor, ultrasonic power supply unit, machining zone, coolant tank, transformer, and
air compressor, among others. Irrespective of their properties, numerous various
DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-2 19
20 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 2.1 Diagram of rotary ultrasonic machining.

TABLE 2.1
Classification of Conventional and Non-conventional Parameters
Conventional Process Non-conventional Process
• Lathe machine • Electric discharge machining
• Milling machine • Laser beam machining
• Shaper machine • Ultrasonic machining
• Slotting machine • Rotary ultrasonic machining
• Grinding machines • Chemical machining

types of soft and hard metals are machined using RUM. Several researchers have
previously claimed that this mechanism is nonthermal (Churi et al., 2010; Sarwade,
2010; Sharma et al., 2020a). Rotary ultrasonic machining can be classified with vari-
ous traditional and non-traditional techniques. The development of conventional and
non-conventional machining techniques is an outcome of progress in technology.
Abrasive jet machining (AJM), water jet machining, electric discharge machin-
ing, ultrasonic machining, and rotary ultrasonic machining have great potential
in cutting-edge developments (Akhai & Rana, 2022; Babbar et al., 2021a, 2020a,
2020b, 2020c, 2020d; Kalia et al., 2022l; Khanduja et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2021;
Prakash et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021; Rana & Akhai, 2022; Sharma et al., 2018b,
2019a, 2019c, 2020; Sharma & Jain, 2020, 2020d, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c; Singh
et al., 2021). Further, this study has purely analyzed the necessity of selecting the
best parameter combination for the rotary ultrasonic machining method to attain
noteworthy outcomes in the form of machining efficiency (Sharma et al., 2022a,
2022b, 2022c, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c, Singh et al., 2022, 2023). The material removal
process or the material is removed with the help of machining, and the removed
material is in the form of microchips and can be expressed in Table 2.1.
A Review of Process Parameters of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining 21

2.1.1 EVALUATION OF USM TO RUSM

Progression from USM to RUM was allegedly created as an upgrade to USM,
according to previous studies. In rotary ultrasonic machining, the revolving core
drill’s surface was filled with diamond abrasives tip as a substitute for the abrasive
slurry used in ultrasonic machining. RUSM was traditionally used to drill holes
through brittle, hard materials. The USM method, which was first developed in
1927, entailed continually injecting abrasives over the region between the work-
piece and tool (Ning et al., 2016). At the UK Atomic Energy Authority in 1964, Mr.
Percy Legge developed the RUM technique for the first time. Moreover, Brown
et al., were the ones who originally suggested combining drilling and ultrasonic
vibrations. In this patent work, drilling facilitated by a very low vibration fre-
quency “on the order of 1 kHz” are solely suggested for boring in wood. In contrast
to static USM, P. Legge’s initial RUM machine tool had a number of improve-
ments. The many modifications performed included rotating the workpiece while
it was being held in a four-jaw chuck and replacing the slurry in the ultrasonic
machining the tool material is coated with diamond abrasives. The rotation of the
worktable also had some negative effects, such as the device’s inability to process
larger workpieces and the restriction to only cutting circular holes. As a result of
ongoing work at UKAEA, a machine was connected to the rotating-type ultrasonic
transducer in Legge’s patented technology, which offered a better improvement.
This newly developed rotating transducer head allowed for the highly accurate
dimensional processing of nonrotating workpieces (Ning et al., 2016; Sharma
et al., 2018a). Using a particular kind of tool allowed for the achievement of several
process changes. RUM may be used to successfully practice a number of types,
including side-to-side milling, surface texture, slot machining, screw threading,
and internal-to-external grinding. In order to address USM’s shortcomings, RUM
had been seen as an improvement. The literature included descriptions of the RUM
process in a variety of additional methods. As a hybrid process, that combines
USM and traditional diamond grinding as a manufacturing technique (Sharma
et al., 2019a). The terms ultrasonic drilling, ultrasonic grinding, ultrasonic vibra-
tion grinding, and ultrasonic twist drilling are also occasionally used to describe
this process. Workpiece rotation is one of the variations of USM that Komaraiah
and Reddy described as part of the term RUM.

2.2 ROTARY ULTRASONIC MACHINING PRINCIPLE

Figure 2.2 shows the working mechanism and the various essential components used
in the RUM. Electricity at 50 Hz is changed as 20,000 electric energy in the RUM.
Using a piezoelectric transducer, this high-frequency electric power is subsequently
transformed into oscillating motion. The spindle and tool are connected, and the
tool oscillates in the direction of feed with the assistance of electric motor. Vibration
amplitude can be changed using an ultrasonic power source. Electric motors can pro-
duce a variety of speed variations for tools (Singh & Singhal, 2016; Pei & Ferreira,
1998). The pressure gauge controls the flow of the cutting fluid, which is fed from
the drill’s center. The coolant’s function is to lower the temperature of the machining
22 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 2.2 Illustrate a diagram of RUSM.

zone area (Khoo et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2019a). The various components are
discussed in the given figure later.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF ROTARY ULTRASONIC MACHINING

2.3.1 ULTRASONIC SPINDLE
The machine tool’s primary element in RUSM is the ultrasonic spindle, which is
made up of a horn, high-frequency generator, transducer, and spindle. With the assis-
tance of a high-frequency generator, electrical energy can be converted into ultra-
sonic waves of the order of 20 kHz (50–60 Hz) (Sarwade, 2010; Kuo & Tsao, 2012).
Electric energy is transformed into high-frequency mechanical vibration using a
piezoelectric transducer.

2.3.2 ULTRASONIC POWER

The tool’s vibrational amplitude is controlled by the ultrasonic mechanism of power
generation. The amplitude produced during vibration will be getting improved with
the increase of ultrasonic power (Cong et al., 2014; Churi et al., 2007). To obtain
ultrasonic power ranging from 0% to 100%, RUSM finds its utility more effective
than others. Whenever the power supply is turned off, RUM will convert to tradi-
tional diamond drilling.

2.3.3 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

This system can be integrated with the machine tool to measure a variety of
reactions, including depth of cut, vibration amplitude, and torque. It consists of
A Review of Process Parameters of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining 23

an analog-to-digital converter for converting analog signals into digital ones,

a dynamometer for measuring torque as well as cutting forces, and a computer
program for collecting, plotting, and analyzing the results ( Pei et al., 1994; Jiao
et al., 2005).

2.3.4 COOLANT
A complete system, including a pump, coolant reservoir, filter, pressure controller,
indicators, and valves, makes up the cooling device. The hollow tool’s center sup-
plies the cutting fluid, which can also be supplied externally via hoses. To give a
better finish, cutting fluid is used to remove the extra material and make the surface
clean and clear of debris (Pei et al., 1995).

2.4 MECHANISM OF ROTARY ULTRASONIC

MACHINING
Following are descriptions of the USM and conventional diamond grinding material
removal mechanisms used in the RUM process (illustrated in Figure 2.3) (Ya et al.,
2002; Pei et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2020):

Hammering—It occurs when the diamond-based tool and the abrasive

impinged on the workpiece. The diamond tool vibrates ultrasonically and
crushes the workpiece material with striking and crushing of work material
as a hammering action.
Abrasive— Similar to the grinding process, abrasion results from the rotation
of the tool concerning the workpiece.
Extrusion—Due to the tool’s rotation and longitudinal vibrations working
together, extraction was made much easier.

FIGURE 2.3 Shows the methods for removing material in RUSM.

24 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

2.5 APPLICATIONS OF RUSM

1. A variety of materials have already been processed using RUM, namely,
advanced ceramics, composites, and advanced glasses (Sarwade, 2010).
2. RUM also manufactures advanced glasses like zirconia, which are widely
used in the automobile and optical sectors (Kumar et al., 2018; Abdo et al.,
2013; Zhang et al., 2014).
3. Stainless steel, which is used in automobiles, medical equipment, and home
appliances, has been successfully machined by using this technique (Cong
et al., 2010).
4. The application of RUM in orthopedic surgery is by drilling bones without
separation (Babbar et al., 2020c).

2.6 PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THE RESPONSE OF RUSM

For the literature review, it should be noted that several studies have been analyzing
the findings and comparing the input parameters (such as ultrasonic frequency, rota-
tional speed, concentration, abrasive slurry, grit size, and tool material) to the output
responses (such as MRR, SR, TWR, and hole conicity) having a major impact. In this
study, we compare the input factors that have a major impact on every output response.

2.6.1 MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE

After the literature review, it is to be concluded that MRR is among the most essen-
tial factors and is widely used in the production industry for higher material removal
rate. While performing the experimentation on rotary ultrasonic machining, it is to
be concluded that, as compared to solid tools, it has been found that hollow tools
greatly increase the rate of material removal. A hollow tool produces an MRR
that is nearly twice as high as a solid tool (Wang et al., 2016). When compared to
traditional grinding, the MRR achieved in RUM is increased (Ning et al., 2016;
Babbar et al., 2020b). During RUSM of quartz ceramics, the material is extracted
primarily through brittle fracture and a small amount of plastic distortion (Singh &
Singhal, 2018). In an experiment using BK7 optical glass, it was observed that the
feed rate had the largest influence on the operational parameter. Although the mate-
rial removal rate increased dramatically with even a small increase (Kumar et al.,
2018). The most significant process parameter for MRR is tool feed rate (Sindhu et al.,
2018). BK7 glass demonstrates a mixed flow of the material at low feed rates and
high spindle speed and sonic power levels (Kumar & Singh, 2018). It must be noted
that the effects of various process parameters must be considered while cutting alloy
material (ultrasonic power, rotational speed, and feed rate) and machining properties
while using rotary USM. According to their findings, feed rate significantly affects
cutting force, MRR, and SR. Surface roughness values decreased as the power rate
increased (Dhuria et al., 2011; Churi et al., 2007; Cong et al., 2011). This is a brand-
new technique for determining the amplitude during RUSM (Wang et al., 2009).
The influence of many factors, including the cutting tool, vibration amplitude, ultra-
sonic power, rotational speed, and feed rate, was demonstrated by the results. Only
A Review of Process Parameters of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining 25

ultrasonic power was determined to be the single most significant factor that had an
impact on the vibration’s amplitude (Wang et al., 2009).

2.6.2 SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Another factor addressed by the RUSM input variables is the surface roughness of
the machined rod and the drilled hole. The SR under the influence of several pro-
cess factors must be aware, as several RUM research have been carried out. When
potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) crystals were machined using rotary ultra-
sonic technology, they were scrutinized at the surface roughness. Results show
that feed rate enhanced surface roughness. When contrasted with a right-angle
corner tool, a chamfered corner tool gave a superior finish (Guzzo et al., 2003;
Zhang et al., 2014; Babbar et al., 2021a). RUM research was done on optical K9
glass machining (Zhang et al., 2014). The impact of process factors such as ultra-
sonic power, spindle speed, and feed rate was investigated on the output variables
of edge chipping size, cutting power, SR, and power utilization. RUM was found
to have fractured the optical K9 glass workpiece while drilling a hole in it using
pressurized air as a coolant. The SR of the machined gap facing was significantly
affected by raising the feed rate and force of the ultrasonic power; moreover, it
is significantly reduced when the spindle was increased. To study the impact of
ultrasonic vibration on the surface produced, Pérez et al. (2016) and Babbar et al.
(2022) conducted RUM in the surface texturing of CFRP. When the surface with
the least vibration frequency was machined together with a tiny input action, a
smooth surface was produced.

2.6.3 TOOL WEAR RATE

The RUM technique results in very little tool wear, particularly when working with
brittle materials like CFRP composites and ceramics. For the aim of evaluating tool
wear, several investigators have also taken into account subsequent experiments, the
tool’s linear dimensions have worn, and its weight has decreased. While machining
a material of CFRP with rotary ultrasonic machining, it is to be observed that tools
wear out a little frequently and had better life spans (Wang et al., 2020). During
machining on alumina-based ceramics material, the results show that by using RUM
rather than traditional grinding, less tool wear was observed (Gong et al., 2010). A
study on the tool life in RUM of CFRP/Ti stacks in terms of the number of holes
drilled was done experimentally. Using this procedure, about 250 holes were bored
(Cong et al., 2012). As a result of RUM’s superior hybrid machining technique, which
created less cutting force throughout the operation than cutting force produced by
the standard drilling and grinding procedures separately, an improvement in hole
quality was seen (Cong et al., 2012, 2014).

2.7 SUMMARY
Table 2.2 provides an overview of how rotary ultrasonic control parameters affect
MRR, CF, TWR, SR, and chipping size.
 26

TABLE 2.2
Summary of Previous Rotary Ultrasonic Machining Research Initiatives
Author Workpiece Design of Exp. (DOE) Process Machining
(Year) Material Parameters (Input) Characteristics (Output) Results/Conclusions
Pei and Ceramic material Rotary ultrasonic, vibration frequency (50 Material removal rate RUM scrutinized that as the tool rotation speed increases, the
Ferreira (magnesia- Hz–20 KHz), rotational speed (3,000 rpm), (MRR) material removal rate also increases so as far the abrasives
(1998) stabilized grit size (270/320), coolant Static force particles decrease. Further, the increase in removal rate
zirconia) water indicates that the static forces increase.
Hocheng Moulding steel Ultrasonic machining process, frequency Surface finish Ultrasonic machining works on moulding steel and copper tool.
and Kuo SKD 61 (20.69 KHz), amplitude (3.9 μm) Static load The polishing is used in ultrasonic machining so that the
(2002) Grit size (220), abrasives (aluminium oxide), surface finish is enhanced. Because the static stress on
medium (water) ultrasonic machining has increased, the surface quality must
Concentration (40%) be better.
Choi et al. Plane glass Vibration frequency (20 KHz), low amplitude Surface roughness (SF) Ultrasonic machining gives rise to the comparison between
(2007) (2–50 μm), abrasives material (silicon Material removal rate ordinary ultrasonic machining and material removal rate.
carbide), SiC diameter of the tool (1.5 mm) (MRR) While machining plane glass, the MRR and SF of the material
must be improved by 200%.
Khoo et al. Magnesium Vibration frequency (20 kHz) MRR, TWR, SR RUM results specify, as the static load increases, the rate of
(2008) (zirconia and material removal also increases.
alumina) Moreover, as the surface roughness of the material increases,
the amplitude and grit size also increase during machining on
magnesium.
Cong et al. Stainless steel Speed (4,000 rpm) Surface roughness According to RUSM, when cutting force and toque drop, the
(2010) Federate (0.02 mm/s) (SF) input parameters, including spindle speed and feed rate, do as
Ultrasonic power (30%) Cutting force well. Surface roughness is improved as spindle speed and feed
(CF) rate increase.
Torque
Liu et al. Alumina Spindle speed (1,500–5,000 RPM) Cutting force (CF) Rotary ultrasonic machining results shows the relationship
(2012) between input parameters (spindle speed, federate, and vibration
amplitude) over cutting force, which shows that cutting force
Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

increase or decrease depends upon the spindle speed.

Cong et al. (CFRP) Feed rate (0.1–0.7) Tool rotation Power Rotary ultrasonic machining resulted that the tool rotation
(2012) Ultrasonic frequency (20 KHz), power rate consumption decreases as ultrasonic power increases.
(20–80%), rotational speed (1,000–5,000 On the other hand, the consumption of power is higher (i.e.
rpm) 65%) than that of the rotary machining system.
Abdo et al. Zirconia ceramic Power consumption (50%–70%), depth Surface roughness (SF) Rotary ultrasonic machining indicates that the value of surface
(2013) (.025–.075 mm) roughness is 0.4295 μm at the spindle speed of 6,000 r/min,
Spindle speed (2,000–6,000 r/min), feed rate feed rate is 50 mm/min, and the depth of cut is 0.025 mm.
(50–150 mm/min)
Vibration frequency (20–23 KHz)
Kuo and Non-tempered Rotational speed (5,000 r/min), feed rate (2–6 Surface roughness (SF) Rotary ultrasonic–assisted milling of brittle material. The
Tsao glass mm/min), depth (1–3 mm) surface roughness is maximum (i.e. 2.56 μm). The feed rate is
(2012) 0.3 mm/sec and the depth of cut is 3 mm.
Zhang et al. Optical K9 glass Rotary ultrasonic machining, ultrasonic power Cutting force (CF) Rotary ultrasonic machining resulted that an increase in surface
(2014) (0%–30%), spindle speed (2,000–3,000 Edge chipping size roughness on the machined surface tends to decrease in
r/min) Surface roughness (SF) cutting force (CF).
Feed rate (0.01–0.02 mm/s) Moreover, the power consumption is dependent on the feed rate
and spindle speed. It tends to decrease as the spindle speed
and federate chipping size increase.
Lv et al. Glass BK7 Feed rate (200–600 mm/min), rotational speed Sub-surface damage Rotary ultrasonic machining examined, with the increase of
(2013) (3,000–12,000 r/min) (2–5 μm), frequency spindle speed, the sub-surface damage will slightly have
(23.1–26.9 KHz) affected.
Tabatabaei Aluminium Ultrasonic-assisted machining, natural MRR In ultrasonic-assisted machining, the material removed from the
et al. (65J) frequency (228.5 Hz), chip thickness (6 mm), Surface finish workpiece is in the formation of chips.
(2013) ultrasonic frequency (20 KHz) Tool stability During the machining process, the MRR rate of machining must
Stiffness (2.628 N/m) be improved and the surface roughness is more than that of
conventional machining. The tool life and the tool stability are
also more than the conventional machining process.
A Review of Process Parameters of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining

Baek et al. Soda-lime glass Amplitude (20 μm), frequency (20KHz) Hard wax Ultrasonic machining is done on workpiece like soda-lime glass
(2013) Tool WC abrasives: Without hard wax The crack formation is less in hard wax as compared to the
(aluminium oxide) Concentration 30 Surface finish without hard wax.
Feed rate (10 μm/s) Material removal rate The material removal rate is less in hard wax than that without
(MRR) hard wax.
The surface finishes with wax are more than that of the surface
finish without wax.
27

(Continued)
 28

TABLE 2.2 (Continued)

Summary of Previous Rotary Ultrasonic Machining Research Initiatives
Author Workpiece Design of Exp. (DOE) Process Parameters Machining
(Year) Material (Input) Characteristics (Output) Results/Conclusions
Tong et al. Optical glass Rotational speed (1,000–5,000 r/min) Surface roughness (SF) The rotary machining process was reported as the surface
(2014) Feed rate (2–10 mm/min) roughness of the workpiece was reduced during the increase
Amplitude (2–10 μm) of spindle speed and feed rate.
Ultrasonic frequency (27,900 Hz) During machining, the surface roughness has a small amount of
effect on amplitude.
Geng et al. CFRP Feed rate (0.33 mm/s) Tool life RUSM result, while machining on various input parameters,
(2014) Spindle speed (5,000 r/min) Drilling force shows that compared to other parameters, drilling force is
Drilling depth lower and tool life is enhanced by 28%.
(10 mm)
Wang et al. Glass ceramics Spindle speed (3,000 rpm), feed rate (3 mm/ Residual stress Rotary ultrasonic results indicate that the machine holes
(2018) min) Hole-size variation increased gradually with the increase of feed rate. Moreover,
the increase in speed of the spindle shows the residual stress
tends to decrease.
Popli and Advance ceramics Spindle rotation (3,000 rpm) Chipping size Rotary ultrasonic machining experimentally studied on Al2O3
Gupta (Al2O3) Feed rate (0.010 mm/sec) ceramics material analyzes that input parameters have a
(2018) Ultrasonic power rating (30%) significant effect on output results, indicating that the decrease
Vibration frequency (20 kHz) of chipping size shows there is a reduction of spot length.
Singh et al. UL-752 glass Concentration (20%–40%) Material removal rate Material removal rate and tool wear rate have a significant
(2017) (polycarbonate Power rating (20 to 60%) (MRR) effect on the machining of glass material (UL-752). As a
bulletproof glass) Grit size (280–600) Tool wear rate (TWR) result, the increase in hardness of the material affects the
Tool material (high carbon steel) Surface roughness (SF) increase of material removal rate.
Frequency (20 kHz) Moreover, the higher the grit size of the material, the higher the
Amplitude (25.3–25.8 μm) tool wear rate and material removal rate. Due to the fine grit
size, it shows that there is an increase in surface roughness and
a decrease in the removal of material as well as tool wear rate.
Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes
A Review of Process Parameters of Rotary Ultrasonic Machining 29

2.8 CONCLUSION
Rotary ultrasonic machining is typically referred to as a hybrid type of traditional
ultrasonic and chemical-assisted ultrasonic machining process. Since there are so
many different input machining techniques, the machining process is extremely dif-
ficult. Spindle speed, feed rate, vibration frequency, ultrasonic power, and grit size
are important input machining process parameters that have a larger impact on the
output machining parameters. Following a review of the output response literature,
many conclusions include the following:

2.8.1 MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE (MRR)

The different experimental investigation studies done on materials glass, ceramic,
and composites on RUSM indicate that MRR increases with rotation speed, feed
rate, and vibration frequency; however, grit size and ultrasonic power have little
impact on MRR. The chemically assisted USM shows an increase of 200% MRR of
macro drilling of glass.

2.8.2 SURFACE ROUGHNESS (SR)

According to a review of several studies on the machining of silicon carbides, carbon
fiber composites, and alumina, surface roughness is extremely significantly linked
with spindle speed and strongly related to feeding rate. Surface roughness is less
influenced by vibration frequency and ultrasonic power. Moreover, ultrasonic power
and vibration frequency have less impact on surface roughness.

2.8.3 TOOL WEAR RATE (TWR)

As per the study of the literature of tool wear during the machining of ceramic mate-
rials, CFRP, and silicon carbide, the most influential factor is feed rate. Increasing
the feed rate causes more tool wear. The grain size also affects tool wear with high
grain size resulting in more wear.

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 3 Effect of Minimum
Quantity Lubrication
(MQL) Method
on Machining
Characteristics for
Ductile Substrates
A Future Direction
Ankit Sharma, Atul Babbar, Kamaljeet Singh,
Anoop Kumar Singh, Naveen Mani Tripathi,
Dhaval Jaydev Kumar Desai

3.1 OUTLOOK TO THE MACHINING PROCESS

In many manufacturing procedures, machining is the most crucial step. At some
point throughout their manufacture, the majority of the items need to be machined.
A metal-removal procedure called machining is used to give the workpiece the fin-
ishing touch and needed dimensional accuracy. This primary procedure is for chang-
ing the geometry of a workpiece. The methods for removing material are divided
into three categories: cutting, grinding, and other specialized methods. Cutting oper-
ations remove material by creating ribbonlike structures known as chips with 0.025
to 2.5 mm of thickness, while grinding operations typically produce chips with a size
ranging from 0.0025 mm to 0.25 mm as a result of breaking down the removed mate-
rial into smaller particles (Bruni et al., 2006). In the manufacturing sector, a variety
of machining techniques are used to remove material over the substrate periphery in
order to produce a finished good (Sahoo et al., 2008). Turning, milling, and drilling
are three of the many machining techniques that are used to remove metal.
In any process that comprises metal machining, the cutting fluid plays an essential
part. It does this by eliminating chips from the cutting zone, cooling the surface of the
material and the cutting tool, and lubricating the interaction between the tool and the
workpiece. Instead, if the cutting fluid is not used properly or disposed of incorrectly,
it can have a negative impact on both human health and the environment. Researchers

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-3 35
36 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

have been concentrating their efforts on a technique known as minimum quantity

lubrication (MQL) because it reduces the amount of coolant that is used by spraying
a combination of compressed air and cutting fluid in an optimized means rather than
using flood cooling. This method is one of many that are available for the application
of the coolant. Because it satisfies all the criteria for what constitutes “green” machin-
ing, the MQL approach has been found to be an effective solution. On the other hand,
MQL is making its way toward the advanced method of machining processes. This
technique is meant to reduce the amount of cutting fluids and maintain the optimum
cutting force that provides the desired surface quality. The major outcome of the study
stated that the concentration of nanoparticles in the base fluid has a positive effect on
the tribological properties of the fluid. Since the tribological properties of the cutting
fluid enhanced with nanoparticles are superior to those of the base fluid, some inves-
tigations stated that the use of MQL and MQL that had been combined with water
proved to be effective in enhancing the surface finish of the object and reducing the
tool wear rates. Because of its low cost, high level of protection for the environment,
and long-term viability in the environment, MQL has become increasingly popular in
the field of machining in recent years. It has been shown in some tests to be capable
of providing good cooling and lubrication, which presents an opportunity for ceramic
cutting tools to test the process (Singh et al., 2020b).

3.2 MACHINING CONDITIONS

Three fundamental categories of machining environments are deployed in the indus-
try, and they are as follows:

3.2.1 FLOOD MACHINING

The cutting fluid (oil and water) is utilized in this type of machining condition in
a large amount (between 2,000 and 4,000 litres per hour) during the interaction
between the substrate specimen and tool to extract the chips and simultaneously cool
the substrate specimen and tooling interaction.

3.2.2 DRY MACHINING

For the sake of conserving cutting fluids during flood machining, dry machining is
deployed instead since it eliminates the need for cutting fluid, a major source of pol-
lution, and other harmful by-products of the machining process. Surface quality and
material clearance rate won’t improve with this method either. In order to improve
output responsiveness and the surrounding environment while falling the quantity of
coolant and lubricant required, the MQL method is used.

3.2.3 MQL MACHINING

Numerous issues with health and the environment are brought about by the overuse
of machining fluid at the time of flood cooling. The minimal quantity lubrication
(MQL) method is utilized to cool the tool-workpiece contact while simultaneously
reducing coolant consumption. A spray nozzle is needed for MQL mist cooling in
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 37

order to combine high-pressure air with a modest volume of cutting fluid (between
50 and 500 ml/hr). The oil coolant is broken down into incredibly small particles by
this spray nozzle, which flows inside the high-pressure air jet. The tool-work interac-
tion is the target of this mist lubrication (Sales et al., 2001).

3.2.4 MINIMUM QUANTITY LUBRICATION (MQL) TECHNIQUE

Cutting fluid overuse has an undesirable influence on the atmosphere and social
health during both its use and removal (Weinert et al., 2004). Therefore, it is best to
avoid using cutting fluids excessively. Other cooling approaches are being developed
in addition to standard cooling methods to take the heat away from the tool-work
contact (Sreejith & Ngoi, 2000). The temperature in the cutting zone can be con-
trolled in a variety of ways, including by using cooling techniques including flood
cooling, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), solid lubricants, high-pressure cool-
ants, compressed air/gas coolants, cryogenic cooling, and so on (Sharma et al., 2009).
Numerous experts have looked into the impact of different cooling methods combined
with lubricant oil. They have come to the conclusion that the minimal quantity lubri-
cation (MQL) technology excels over alternative cooling systems due to its low cut-
ting fluid consumption and environmentally friendly machining (Lawal et al., 2013).

FIGURE 3.1 Different cooling techniques.

Source: Sharma et al. (2009)
38 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 3.2 Principle of MQL oil mist generation.

Source: Varadarajan et al. (2002)

Due to its benefits in protecting the atmosphere and human well-being by deploy-
ing less cutting lubricants, the MQL approach is typically used on turning, mill-
ing, and drilling operations in the manufacturing area (Bhowmick & Alpas, 2011;
Attanasio et al., 2006; Rahman et al., 2002). The MQL methodology encompasses the
compensations of both the dry technique and flood cooling technique due to the mix-
ing of lubricant and air. MQL has several advantages for the industrial sector, includ-
ing lowering manufacturing costs, being environmentally friendly, addressing issues
relating to human health, and addressing regulatory requirements (Braga et al., 2002).
The MQL method involves mixing a little amount of cutting fluid or lubricant with
air to produce droplets. As shown in Figure 3.2, a nozzle (the interface between the
tool and the workpiece) is used to spray these drops into the cutting zone at the proper
pressure. The reservoir for the cutting fluid, the discharge nozzle, etc., are all part of
this system. The MQL system takes advantage of the venturi effect to remove cutting
fluid from the lubricating reservoir. The cutting fluid is atomized into microdroplets by
passing pressurized air through a mixing chamber. These droplets act as a coolant and
lubricant and penetrate deeply into the tool-workpiece interface when they are sprayed
as a mist in the cutting zone (tool-workpiece interface) (Varadarajan et al., 2002).

3.3 MQL INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

3.3.1 COOLANT FLOW RATE (CFR)
Coolant flow rate (CFR) means the quantity of coolant that is pumped through the
nozzle and into the cutting region in a given amount of time. The amount of coolant
flowing from the reservoir to the cutting region is reliant on the lubricant’s velocity
and the cross-sectional area of the pipe it traverses. The rate of coolant flow can be
quantified in millilitres per second, millilitres per hour, or litres per second.

3.3.2 NOZZLE TOOL DISTANCE

The nozzle tool distance refers to the physical separation among the nozzle and the
milling insert (milling tool). Surface roughness rises with an intensification in nozzle
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 39

FIGURE 3.3 Real-time illustration of nozzle tool distance (NTD) on VMC.

Source: Singh et al. (2020a)

FIGURE 3.4 Real-time illustration of nozzle elevation angle (NEA) on VMC.

Source: Singh et al. (2020a)

tool distance up to a specific point and vice versa. Additionally, the form and diam-
eter of the cutter are influenced by the nozzle tool distance. Both a graphic and a
definite illustration of the nozzle tool distance (NTD) on a VMC are presented in
Figures 3.3 and 3.5, respectively.
40 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 3.5 Machining mechanism using MQL based milling operation.

Source: Singh et al. (2020a)

3.3.3 NOZZLE ELEVATION ANGLE (NEA)

The angle among the nozzle tip and milling insert tip is known as the “nozzle eleva-
tion angle” (NEA) (milling tool). Degree (°) units are used to express nozzle elevation
angle (NEA). Both a visual and a real representation of the nozzle elevation angle are
illustrated in Figures 3.4 and 3.5, respectively.

3.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Performance characteristics, sometimes referred to as eminence features such
as surface roughness and material removal rate, are used to assess how well
the milling process is working. The specifics of each performance attribute are
covered here.

3.4.1 MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE (MRR)

The material removal rate is definite as the rate at which material is detached from the
workpiece (MRR). According to Equations 3.1 and 3.2, the material removal rate can
be considered using the machining time and the difference in gram weight between
the starting and finishing weights of the specimens (i.e. before and after machining).
It can also be calculated using the difference in volume between the starting and
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 41

finishing volumes. Material removal rate, which indicates how quickly or slowly the
machining rate is, is a crucial performance measure in production rate. Therefore,
achieving the needed production rate with the appropriate surface smoothness and
precision is the industry’s key goal. Many different aspects of the machining pro-
cess (depth of cut, cutting velocity, etc.) can affect the material removal rate (MRR).
Parameters in MQL code, beyond those used for machining inputs, include crucial
variables that establish the rate of material removal. In any operation, the material
removal rate (MRR) is the quantity of material removed from the workpiece in a
given time period. In theory, it can be determined with Eq. 3.1. Weighing the work-
piece before and after machining is essential, especially when the machining time is
already established. MRR can also be premeditated by means of Eq. 3.2.

MRR = w × d × f (3.1)

Where w = width of cut, d = depth of cut, and f = feed rate, MRR = material removal
rate
Wi  W f
MRR (3.2)
t
Where Wi = initial weight of specimen before machining, Wf = final weight of speci-
men after machining, t = machining time

3.4.2 SURFACE ROUGHNESS (SR)

In the modern world, performance qualities of the products, such as surface rough-
ness and dimensional accuracy, are given more attention. Even though the prod-
uct’s dimensions are well within the tolerance zone, there are many chances that
the surface finish will cause the finished product to be rejected. A totally flat and
smooth surface cannot be produced throughout any manufacturing process. Surface
roughness or surface finish refers to the many small abnormalities as a result of the
unavoidable conditions (noise factors) during machining. But low surface roughness
components are always needed, especially when there is relative motion between two
moving pieces (Behera et al., 2014).
The life of the part and the amount of electricity required to operate it are both
impacted by surface roughness value. High surface roughness causes the mecha-
nism’s temperature to increase, which further increases the need for lubricating oil in
the manufacturing industries (Sharma et al., 2018a). Surface roughness is influenced
by the following factors: material, cutting tool condition, cooling method, vibration,
machining settings, and fixture.

3.4.3 SURFACE TEXTURE

Surface roughness is the degree to which the actual surface deviates from the ideal-
ized one. Surface roughness, waviness, and form are the three basic categories into
which deviations fall. These surfaces’ surface roughness profiles and these surfaces
42 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

are created by superimposing different order deviations. The average roughness of

a surface is calculated by averaging the absolute roughness departure values from
the surface mean line over the assessment length. These averages may be above or
below the geometric center of the plane. In many cases, the average roughness is
determined by averaging the roughness measurements taken along the entire length
under consideration. This is the typical parameter that has been used for a long time
to measure surface roughness. It is sized in millimeters (Singh et al., 2014; Al-Attar
et al., 2013). Figure 3.6 (a) and (b) illustrates the different terms related to surface
texture and surface profile.

3.4.3.1 Roughness
Small deviations (minor imperfections) from the primary machined surface are
referred to as roughness. Surface roughness is the word used to describe surface
abnormalities of finer spacing.

3.4.3.2 Waviness
Waviness is a measure of how smooth the surface is. Structure has a role in its occur-
rence. Waviness is a type of surface irregularity that has a larger spacing or deviates
from the primary machined surface.

FIGURE 3.6 A) Terminologies of surface texture and b) surface profile.

Source: Kalami and Urbanic (2021)
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 43

3.4.3.3 Flaws
Cracks and scratches are examples of flaws that can appear on a product’s surface
owing to imperfections in the manufacturing process.

3.4.3.4 Lays
Lays depicts the surface patterns of a component as a consequence of the direction of the
machining process. The machining process for a given component determines whether
the lay pattern will be horizontal, vertical, or round (Singh et al., 2014; Eman et al., 2013).

3.5 REVIEW ON THE PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS PARAMETERS
3.5.1 COST OF CUTTING FLUID
Improvements in tool life and surface finish have resulted from the usage of cutting
fluid to cool the machining process since the beginning of the twentieth century.
Several kinds of cutting fluids have also been used for this and similar objectives.
Several efforts have been made in the last ten years to diminish the quantity of cut-
ting fluids used in manufacturing because of the costs of the fluids, environmental
concerns, concerns about human health, and other factors. In 1992, the amount of
waste soluble oil produced by German businesses accounted for around 1,151.312
tonnes, or about 60% of all the lubricants utilized in manufacturing. This sum of
money, which ranges from 7.5% to 17% of manufacturing costs per part, is consider-
able and is even greater than the costs associated with tooling, according to Heisel
et al. (1998), Klocke and Eisenblätter (1997), and Kalhofer (1997).
Cutting fluids are used globally, where 640 million gallons are used world-
wide and 100 million gallons are deployed in the USA, according to research by
Marksberry and Jawahir (2008). The basic functions of cutting fluids are to elimi-
nate chips from the cutting area, to make the workpiece’s surface more even and flat,
to reduce friction among the tool and the workpiece, and to reduce the amount of
heat generated by the cutting process. Even while these consequences are positive,
the negative effects outweigh the positive ones, causing us to reconsider how we
achieve these goals.
According to Khan et al. (2009), the cost of applying and arranging of cutting flu-
ids in the production of automotive parts was around 17% of the whole cost. Giving
to research by Sharma et al. (2016), the cost of cutting fluids accounts for roughly
16% to 20% of the manufacturing sector’s overall cost of production. Figure 3.7 and
Figure 3.8 depict the studies which are focused on manufacturing costs, machin-
ing costs, and the structure of coolant cost (Brinksmeier et al., 1999; Nasir, 1998;
Sanchez et al., 2010).

3.5.2 ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

According to Chakraborty et al. (2008), many international organizations have all
demanded that cutting fluid usage be decreased and that manufacturing industries
everywhere be given a safe working environment.
44 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 3.7 Demonstration of manufacturing costs, machining costs, and the assembly of
coolant cost.
Source: Brinksmeier et al. (1999); Nasir (1998); Sanchez et al. (2010)

FIGURE 3.8 The chart shows the structure of coolant costs in different categories.
Source: Brinksmeier et al. (1999); Nasir (1998)

Howes et al. (1991) and Byrne and Scholta (1993) found that the use and removal of
cutting fluids resulted in a number of environmental issues, including soil contamina-
tion, water pollution, air pollution, and environmental pollution. Greaves et al. (1997)
looked into the relationship between cutting fluid aerosol exposure and symptoms of
asthma, chronic conditions, and chest infections (MWFs). According to Sales et al.
(2001) and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 1.2
million workers worldwide have gone through the harmful properties of lubricants
during application and disposal, which over time resulted in breathing issues.
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 45

So as to make the metal-cutting process additional financially and ecologically

sound, the various sustainable strategies in machining were acknowledged by Behera
et al. (2014), who conducted an investigation into a study of all sustainable manufac-
turing approaches in machining for environmentally friendly manufacturing.
The minimal quantity lubrication strategy has gained popularity in the metal-
cutting industries due to its low environmental impact. When dry or flood machining
can’t be justified for economic or ecological reasons, MQL technology is employed to
prevent waste and pollution while saving money. Cutting fluids are sprayed directly
into the point of contact among the tool and the workpiece.

3.5.3 WORKPIECE SPECIFICATION, MODE OF COOLING,

AND OTHER OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

After conducting trials on a 7% Si aluminium alloy (SAE 323), Braga et al. (2002)
determined that the MQL approach produced holes of equal or superior quality to
flood cooling. Cutting speed (300 m/min), feed (0.1, 0.2 mm/rev), and MQL flow rate
(10 ml/hr) are only some machining levels and ranges that can be selected.
Sharma and Sidhu (2014) used vegetable oil as a lubricant to study the differences
between dry and MQL cooling methods for AISI D2 steel. Together, MQL/NDM
offers a greener means of production and helps improve several aspects of product
quality (such as surface polish).
Tasdelen et al. (2008) looked at the surface finishes of 272 and 315 drilled holes.
Overall, the Ra and Rz values from the 15 ml/h MQL technique are superior to those
from the flood drilling method.
As illustrated in Figure 3.9, Khan et al. (2009) investigation into the impact of
turning operations on AISI 9310 alloy steel utilizing cutting fluid based on vegetable

FIGURE 3.9 Surface roughness under different environments (dry, wet, and MQL) turning.
Source: Khan et al. (2009)
46 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

oil discovered that the MQL approach generated the best surface finish. MQL flow
rate and other machining factors are some of the input parameters, along with their
respective ranges.
Figure 3.10 displays the results of a comparison between the surface roughness
generated by wet, dry, and MQL lubrication methods across a range of cutting speeds
and cutting times. Surface roughness (Ra) inclines to reduction with growing cut-
ting time when utilizing flood or wet cooling systems; however, a minor shift may
be seen when employing dry cutting. The Ra values for surfaces finished using the
MQL method were found to be comparable to, or even lower than, those produced
by wet and dry cutting.
When turning operations were compared to wet or flood turning, Hwang and
Lee (2010) used the MQL technique. It was determined that MQL turning performs
better than wet turning in terms of surface roughness. Input machining parameters
for turning with MQL that work best together are feed rate of 0.01 mm/rev, cutting
speed of 361 m/min, depth of cut of 0.1 mm, and nozzle diameter of 6 mm.
According to Tosun and Huseyinoglu (2010), TiCN cutting tool and flooded
cooling gave equal results when used to mill aluminium alloy (Al-7075), but MQL
milling produced a better surface polish using different input parameters and their
respective ranges.
According to Li and Chou (2010), using the MQL approach with the same cutting
speed and feed rate as a flooded cooling system resulted in decreased surface rough-
ness at spindle rotational speed ranges from 2,000 to 4,000 rpm and feed rate of 1 to
2 mm/rev. The MQL flow rate was reported as 1.88 and 7.5 ml/hr. These are among
the different input parameters and their respective ranges.
Because MQL milling produces results that are similar to those of wet mill-
ing in terms of surface roughness and cutting power, Fratila and Caizar (2011)
have looked into whether it may be used in place of wet milling at a speed of
150.72 m/min with 0.1 mm/rev of feed rate. The MQL flow rate was consid-
ered as 30 ml/hr and the depth of cut as 1 mm, which has some of the input
parameters.

FIGURE 3.10 Surface roughness versus cutting time under wet (a), dry (b), and MQL (c) at
Vc =120, 150, and 180 m/min.
Source: Bruni et al. (2008)
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 47

Hadad and Sadeghi (2013) found that MQL turning, coupled with wet and dry
turning, may achieve the same depth of cut when working with AISI 4140 alloy
steel. MQL was shown to have the best surface finish compared to both dry and wet
machining with a variety of nozzle placements and orientations.
Turning with soluble oil cutting fluid was deliberate by Amrita et al. (2014), who
found that in comparison to flooded cooling systems, cutting temperatures were 25%
higher, cutting forces were 54% higher, surface roughness was 30% higher, and tool
wear was 71% higher when using the MQL cooling system.
Ti-48Al-2Cr-2Nb, an intermetallic alloy, was tested to see how milling and turn-
ing affected it (Priarone et al., 2014). Although employing wet, dry, or MQL cooling
methods. After conducting tests, it was shown that MQL cooling yields the smooth-
est surface (0.58 m), beating out both wet cooling conditions (0.74 m) and dry cooling
conditions (0.98 m, 0.82 m). Surface roughness as a meaning of cooling condition is
publicized in Figure 3.11.
The MQL factors in turning were optimized by means of the Taguchi and Grey
relational technique by Sarıkaya and Güllü (2015). Vegetable oil cutting fluid is used
in experiments to decrease tool wear and surface roughness. For maximum effi-
ciency, the fluid flow rate is 180 ml/hr and the cutting speed is 30 m/min.
According to research by Uysal et al. (2015), the MQL process produced supe-
rior surface roughness outcomes than dry milling. At a flow rate of 40 ml/hr, the
least surface roughness that could be achieved through milling was leisurely to be
0.865 m. By comparing the MQL method to dry milling, the improvements in sur-
face finish values were 8.8% for 20 ml/hr and 22.5% for 40 ml/hr.
Using the MQL lubrication approach, Hassanpour et al. (2016) experimented on
AISI 4340 alloy steel during severe milling. It was discovered that the cutting speed
and lubricant flow rate significantly affect the amount of surface roughness that is
reduced.

FIGURE 3.11 Illustration of surface roughness of machined substrate at three stages of

cooling condition.
Source: Priarone et al. (2014)
48 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Surface roughness was reduced by 16% in MQL with air and 40% in MQL with
oxygen, according to a study by Gatade et al. (2016). Analysis shows that cutting at
75 and 100 m/min considerably reduces surface roughness in both air- and oxygen-
rich MQL.
In contrast to the inundated supply of lubricants, Kumar et al.’s (2017) MQL
approach enhanced the surface quality by 7% to 10%. In their analysis, they dis-
covered that using the MQL process improves the surface polish when likened to
traditional wet and dry machining. In contrast to MQL cooling, where both convec-
tion and evaporation occur, the authors discover that the flooded cooling system only
experiences convection.
When using coated carbide tool inserts to ream aluminium alloy, Lugscheider
et al. (1997) examined the impact of the MQL technique over dry machining. It
was found that the surface roughness values of machined holes can be reduced with
reaming in comparison to dry machining.
Boswell and Islam (2012) examined the impact of the aluminium alloy during
end milling. They discovered that mist cooling (air plus lubricant) produced superior
surface finishes than dry machining. Additionally, it utilized less lubrication, which
is healthier for the environment and people’s health.
Lohar and Nanavaty (2013) looked at how turning affected AISI 4330 steel when
using dry, wet, and MQL cooling methods. When compared to dry and wet machin-
ing, it was discovered that adopting the MQL process improved surface polish by
roughly 30%. ANOVA is also used to determine how much the performance ele-
ments contribute.
In their study of the impact of the MQL technique on aluminium alloy, Kelly and
Cotterell (2002) discovered that in order to increase the material’s surface quality, a
large amount of coolant or lubricant is needed along with a higher cutting velocity.
Researchers Davim et al. (2007), examined the impact of varying the lubricant
flow rate, cutting velocity and feed rate on a brass specimen. The MQL lubrication
method was found to yield results in the turning of brass specimens that are on par
with those achieved using a wet lubrication system.
While machining steel and Ti-6Al-4V, several authors examined how the MQL
method complemented more conventional flood cooling and cryogenic chilling.
They have determined that the MQL method yields results that are comparable to
flood cooling and cryogenic cooling with regard to surface roughness, microhard-
ness, and chip reduction (Sharma et al., 2016; Joshi & Das, 2018).
Yazid et al. (2019) did a study between dry machining, MQL machining, and
cryogenic machining by aiming at surface roughness and chip formation than the
latter two.
Çakir et al. (2016) used the MQL method to compute the input factors with lubri-
cating flow rates of 0.25, 0.45, 0.90, and 3.25 ml/min, yielding a wide range of pos-
sible results. The significant and less significant values were determined using an
ANOVA. They came to the conclusion that feed rate and lubricant flow rate had the
biggest impact on surface roughness, whereas cutting velocity had a smaller impact
than feed rate and lubricant flow rate. Similar to this, Kouam et al. (2015) looked
at how the turning of the aluminium alloy 7075-T6 will be affected by dry and
MQL machining. They came to the conclusion that in comparison to dry machining,
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 49

the MQL process produced better surface finishes and fewer chip formations. Yazid
and Zianol (2019) looked into how the MQL parameter and machining parameters
affected the milling of an aluminium alloy. They discovered that MQL machining
produced comparable outcomes to dry machining.
Tosun and Huseyinoglu (2010) [69] looked and examined the effects of the MQL
approach, as opposed to flood cooling, on milling operations with an aluminium
alloy (AA-7075). Analysis revealed that MQL cooling yielded a higher-quality
surface finish than flood cooling. Senevirathne and Punchihewa (2017) examined
the effectiveness of MQL in comparison to flood and dry cooling systems on vari-
ous steel specimens. Following analysis, it was discovered that MQL technology,
together with surface roughness during milling, performs better than flood and dry
cooling systems.
To this end, Conger et al. (2019) compared MQL milling operations on the alu-
minium alloy 6061 to dry machining using two spray nozzles at varying feed, speed,
and coolant flow rates. After analysis, it was discovered that the MQL cooling
approach created a superior surface finish than dry machining while simultaneously
saving the environment and lubricant costs.
The MQL technique may be applied to flood machining without significantly
influencing the machining outcomes, according to the authors’ research (Fratila &
Caizar, 2011). The various factors that influence the required machined characteris-
tics at the time of the milling process are depicted in Figure 3.12, according to the
literature review.
Metal cutting machining relies on the cutting fluid to remove chips from the heat-
affected zone and cool the cutting tool and workpiece surface. Yet there can be
serious consequences for human health and the environment if cutting fluid is used

FIGURE 3.12 Surface characteristics during face milling.

50 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

incorrectly or disposed of in the wrong way. The majority of experiments have dem-
onstrated that MQL application results in a superior surface to flood and dry machin-
ing. Cutting speed, depth of cut, feed rate, and tool nose radius all play significant
roles in determining the final surface polish during a turning operation. Cutting zone
temperatures rise naturally when steel is turned at high speeds. Cutting tools deform
and break under the strain of temperatures so high, micro cracks form on surfaces
and in the depths of materials, rust sets in, etc. This research proves that nano fluid
MQL may replace flood lubrication to produce the same high-quality surface (Patole
et al., 2021).
Nowadays, various additive and subtractive manufacturing processes are going for-
ward to improve several machining characteristics (Kumar et al., 2021, 2019, 2018;
Pathri et al., 2023; Babbar et. al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2022d, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c,
2021d, 2021e, 2021f, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d, 2020e, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2017;
Kalia et al., 2022; Prakash et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2021c, 2020b; Baraiya et al.,
2020; Sharma et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2022d, 2022e, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2020a,
2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2018a, 2018b).
In ultrasonic machining (USM), a rotating diamond-coated tool or floating
abrasive particles in a fluid do the actual cutting. The machine’s cutting tool is
comprised of a relatively soft substance compared to the workpiece. The tool is
typically made out of nickel and soft steel. Vibrations of the tool introduce a liq-
uid containing abrasive grains and particles called slurry. The workpieces are
immersed in the abrasive slurry until they contact with the grains. The frequency
of the vibrating tool determines how long an ultrasonic machine is used. The abra-
sive slurry’s particle size, rigidity, and viscosity all play a role. Boron carbide and
silicon carbide grains are used in the abrasive fluid because they are stiffer than
others. If the viscosity of the slurry fluid is low enough, the abrasive can be easily
removed. Hammering, impact, and cavitation are often cited as the primary cut-
ting mechanisms of USM. In addition, the horn or sonotrode sets in motion the
hammering mechanism, which in turn hammers on the abrasives, causing them to
penetrate the work materials.
In rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM), abrasive particles are bound to the tool’s
surface before it is activated and spun to remove material. Coolant is fed into the
drill’s core to remove debris, keep the drill bit from becoming clogged, and maintain
a constant temperature for the drill and the workpiece. In addition to these benefits,
RUM allows for a higher quality finish, more hole precision, deeper drilling, faster
material removal, and less tool pressure (Singh et al., 2021b).
These days, many non-traditional methods are used for the machining of materials.
There are many opportunities for creative problem-solving during machining pro-
cesses like drilling, slot cutting, milling, and grinding. Examples of these flaws or
difficulties include cracks (both radial and lateral), surface quality, and so on. Most
academics have divergent views on how to best approach these issues. Despite their
best efforts, scientists and researchers were unable to eradicate it. Further other litera-
ture shows the utilization of several conditions of usability of lubricant under several
machining processes. Further, the surface roughness, material removal rate, cutting
forces, tool wear rate, machining temperature, and other machining parameters were
discussed in these studies. Finally, it is stated that adjusting the significant MQL
machining factors has enhanced the material removal rate and surface finish, directly
Effect of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) Method 51

benefiting the end uses of the machined parts (Akhai & Rana, 2022; Babbar et al.,
2021, 2020a, 2020b; Khanduja et al. 2021; Kumar et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021;
Rana & Akhai, 2022; Sharma et al., 2020a, 2023a, 2021; Singh, K., 2020, 2022).
Consequently, MQL is making its way toward the advanced method of machin-
ing processes. This technique is meant to reduce the amount of cutting fluids and
maintain the optimum cutting force that provides the desired surface quality.
The major outcome of the study stated that the concentration of nanoparticles
in the base fluid has a positive effect on the tribological properties of the fluid.
Since the tribological properties of the cutting fluid enhanced with nanoparticles
are superior to those of the base fluid. Further other literature shows the utili-
zation of several conditions of usability of lubricant under several machining
processes. Further, the surface roughness, material removal rate, cutting forces,
tool wear rate, machining temperature, and other machining parameters were
discussed in these studies

3.6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

This review investigation explores the impact of dry, flood, and minimum quan-
tity lubrication (MQL) machining conditions on the machining properties of a wide
range of hard and brittle materials. This article explains why the minimum quan-
tity lubrication (MQL) method is so much better. Some key outcomes of the review
article are pointed as follows:

• At cutting speeds of 300 m/min, feed rates of 0.1 and 0.2 mm/rev, and a MQL
flow rate of 10 ml/hr, the MQL method produced holes of equal or higher
quality than those obtained with flood cooling on an aluminium substrate.
• At a flow rate of 40 ml/hr, the least surface roughness that could be achieved
through milling was measured to be 0.865 m. By comparing the MQL
method to dry milling, the improvements in surface finish values were 8.8%
for 20 ml/hr and 22.5% for 40 ml/hr.
• In another experimental turning study of the aluminium alloy, it was
reported that in comparison to dry machining, the MQL process produced
better surface finishes and fewer chip formations.
• Using Taguchi and Grey relational analysis techniques, MQL parameters
have been optimized during the turning process. Here, vegetable oil cutting
fluid is used in experiments to reduce tool wear and surface roughness. It
has been determined that a fluid flow rate of 180 ml/hr and a cutting speed
of 30 m/min are the ideal values for optimization.
• It shows that the MQL technique would be a cutting-edge machining tech-
nique that could be explored further and address more pioneer topics, such
as tool wear rate, material removal rate, and deep grooves machining.

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 4 Comprehensive Study
on Electrochemical
Discharge Machining
Santosh Kumar, Rakesh Kumar, Mohit Kumar

4.1 INTRODUCTION
ECDM is a hybrid accepted worldwide process combining the principles of EDM
and ECM. The metal removal completed by spark erosion “rough machining”,
electrochemical affect and smooth the work surface in this process. The growing
demand for micro- and macro-level items and parts of complicated-to-remove
material has been rapidly increasing in medical devices (implant and instrument),
automobile, optics, aerospace, and electronic industries. Despite their outstanding
advantages, lot of these complicated-to-remove material removal appear to have
less applications. These metals present numerous threats to traditional machining
processes (termed as milling as well as turning). Titanium alloys (Ti-6Al-4V).
The low heat conductivity and “excellent chemical reactivity” are outcomes in
high cutting temperatures and superior adhesion between the tool and the sub-
strate material, resulting in tool wear (Muniruddin & Ahmed, 2020). The creation
of micro components attracts the greatest attention from the industrial industry in
order to create little or tiny items that are in high demand in modern society. To
meet the demand, scientists and technologists face increasing obstacles as well as
issues in the industrial industry. The difficulty in implementing traditional manu-
facturing methods are caused by three primary factors, including new technolo-
gies, materials with high dimensional and precision requirements, and limited
machinability economic output rate. The removal of some material is referred
to as machining—from a work specimen via direct or indirect interaction with a
tool for the development of a specified shape with a predetermined level of preci-
sion and surface quality. Parts produced by casting, forming, and different shap-
ing procedures sometimes need additional operations before use or application
assembly. Many engineering applications require the interchange of parts in order
to work effectively and consistently over their projected service lifetimes. Because
of their advantageous properties, sophisticated machining methods are required
in modern manufacturing sectors to create goods with advanced materials that
are utilized in engineering use, such as ceramics, quartz, alumina, and glass.
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) method has limited applications because
to transverse cutting speed, product quality is not very excellent due to poor sur-
face quality and big space area required for installation, expensive investment,
60 DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-4
Comprehensive Study on Electrochemical Discharge Machining 61

and maintenance cost. Ultrasonic machining (USM) has certain inherent con-
straints, including tool wear, a high capital cost, and the possibility of tool bend-
ing owing to contraction and vibration. Although laser beam machining (LBM),
the production of a very wide unwanted heat impacted zone impairs product qual-
ity and necessitates a significant expenditure. ECM necessitates a big financial
investment, expert labor, and a broad installation area. The disposal of wasted
electrolyte and the influence of stray current are other significant downsides of the
ECM process. Again, some disadvantages of electro-discharge machining (EDM)
are the difficulty of fabricating diverse forms, high metal time of metal removal
necessary to manufacture micro products, and the expensive cost of equipment.
Furthermore, ECM and EDM are mostly applicable for electrically conducting
materials. As a result, an alternate machining method is being developed to cut
materials of non-conducting type, like ceramics and glass, with the least amount
of investment. As a result, a unique machining procedure is required, which will
be beneficial for manufacturing items made of materials which are non-conduc-
tive electrically that can withstand the aforementioned unfavorable impacts of the
aforementioned machining procedures. Machining by electrochemical discharge
(ECDM) technique may mill electrically non-conductive materials (e.g. ceramics
and glass) when compared to the preceding machining methods, heat impacts
(i.e. the establishment of a HAZ is minimal). There is no need for an experienced
person to operate. The ECDM equipment and procedure are unaffected by the
physical as well as chemical characteristics of the material (Kurafuji & Suda,
1968). ECM utilized the removal of metal by anodic dissolution and applicable
in aerospace, medical equipment, power supply company and automotive, etc.
(Kumar et al., 2018, 2019, 2020a, 2020b; Singh et al., 2020). The major focus of
additive and subtractive manufacturing methods is to develop 3D products with
superior surface quality and tolerance. Further, today’s manufacturing industries
are implementing both approaches in significant manners (Akhai & Rana, 2022;
Babbar et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020 c, 2020 d, 2021, 2022; Kalia et al., 2022; Kumar &
Kumar, 2021; Parikh et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021;
Rana & Akhai, 2022; Sharma et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2020a,
2020b, 2021a, 2023a, 2023b; Sharma & Jain, 2020; Sharma et al., 2021d).

4.1.1 HISTORY OF ECDM

ECDM was first advance in 1968 by Kura Fuji for the removal of material from
the glass. It combines two well-known processes, EDM and ECM. In 2005, the
researchers R. Wuthrich and V. Fascio were given the name “electrochemical spark
machining and electrochemical arc machining” of this process. In the current era,
the non-conductive metals demand has increased especially in engineering use
owing to high chemical resistance, high heat resistance, and high creep; however,
metal removal with greater reliability and high accuracy is a major threat. For the
machining process in ECDM, various tools (Cu Ti, SS, HSS) are used. Similarly,
various electrolytes (such as NaOH, KOH, and NaNO3) are employed during the
process to improve the etching effect (Bhattacharya et al., 1999; Wuthrich & Fascio,
2005; Jain & Adhikary, 2008).
62 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

In this chapter review, the history, working principle, distinct process parameters,
distinct types of materials used, ECDM variants, and future research possibilities
are also described.

4.1.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ECDM

The ECDM is a non-traditional machining process in which metal is removed from
the work surface owing to simulation interaction of electrochemical dissolution and
spark discharges. In this machining process, DC power sources are connected with
two electrodes called anode and cathode. The NaCl, KOH, and NaOH are used as
electrolyte solution, upon terminal which both the electrodes are immerged. The
anode (+ve terminal) is connected with auxiliary electrode and cathode (-ve termi-
nal) with tool electrode. The electrolysis takes place between positive and negative
when voltage is applied.
As the potential difference increases, so does the density of bubbles development
at the cathode. At the cathode, bubbles develop and combine to form a thinner gas
film that encircles the tool, electrode. The generated gas layer stops current from
flowing via the tool electrode to the electrolyte. As a result, a strong electric field
is formed, which causes an electric discharge to form. The bubbles development
and spark phenomena (Charak & Jawalka, 2019) are depicted in the Figure 4.1 and
Figure 4.2 later.
In spark discharge, a stream of concentrated type electrons from the cathode mainly
strikes the workpiece with greater speed, creating the compression waves mechani-
cally. Because the job space is very near to the tool electrode, machining begins from
the upper surface of substrate because of melting and vaporization. The sparking
occurs when the potential difference is highly more in the film (Ali et al., 2019).

FIGURE 4.1 Bubble development and spark phenomena.

Comprehensive Study on Electrochemical Discharge Machining 63

FIGURE 4.2 ECDM process.

4.1.3 DISTINCT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF ECDM

ECDM is considered as complicated process. This machining process mainly
depends upon distinct process parameters (e.g. voltage, MRR, electrolyte blend,
speed and feed rate, tool shape, duty cycle, tool material, tool wear rate, surface
roughness, etc.). The general parameters which affect the performance of the ECDM
process are illustrated in Figure 4.3.
However, it is unclear which one major factor has the greatest impact on metal
removal performance and how the best parameters can be optimized. The optimal
process parameters are critical for improving product quality and process perfor-
mance. As a result, proper parameter optimization is critical for understanding the
interaction between process parameters as well as the response parameters in the
ECDM process (Jain & Priyadarshini, 2014). The detailed study of some critical
process parameters is explained in the next section.

4.1.4 APPLIED DC VOLTAGE

A power supply (DC) voltage is provided given the auxiliary electrode and tool elec-
trode. The machining rate enhances as the machining voltage increases. The rate of
metal removal mainly reaches a max at a specific voltage and subsequently drops.
However, DC source (that maintains a consistent voltage) throughout the process is
found to be the highly effective for ECDM (Singh & Singhal, 2016).

4.1.5 TYPES OF ELECTROLYTE

ECDM process generally utilized many types of electrolytes as shown in Figure 4.4.
Among all these electrolytes owing to attractive properties, NaOH and KOH are most
extensively used. Because it rarely enhances the metal removal as compared to other
64 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 4.3 Flowchart of cause-and-effect illustration of ECDM.

FIGURE 4.4 Distinct types of electrolytes.

electrolytes, the influence of electrolyte on metal removal is difficult to comprehend

and cannot be fully stated as a main role of concentration as well as temperature.
Because the metal removal process is primarily chemical, the type of the electrolyte
has a substantial impact on the machining behavior (Basak & Ghosh, 1996).

4.1.6. EFFECT OF ADDING ABRASIVES

Some researchers observed that an enhancement of surface roughness is achieved
by blending the electrolyte with abrasive and by refining the micro-level cracks and
heat-affected zone introduced by heat erosion at the time of discharge. Min Seop
et al. investigate that increasing the abrasive concentration decreases the surface
roughness and improves the MRR (Yang et al., 2006).

4.1.7. INTER-ELECTRODE GAP

When the cathode (tool electrode) and anode are detached by a gap (auxiliary elec-
trode). This space is measured in centimeters. Inter-electrode gap mainly affects
the MRR. As the gap increases between the electrodes, the material removal rate
decreases. The inter-electrode space is a highly critical process parameter, and it
Comprehensive Study on Electrochemical Discharge Machining 65

should be controlled when the metal is removed (Bhattacharyya et al., 2004; Wang
et al., 2007; Neto & Cirilo, 2011; Ozkeskin, 2008; Lu et al., 2011).

4.2 DISTINCT TYPES OF MATERIALS USED IN ECDM

The ECDM process detailed explanation and distinct types of material used are
shown in Figure 4.5.

4.2.1 GLASS, CERAMICS

Glass has several features such as chemical resistance and transparency. It is most
widely used in the sector of “lab-on-a-chip” devices as well as micro electromechani-
cal systems. Han et al., proved that machining processes enhance the machining rate
by ultrasonic vibrations to electrolyte. Furthermore, the experiment’s side-insulated
tool electrode reduces overcut (Min-Seop & Byung-Kwon, 2009). The ECDM tech-
nology is effective for micro-level machining ceramics. Furthermore, numerous
researchers working on the machining of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) ceramics, such
as the controlled spark phenomena with changing in tool electrode tip and micro
slicing, observed a tool wear mechanism (Sarkar et al., 2006; Singh et al., 1996;
Bhattacharya et al., 1999; Chak & Rao, 2008; Dhanvijay & Ahuja, 2014; Abou &
Wuthrich, 2012; Manna & Kundal, 2015; Behroozfar & Razfar, 2016).

4.2.2 SUPER ALLOY

The Ni-based super alloy is mostly utilized in the aircraft heart (engine) owing to
their excellent characteristics (e.g. heat resistance property). Thus, a new hybrid
method, called tube electrode high-speed ECD drilling, is most widely utilized for
metal removal of film cooling holes in case of super-alloy materials. Zhang et al.,
investigated the effects of tubular electrode inner structure on metal removal of
super alloys using TEHECDD. The results showed that the double-hole tubular elec-
trode is the best tool electrode among various geometries for increasing machining
rate and improving surface quality. Yan et al., performed a comparative investiga-
tion of super-alloy metal removal using TEHECDD and EDM. It demonstrated that
TEHECDD is encouraging machining process for micro-hole material removal in
case of super alloys (Akhtar et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2016a, 2016b; Yadav & Yadava,
2017a; Zhang et al., 2016).

FIGURE 4.5 Electrochemical materials.

66 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

4.2.3 COMPOSITES
ECDM’s process capability allowed it to be deposited to materials of conductive type
(steel, MMC, and super alloys). Hofy et al., reported on steel machining with wire
electrochemical arc machining in 1988. The composites have several attractive prop-
erties such as resistance against wear, high temperature, etc.; hence, they are used in
distinct sectors (aerospace, automotive, additive manufacturing [orthopedic], electron-
ics, etc.). Apart from this, the excellent properties of this material make them complex
to machine by traditional machining methods. Hence, several studies of researchers
proved that metal removal of distinct composites are difficult to cut by non-traditional
machining (ultrasonic, electro-discharge machining, LASER, and ECDM method)
(Hofy et al., 1998; Speer & Es-Said, 2001; Kunze & Bampton, 2001; Singh et al., 2013a;
Singh & Dvivedi, 2016; Zweben, 2005; Antil et al., 2018a, 2018b; Tandon et al., 1990;
Kumar & Singh, 2017; Yadav & Yadava, 2017b, Yuan et al., 2017; Taweeporn et al.,
2015; Manna & Narang, 2012; Malik & Manna, 2016; Liu et al., 2010).

4.2.4 STEEL PLATES

Many of the researchers’ studies revealed the axial tool wear rate in case of machin-
ing of hole of small size on steel plate and HAZ mechanism. Similarly, in another
study, Krotz et al., used steel plate that investigates tool wear of conductive material
by spark-assisted electrochemical machining. Coteata et al., also studied the drill-
ing speed for materials that have small holes on plate. In the results, the authors
explain the consequences of distinct parameters like electrode diameter, voltage,
etc. (Coteata et al., 2008, 2009, 2011; Huang et al., 2014; Chavoshi & Behagh, 2014;
Krotz & Wegener, 2015).

4.3 ECDM VARIANTS

The principle of ECDM process is to perform distinct operations (milling, drilling,
cutting, dressing, turning, and die-sinking). These machining process activities are
most effective to develop profile on brittle and hard materials. Some examples of
distinct variants in detail are explained next.

4.3.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE MILLING

This metal removal method is employed for developing three-dimensional, com-
plicated microstructures on quartz and glass materials. Many researchers studied
surface texturing of micro channels and micro grooves. In this method, a wheel of
cylindrical rotating type is used as a cutting tool (cathode electrode). This tool fol-
lows a set path. In the ECDM process, the tool travel rate and tool rotation rate are
mentioned as main process parameters. Higher tool rotation rates help to eliminate
electrolyte replenishment concerns while also producing micro grooves with smaller
widths and sharper edges. Surprisingly, tool rotation rate has little effect on groove
depth. Because of the sudden tool travel rate, micro grooves shallower type with
higher breadth may be produced (Zheng & Cheng, 2007).
Comprehensive Study on Electrochemical Discharge Machining 67

4.3.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE DRILLING

Precision holes on thin as well as on thick surfaces according to the demand of high
aspect ratio. To satisfy the challenges of micro manufacturing, several researchers
employed the ECDD technique to drill through and blind tiny holes. Previously, this
technology was utilized to drill materials of conductive type (Cr, Ti, nimonic alloys,
cobalt, low-alloy steels). The machined surfaces of these materials have a smooth sur-
face quality, comparable to electrochemically metal removal surfaces. Thus, on these
mentioned conductive materials, the ECDD technique has utilized steels, borosilicate
glass, e-grassfire-epoxy composites, soda-lime glass, etc. (Silva & McGeough, 1986;
West & Jadhav, 2007; Coteaţă et al., 2008a; Ziki & Wüthrich, 2013; Gupta et al., 2014;
Paul & Hiremath, 2013; Liao & Peng, 2006; Manna et al., 2012; Sarkar et al., 2006).

4.3.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE TURNING

ECDM with regular rotation of job is a versatile realization of this process to remove
the material of circular parts. The presentation of ECDT is depicted in Figure 4.6.
It is made up of a rotating workpiece submerged in an electrolytic solution bath.
During machining, the rotating movement of the job allows new electrolyte to be fed
over the tiny space between tool and job. The job rotation rate is a major parameter of
process that influences performance of process. Machining of deep, thin, and sharp-
edged grooves is observed at an ideal rotation rate. It is critical to note that extremely
high rotation speed reduces MRR (material removal rate) owing to challenges in film
generation at such rates (Furutani & Maeda, 2008).

4.3.4 ELECTROCHEMICAL DISCHARGE DRESSING

It comprises of a worn grinding tool such as a cathode soaked in electrolyte
and an auxiliary electrode called anode. Spark energy assists in the degrad-
ing of metal bonds and job debris bonds from the worn micro grinding tool
surface, resulting in the protrusion of new grains around the micro grinding
tool’s perimeter. To avoid burs from machining regions, electrolyte is utilized
as a dresser, cooling agent, dielectric medium, flushing agent, etc., in this technique

FIGURE 4.6 Electrochemical discharge turning.

68 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

(Wei & Hua, 2011). EDM is an unconventional metal removal technique for ful-
fi lling the needs of today’s production field by manufacturing geometries of
complex shape and large variety of contemporary engineering materials. Several
authors investigate the various properties of VAM (vibration-assisted machin-
ing processes), ultrasonic machining, rotary ultrasonic–based machining, etc.,
are used for the enhancement of machine surface by changing the input param-
eters, such as spindle speed, power, rate of feed, etc. (Sharma et al., 2019a , 2020,
2021b, 2022; Goud & Sharma, 2017).

4.3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN AND MATERIAL REMOVAL MECHANISM

Electrochemical machining improves process accuracy, efficiency, automation, reli-
ability, and environmental friendliness. Electrochemical etching of micro compo-
nents for the computer-based sector has effectively used ECM ideas. EMM provides
greater control and flexibility than traditional chemical etching, needs less monitor-
ing, and has no serious safety or environmental problems (Datta, 1998; Datta &
Romankiw, 1989). The need of ECDM and material removal mechanism are repre-
sented next in Figure 4.7. and Figure 4.8.

FIGURE 4.7 Need of ECDM.

Comprehensive Study on Electrochemical Discharge Machining 69

FIGURE 4.8 Material removal mechanism.

4.4 FUTURE SCOPE

The ECDM from the last ten years is progressively growing such as machining
quality (tool travel rate, powder mixed electrolyte, etc.), hybridization (grinding-
assisted ECDM, vibration-assisted ECDM, additive mixed ECDM, etc.), gas film
(tool electrode shape, texture tool electrode, electrolyte temperature, etc.), tool
electrode (flat side, needle shape, tubular shape etc.), and electrolyte (graphite-
powder blend, silicon-powder blend, etc.). In addition, the distinct research scopes
(Muniruddin & Ahmed, 2021; Basak & Ghosh, 1996) in ECDM are shown in
Figure 4.9.
In thermal power plants, ECDM is used by several authors to machine turbine
blades and other components made of nickel-based super alloys, which are diffi-
cult to machine by conventional methods due to their high hardness and toughness.
ECDM offers several advantages over traditional machining methods, including
high material removal rate, low tool wear, and excellent surface finish. In addition,
in orthopedic implants, ECDM is used to machine titanium and titanium alloys,
which are widely used due to their biocompatibility and excellent mechanical prop-
erties. ECDM offers several advantages over traditional machining methods, includ-
ing high material removal rate, low thermal damage, and excellent surface finish.
A study by A. J. Shetty et al. (2015) investigated the use of ECDM for machining
of titanium alloys used in orthopedic implants. The study found that ECDM can
achieve a high material removal rate of up to 2.4 mm3/min, with a surface roughness
of 0.28 μm. The authors concluded that ECDM can be an effective alternative to
conventional machining methods for the machining of titanium alloys in orthopedic
implants. (Shetty et al., 2015; Kumar & Kumar, 2022; Kumar et al., 2021a, 2021b;
Bedi et al., 2019).
70 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 4.9 Future research scopes in ECDM process.

4.5 CONCLUSION
The ECDM termed as hybrid non-conducting metal removal process comprises the
key features of EDM ECM. The removal of metal is by chemical dissolution as well
as thermal melting. Thus, owing to the use of hard to brittle materials, this machin-
ing process plays a vital role in distinct sectors (aerospace, automotive, additive man-
ufacturing electronics, etc.). Hence, a review has been performed to study the distinct
materials and their future scope. However, wear is the major challenge to the current
researchers or engineers. Hence, deep experimental study on material is required.

4.5.1 DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no financial aid for this paper.

4.5.2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are extremely thankful to Chandigarh Group of Colleges’ Landran,
Mohali Punjab, and Auxein Medical Pvt. Ltd. Sonipat Haryana for offering the
opportunity to carry out this research work.

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 5 Advancement of
Abrasive-Based Nano-
Finishing Processes
Principle, Challenges, and
Current Applications
Manoj Kumar, Mohit Kumar,
Ankit Sharma, Atul Babbar

Nomenclature and Notations

AFM abrasive flow machining
AJM abrasive jet machining
AWJM abrasive water jet machining
BEMRF ball end magnetorheological finishing
CMP chemical mechanical polishing
EBM electron beam machining
ECM electrochemical machining
ECM electrochemical machining
EDM electric discharge machining
EDM electric discharge machining
LBM laser beam machining
MEMS micro electromechanical systems
MMC metal matrix composite
MRAFF magnetorheological fluid abrasive flow finishing process
MRAH magnetorheological abrasive honing
MRF magnetorheological finishing
MR magnetorheological
MRR material removal rate
PSD power spectral density
SR surface roughness
SSD sub-surface damage
WC tungsten carbide

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-5 77
78 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The surface quality mainly depends on the surface properties achieved by surface fin-
ishing operations. This has drawn the researchers’ attention toward the surface integrity
of the machined or processed part. The surface quality greatly influences product appli-
cability in different domains (Loveless et al., 1994; Shi and Gibson, 1998; Hassanin
et al., 2018; Zou et al., 2020; Prakash et al., 2021; Babbar et al., 2022a; Sharma et al.,
2022). The researchers constantly work toward the nano-processing and finishing the
other materials with certain accuracy and precision and accuracy for meeting the func-
tional requirement (Jefferies, 2007; Heng et al., 2022). Depending on the geometry, the
surface might be of different orientations, such as plain surface, curved surface, or free-
form surface (Fang et al., 2013). These differences surface a different set of challenges
for researchers in this area. The freeform surface has no rotational axis and is difficult to
finish at the nanoscale compared to the plain or other symmetrical parts or components.
In recent times, the importance of surface characterization has improved a lot. As per the
research, the finishing operations cost around 15% of the total cost of the product. The
surface quality is mainly determined through surface integrity which includes several
controllable parameters (Jain, 2008). Further, few studies were reported while machining
ductile and brittle materials using various machining techniques which shows a futuris-
tic approach to machining techniques (Babbar et al., 2022, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2020;
Sharma et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2021b, 2020, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2018; Sharma &
Jain, 2020b; Singh et al., 2021, 2022).
As discussed, the finishing operations are the secondary operations carried out
by either initial subtractive processes (machining) or additive processes (3D-printed
components) (Lee et al., 2021b; Ye et al., 2021; Annamaria et al., 2022). These are
the costlier operations compared to the primary manufacturing methods, such as
casting or forming. Finishing operations require high skill and experience to oper-
ate highly sophisticated machines and metrological instruments (Debnath et al.,
2017). The workpiece must process at an excellent level with certain accuracy and
precision. Most processes have mechanical-based material removal mechanisms,
such as abrasive flow machining. The mechanical force generated on the abrasive
particle removes the material during this process. The abrasive particle is respon-
sible for material removal. The process is best suited for finishing the different
geometries. However, the complex geometry’s fragile part may fail under mechani-
cal force. Therefore, the mechanical-based material removal processes have limited
use in such cases (Kumar et al., 2022a). However, chemical etching can remove
the material under various chemical phenomena. Faraday’s laws govern material
removal in the process. The chemical reactions govern the material removal. The
material removal method can be further improved using photochemical-based
methods (Allen, 2003). In this method, the substrate surface is prepared along
with the photo tool. The materials can be finished by making functional changes
in the conventional grinding by deploying electrochemical phenomena (Wangikar
et al., 2019; Babbar et al., 2020). The negatively charged abrasive particles remove
the fine material from the positive workpiece in the presence of a chemical-based
electrolyte. Further, highly sophisticated processes like laser beam and electron
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 79

beam machining can be used to finish the material. In this process, the material is
removed by melting the workpiece and vaporing through high temperatures—the
high power density and cost involved in these processes (Dubey and Yadava, 2008;
Sahu et al., 2022). The different types of material removal mechanism have been
summarized in the Figure 5.1.
The surface roughness is one of the significant response parameters to character-
ize the surface finish. Broadly, the surface roughness is characterized by 2D surface
roughness, i.e. (Ra) and 3D surface (Sa) (Singh et al., 2017b). The 2D surface rough-
ness is measured through a contact-type stylus probe, and the 3D surface is mea-
sured through a no-contact type 3D profilometer. Further, the finished surface is also
characterized by waviness, power spectral density, etc. (Kumar et al., 2021b). The
surface burr, residual or surface stress caused due to initial or primary manufactur-
ing processes, also affects the surface finish (Singh et al., 2017a; Khatri et al., 2018).

FIGURE 5.1 Material removal mechanism for different finishing operations.

80 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

5.2 DIFFERENT ABRASIVE-BASED NANO-FINISHING

PROCESSES
Any product’s shape, size, dimensional tolerances, surface integrity, and surface
finish are crucial characteristics. The final process on the part, referred to as the
finishing operation, produces the surface finish. It also determines other aspects
of the machined part’s surface in most situations, such as surface flaws like micro
cracks (Kumar et al., 2020b; Kumar and Satsangi, 2021). Finishing operations that
increase workpiece temperature above permitted may cause warping, residual ther-
mal stresses, and surface flaws like microscopic cracks. Therefore, choosing the
appropriate finishing procedure is crucial. Understanding the many different finish-
ing operations that are accessible is also essential for this purpose. In light of this,
this material removal finishing processes like traditional finishing processes (like
honing, lapping, superfinishing, burnishing, polishing, and buffing) and advanced
finishing processes such as magnetic abrasive finishing, magnetic float polishing,
elastic emission machining, and ion beam machining) and material addition pro-
cesses like electroplating, galvanizing, and metal spraying (Kumar et al., 2021a;
Sharma et al., 2021; Kumar and Singh, 2022).
There are different ways to categorize the finishing processes. However, the fin-
ishing operations are divided into two parts: traditional and advanced machining
(Figure 5.2). The conventional machining methods include grinding, lapping, honing,
polishing, buffing, and superfinishing. In this process, a mechanical force dominates
under the action of an abrasive that might be independent or bonded (Mizobuchi and
Tashima, 2020). These processes have different surface finishes under other condi-
tions. However, buffing and superfinishing processes are considered to achieve a
surface finish of up to 0.01 μm.

5.2.1 TRADITIONAL FINISHING OPERATIONS

The high-speed spinning polishing wheel is made of leather or fabric; polishing is
a finishing process to improve the surface finish. The polishing wheel’s outer rim is
coated with an adhesive that holds the abrasive grains in place. Polishing tasks are

FIGURE 5.2 Classifications of finishing operations.

Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 81

frequently carried out manually. Like polishing, buffing is a finishing process where
abrasive granules are enclosed in a buffing compound that is forced into the outside
surface of the buffing wheel as it revolves. The abrasive particles need to be replaced
regularly, much like while polishing. Like polishing, buffing is typically carried out
by hand, though specific machines can perform the task automatically. When a bet-
ter surface polish is required than what can be attained through grinding and honing,
lapping is used. High dimensional precision, shape correction of minor flaws, and
a tight fit between mating surfaces are all achieved through its use. However, the
operation is more expensive than honing and grinding. Lapping involves switching
between a lap (often formed of soft material) and the workpiece loose suspended
abrasives (Zhong, 2020).
Except that buffing uses excellent abrasives on soft discs made of cloth, it is com-
parable to polishing. The buffing wheel is coated with the abrasive grains in a suit-
able carrying medium, such as grease, at appropriate intervals. Buffing can get an
even finer surface quality on polished components. Although little material is lost
during buffing, the finished surface has a high degree of shine. The buffed parts’
dimensional accuracy is unaffected. It should be free of flaws and severe scratches
for a mirror finish. The abrasive mixed-in lubricating oil/grease is usually alumin-
ium oxide. By forcing elevated micro-irregularities or peaks on the surface into tiny
crevices, the burnishing of metals is a technique for creating smooth surfaces. The
surface that was created has a high level of finish. Burnishing is done with a ball- or
roller-type instrument that moves when applied pressure to a surface-revolving piece
of work (Kalisz et al., 2021).
The metal is plastically deformed and pressed into the valleys by the tool as it
progresses. Finally, a completed surface that is smooth is achieved. Due to strain
hardening caused by the surface deformation of the micro-irregularities, burnishing
also increases the workpiece’s surface hardness (Vaishya et al., 2022).

5.2.2 ADVANCED FINISHING OPERATIONS

Numerous developments are being made in the fine abrasive finishing of materials,
including procedures, abrasives, and their bonding, enabling them to provide surface
finishes on the order of nanometers. Abrasives could only be made as delicate as a
few micrometers before, but modern breakthroughs in material synthesis have made
it possible to produce materials as small as a nanometer. For the purpose of manufac-
turing components with various shapes, sizes, accuracy, finishes, and surface integ-
rity, abrasives are employed in various forms, including loose abrasives (polishing,
lapping), bonded abrasives (grinding wheels), and coated abrasives. The detailed
advanced finishing processes have been shown in the Figure 5.3.
Recent advancements in advanced finishing techniques, such as EDM, ECM,
ECDM USM, and AJM, have relaxed the requirements for tool hardness (Kumar
et al., 2020a, 2022b). The cutting edge’s predetermined relative motion to the work-
piece surface is a significant barrier to completing complicated designs. Weakly
bonded materials include several cutting edges directed to finish the complex shapes.
However, due to the finishing forces’ lack of control, these processes are limited in
their ability to complete complex geometries, and occasionally, they cause surface
82 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

and sub-surface damage. Such issues have been addressed through numerous cutting-
edge finishing techniques.

5.3 ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING (AFM) PROCESS

The abrasive flow machining (AFM) process is an advanced finishing technique that
removes the minor surface defects developed in the primary manufacturing tech-
nique. The process can remove surface irregularities such as residual stress, burr,
craters, waviness, and geometric misalignment. Intense research has been done in
this domain for the last couple of decades. Various hybridizations have been adopted
to change and improve the functionality of the process (Dixit et al., 2021a, 2021b).
In the AFM process, a semi-solid media is used that consist of a carrier in the
form of a polymer base that contains abrasive particles in the required proportion
and is extruded across the surface that needs to be machined under the specified

FIGURE 5.3 Classifications of advanced finishing operations.

Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 83

pressure. There are different types of mechanism involves in the abrasive flow finish-
ing process (Figure 5.4). When the media is subjected to limitations because of an
uneven surface, it functions as a flexible instrument. Media has a unique malleable
capability that allows it to move through any shape of passage.
At the surfaces that AFM will process, restricted media flow pathways are
required. The media deports remotely like a flexible grinding stone, abrades the
material, and produces a good surface finish. Typically, a fixture is needed to restrict
or focus and direct the media to a specific zone of the workpiece.
Three categories of abrasive flow finishing (AFF) setup configurations have been
established: (1) one-way AFF, (2) two-way AFF, and (3) orbital AFF (Figure 5.5)
(Dixit et al., 2021a). In a one-way AFF process, an AFM media cylinder and a
hydraulically driven reciprocating piston cylinder are positioned so that the AFF
media flow unidirectional across the internal surfaces of the workpiece. In a two-
way AFF arrangement, two vertically positioned media chambers extrude the AFF
media over the workpiece surfaces in both directions. Within a slowly flowing pad
of elastic or plastic AFF media, the workpiece exactly oscillates in two or three pro-
portions when in orbital AFF. In addition to these traditional AFF configurations,
the literature also mentions several hybridized AFF processes, such as elastic emis-
sion machining (EEM), drill bit-guided abrasive flow finishing (DBG-AFF), and
centrifugal force-assisted. Further, there are lots of research potential that needs to
exploits in detailed as summarized in the Figure 5.6.

FIGURE 5.4 Modes of material removal mechanism.

84 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 5.5 Broad classifications of the AFM process.

FIGURE 5.6 Research Potential in AFM process.

Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 85

The details of the experimental investigations performed on the developed vari-

ants of AFM are given in Table 5.1.

5.3.1 ABRASIVE MEDIA

The rheology of abrasive media plays a vital role during the finishing process.
Therefore, the rheology of abrasive media needs to be characterized before its use.
Most of the abrasive media have shear thinning behavior. The rheology of abrasive
media is affected by the type of ingredients (polymer base, processing oil, and abra-
sives), the concentration of ingredients, temperature, and shear rate. The viscosity
of abrasive media decreases with an increase in abrasive mesh size, shear rate, wall
shear stress, and temperature rise during machining (Jain et al., 2001). Higher abra-
sive concentration also found to result in a higher viscosity of media (Singh et al.,
2019). In this regard, Kar et al. (2009a) reported that BR has a more rigid structure
than NR. Therefore, NR based media produced better finishing results and can bear
more stress for given strain value. In an another research attempt, Fang et al. (2009)
performed the experiments on AISI 1080, 1045, and A36 steels. It was observed that
media with higher viscosity resulted in better Ra and MR than low viscosity media.
Temperature rise during machining affects the finishing performance adversely.
In experimental studies, it was reported that in AFM, temperature usually rises to
45−50°C (Sankar et al., 2011). This temperature rise resulted in a decrease in media
viscosity. Therefore, thermal analysis of abrasive media is also very much important.
The thermal analysis performed for different rubber-based media shows good ther-
mal stability of abrasive media, as indicated by TGA (Kar et al., 2009b). The SBR
based abrasive media was reported to have maximum degradation temperature, even
greater than commercial abrasive media. The natural polymer-based abrasive media
was also reported to be stable till a temperature of 412 K (Gudipadu et al., 2015).
The useful life of abrasive media is affected by initial surface quality of work mate-
rial, abrasive mesh size, flow rate, and part geometry [12]. The wear of media during
the machining process was investigated by Bremerstein et al. (2015). It was found
that the use of already used media for finishing resulted in 20% poor surface quality
and 30% less material removal. The bluntness of abrasives is calculated in terms of
change in cutting-edge radius. Singh et al. (2016) measured the bluntness of abra-
sive media with extrusion pressure and the number of cycles. The author reported
that an increase in extrusion pressure resulted in an increase in more radial force as
compared to the axial force component. This caused rolling of abrasive particles and
reduction in their sharpness. In addition to media development and characterization,
detailed literature about the performance analysis of different abrasive media used
in AFM is given in Table 5.2.

5.4 CHEMICAL MECHANICAL POLISHING (CMP)

Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is an advanced finishing technique capable
and used to finish the surface of almost all types of materials, irrespective of con-
ductivity (Pal et al., 2022b). The process is extensively utilized for glass materials.
Different glass materials, such as borosilicate glass, quartz glass, soda-lime glass, etc.,
 86

TABLE 5.1
Experimental Investigations Performed on the Developed Variants of AFM
Reference Variant Work Material Variant-Based Parameter Variant Performance

Ultrasonic Assistance
Jones and UFP Aluminium • Amplitude of vibration (μm) = 4.5 • UFP reduced the surface roughness by a factor of 10:1.
Hull (1998) • Frequency (kHz) = 40 • More homogeneous surface obtained in manual polishing compared to
• Abrasive = boron carbide UFP.
Sharma et al. UAAFM EN8 steel • Media viscosity (Pa-s) = 730 • Best surface finish was obtained at a frequency of 15 kHz.
(2015) • Applied frequency (kHz) = 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 • The ultrasonic frequency was reported to be the most significant
• Amplitude of vibration (μm) = 10 parameters for % ΔRa.
• Maximum % ΔRa was 81.02% at 7 kgf/cm2 extrusion pressure.
• Maximum MR was 14.5 mg after seven minutes of finishing.
• Vibrations at the work surface also cause a change in microstructure
due to straining at tap layer.
Venkatesh UAAFM EN8 steel • Frequency of vibration (kHz) = 19 • For the same finishing time % ΔRa was 55% for AFM and 73.12% in
et al. (2015) • Amplitude of vibration (μm) = 10 UAAFM.
• % ΔRa and MR for five minutes of machining using UAAFM was
found to be higher than 15 minutes of machining using AFM.
Magnetic Assistance
Singh et al. MAFM Brass, Magnetic flux density (MFD) (T) = 0 and 0.7 • In brass, material removal occurs due to abrasion, but there is smearing
(2002) aluminium, in Al with low abrasion.
mild steel • No effect of the magnetic field was observed on MR and Ra for mild
steel due to the shielding effect.
• The magnetic field has 88.87% contribution in surface roughness for
brass material and only 2.41% for aluminium.
Singh et al. MAFM Aluminium • MFD (T) = 0−0.75 • Developed magnetic abrasives by mixing diamond powder and iron
(2020a) • No. of cycles = 10−30 powder followed by mechanical alloying.
• Extrusion pressure (MPa) = 1.4–7 • Highest % ΔRa was 72.7% at 0.6 T, 25 cycles, at 5.6 MPa extrusion
Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

pressure.
• The best surface finish obtained was 0.22 μm.
 Magnetorheological Variants
Jha and Jain MRAFF Mild steel • MFD (T) = 0, 0.152, 0.388, 0.531, 0.574 • No measurable change in Ra in absence of magnetic field.
(2004) • Improvement in Ra increased with an increase in magnetic flux density.
• Abrasive indentation marks were observed at high magnetic flux
density due to deeper penetration.
Ghadikolaei MRAFF Copper, • MFD (T) = 0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 • The surface quality decrease with increase in MFD due to increased
and Vahdati aluminium, • Cycle time (hr.) = 0.5, 1, and 1.5 penetration of abrasives under high magnetic field.
(2015) SS316 • Surface roughness decreases only up to certain finishing time and then
again start increasing due to scratches by abrasive particles.
Das et al. RMRAFF Stainless steel • Rotational speed of the magnet (rpm) = 50, • Increase in the rotation speed of magnet results in shear thinning of
(2010) 100, 150, 200, 250 media, thus reducing its performance.
• The surface finish of 16 nm obtained after finishing.
• The crosshatched pattern was obtained after finishing like the honing
process.
Das et al. RMRAFF EN8, stainless • Rotational speed of the magnet (rpm) = 20, • The process was found to be less effective for magnetic workpieces.
(2012a) steel, brass 40, 60, 80, 100 • Ra starts to diminish at a higher speed of rotation due to a decrease in
• Volume ratio of CIP/SiC = 0.34, 1, 2, 3, 4 viscosity of media.
• The final surface roughness of magnitude 110 nm and 50 nm obtained
for SS and brass respectively.
Rotational Assistance
Sankar et al. R-AFF Al/SiC MMC • Rotation speed (rpm) = 2−10 • R-AFF produced 44% better surface finish and 81.8% more MR
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes

(2009) compared to simple AFM process.

Sankar et al. R-AFF Steel 4340 • Workpiece rotational speed (rpm) = 2.0, 4.0, • The higher concentration of abrasive in media results in a decrease in
(2016) 6.0, 8.0, 10.0 out of roundness (OOR) due to a decrease in flowability of media and
self-collision between abrasives, which makes them blunt.
• The maximum change in OOR of 39% was observed during the process.
Brar et al. HLXAFM Yellow brass • With and without a drill • HLX-AFM resulted in 2.5 times more MR compared to AFM.
(2013)
87

(Continued)
 88

TABLE 5.1. (Continued)

Experimental Investigations Performed on the Developed Variants of AFM
Reference Variant Work Material Variant-Based Parameter Variant Performance

Other Hybrid Variants

Brar et al. ECAFM Brass • Media—Polyborosiloxane + hydrocarbon • Electrolytic salts added to media for electrochemical effect.
(2015) gel + NaI salt + Al2O3 • Optimal MR of 18.02 mg and 46.83% ΔRa was obtained with 0.84 μm
• Voltage (V) = 0, 7, 15 final roughness.
• Salt molal concentration = 0.75, 1, 1.25 • Use is limited to the prismatic workpiece due to cathode requirements.
• Diameter of cathode rod (mm) = 3.3, 4.2, 5.2
Dabrowski ECAFM Stainless • Voltage (V) = 5−10 • Material removal takes place due to anodic dissolution and abrasion
et al. (2006) steel • Current (ampere) = 2−8 due to abrasives.
• Time (min.) = 5−10 • Highest MR was reported for cyanide-based electrolytic paste.
• The final surface roughness of 0.37 μm was obtained.
Vaishya et al. EC2A2FM Brass • Voltage (V) = 0, 15, 25 • A reduction of 70%−80% in machining time was observed.
(2015) • Salt molal concentration = 0.75, 1, 1.25 • ECM-based contribution was less but significant.
• Diameter of cathode rod (mm) = 3.2, 4.2, 5.2
• rpm of rod = 0, 25, 50
• abrasive mesh size = 60, 100, 200
Ali et al. TACAFM Brass • Current (ampere) = 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 • TACAFM process resulted in 44.34% improvement in MR and 39.74%
(2020) • Rotation (rpm) = 100, 150, 200, 250, 300 improvement in Ra compared to conventional AFM.
• Duty cycle = 0.63, 0.68, 0.73, 0.78, 0.83 • Material removed due to both thermal effect and mechanical abrasion.
• At higher current (more than 8 ampere), the surface quality
deteriorates due to the formation of larger craters on the work surface.
Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes
TABLE 5.2
Detailed Literature about the Performance Analysis of Different Abrasive Media Used in AFM
Media Constituent

Inference Drawn Base Material Processing Oil Abrasive and Additives Inference Drawn

Polymer-Based Abrasive Media

Bremerstein Polyboro- Hydrocarbon oil SiC • The viscosity and elasticity of media rise with the usage of abrasive media.
et al. (2015) siloxane • No chemical change in media after machining was observed.
• A decrease in efficiency of abrasive media was observed for both MR
and Ra.
Davies and Fletcher Polyboro- SiC • High viscosity media resulted in less temperature rise during the
(1995) siloxane finishing for a fixed finishing time.
• Pressure drop and processing time were found to be high for high
viscosity media compared to low viscosity media.
Tzeng et al. (2007) Polymer, wax Silicone oil SiC • The increase in machining time results in a decrease in media viscosity,
which allows it to flow through the micro channels.
• Decreased viscosity of media helps in finishing of micro holes.
Hull et al. (1992) Polyboro- Diamond • At low strain rates, the media behave as apparently dilatant and shows
siloxane and SiC shear thickening behavior.
• At high strain rates, media behaves as pseudoplastic and shows shear
thinning behavior.
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes

• At intermedia strain, rated media behave as a Newtonian fluid.

• The stick-slip phenomenon is apparent and significant at low strain rates.
Magnetorheological Polishing Media
Jha and Jain (2009) Grease Paraffin liquid SiC and CIP • The performance of media found to increase with an increase in magnetic
heavy flux density.
• Shear thinning phenomenon was more dominant at the high magnetic
field and for coarser grains.
89

(Continued)
 90

TABLE 5.2. (Continued)

Experimental Investigations Performed on the Developed Variants of AFM
Media Constituent

Inference Drawn Base Material Processing Oil Abrasive and Additives Inference Drawn
Ghadikolaei and Vahdati Glycerin Liquid paraffin SiC and iron • Developed media for MRAFF process.
(2015) particle • Increase in mesh size results in the better surface quality of work surface
due to a decrease in particle size and increased number of cutting edges.
Rubber-Based Abrasive Media
Sankar et al. (2011) SBR Naphthenic oil SiC • Media with higher elastic component have a higher radial force and
higher MR.
• Media with increased stress relaxation have increased elastic nature and
have higher MR.
• MR was also high for higher storage modulus.
(Kar et al., NR and IIR Naphthenic oil SiC • IIR based abrasive media have better performance compared to NR based
2009a) media.
• Media lose its flow properties with increase in abrasive concentration,
and polymer loses its binding properties.
• Higher oil concentration resulted in reduced ΔRa.
Wang and Weng (2007) Silicone Silicone oil SiC • Developed two different media without and with additives.
rubber • Media with additives was found to have better physical and thermal
properties.
• Abrasives with large size result in the better surface finish but consume
more time.
• Abrasive media only develop a small grinding force, so this process can’t
remove deep marks.
Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 91

have been polished through this method (Zhu and Beaucamp, 2020). Initially, the
process was deployed to prepare the optical lenses and used to remove the burrs
from the silicon wafers (Pal et al., 2017). Later, the process is extensively uti-
lized for semiconductor applications. The schematic diagram and type of material
removal mechanism of the CMP process is shown through Figure 5.7 and Figure
5.8 respectively.
The chemical mechanical process is a hybrid process involving both chemical reac-
tions and mechanical action. The material removal is dominated by chemical reactions
rather mechanical forces. However, the material removal is mainly governed through
Preston equation. Various theories and models have been developed to calculate the

FIGURE 5.7 Experimental setup for full-aperture optical polishing.

FIGURE 5.8 Different mode of material removal mechanism.

92 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

material removal rate (MRR). The Preston’s equation used to determine MRR are a
base for multiple models. The standard equation of Preston’s equation for the material
removal rate is given by Eq. 5.1 (Suratwala et al., 2014).

MRR = kPVr (5.1)

Where k is Preston’s constant, P is the pressure applied, and Vr is the average relative
velocity of the polishing particle for the substrate.
In the complete aperture polishing system, an abrasive slurry is continually deliv-
ered at the interface as the workpiece rotates against a rotating polisher (a pitch
layer or polyurethane pad). The polishing medium, which is a blend of abrasives,
is essential for removing the substance. The surface is prepared for polishing by
chemical interactions between the workpiece and the polisher at their interface. The
workpiece-polisher interface also experiences the effects of touch and lubrication
in addition to this chemical interaction. The free abrasives are held by the asperi-
ties on the polisher’s surface, which prevents them from dispersing when polish-
ing. Between the workpiece and polisher surface, there are two-body contacts that
cause physical material removal and three-body contacts that restrict the movement
of abrasive particles. The abrasives function as adaptable micro-cutting instruments
that remove very little material. The usual load that is delivered to the workpiece
disperses unevenly along the polishing interface. The frictional force produced by
this normal load and the polisher’s rotation aids in material removal.
The CMP process is widely used in semiconductor chip fabrication for vari-
ous industrial applications. This poses a significant challenge to the environment
by increasing greenhouse gases (GHG) due to the excessive use of chemical-based
materials and utensils. The components like the polishing pad and abrasive slurry/
media are of great concern to review. Chemical disposal and post-cleaning opera-
tions significantly impact the ecology and environment, as most are nonreusable.
Minimal research on sustainability, life cycle assessment, and post-cleaning methods
are available. The energy analysis for the CMP process and its consumables includes
raw materials, transportation, electricity, water purifications, and post-cleaning. The
different CMP-related chemicals and wastewater-cleaning materials are shown in
Figure 5.9. The electrocoagulation process is one of the most influential and cost-
effective ways to remove the particles from wastewater. The treated water can be
used for reuse for different uses. A continuous effort has been going on to recover
the abrasive particles. However, there is no very concrete success has been achieved
in this research area (Lee et al., 2021a).

5.5 OTHER ABRASIVE BASED FINISHING OPERATIONS

The magnetorheological finishing (MRF) technique, essentially a sub-aperture fin-
ishing procedure, is one of the most current trends in finishing operations (Singh
et al., 2020b). It applies a regulated amount of finishing by utilizing the rheological
qualities of the abrasive slurry. The material is removed from the workpiece using
force. According to Jacobs et al. (1995), the procedure involves using magnetorheo-
logical (MR) fluid as a slurry that contains carbonyl iron particles, abrasives, and
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 93

FIGURE 5.9 Chemicals in the post-cleaning methods.

liquid media, such as water, oil, grease, etc. By adding a magnetic field, one may
adjust the softening or hardening of the MR fluid due to the presence of carbonyl
iron particles. This idea underpins the MRF polishing process. When in contact with
the workpiece under a magnetic field, MR fluid becomes stiffened and works as a
cutting tool. Abrasive particles are held toward the workpiece surface, while car-
bonyl iron particles align in a specific direction in a magnetic field. This process
tends to be deterministic since the finishing forces can be controlled by manipulating
the strength of the MR fluid by creating a magnetic field (Sidpara and Jain, 2012).
Although the procedure seems promising, specific problems with MR fluid stability,
the choice of MR fluid parameters for various materials, etc., limit its current applica-
tion. The method can make spot repairs after complete aperture polishing since it has
a low material removal rate (MRR) and can remove material from the workpiece one
area at a time.
The abrasive mixed viscous base medium overcomes the shape limitation in prac-
tically all conventional finishing methods by acting as a self-deforming stone. As
was previously mentioned, the AFM process lacks determinism because the abrasive
forces are the least controllable by outside influences. A new hybrid method known as
magnetorheological abrasive flow finishing (MRAFF) has been created to maintain
the AFM process’s flexibility. The process also having determinism and controllabil-
ity of the rheological features of the abrasive-laden media (Jha and Jain, 2004). An
94 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

TABLE 5.3
Key Research Articles in Chemical Mechanical Polishing
Workpiece Abrasive Input
Authors Material Powder Parameters Inference
Pal et al. BK7 optical glass Cerium Normal load The friction coefficient determines the
(2018) oxide Polisher speed nature of material removal. At
(CeO2) Time high-speed ductile mode, ductile cum
powder Wear index brittle mode of material removal
(Rhodite mechanism was observed at the low
200) speed irrespective of the load. Further,
the friction coefficient suggests
mechanical action is dominant over
chemical reactions during polishing.
Pal et al. BK7 optical glass CeO2 Abrasive Abrasive concentration is the most
(2016) powder concentration significant parameter among input
Pressure parameters. The chemical mode of
Overarm speed material removal ensures no
redisposition of removed material forms
over the polished surface by the
dissolution process.
(Singh BK7 optical glass CeO2 Relative velocity Polishing kinematics greatly influence
et al., 12 mm thick powder Normal load the surface finish of the polished
2017a) 5% wt./vol Abrasive size surface. The relative velocity is the most
significant parameter, while the average
load affects the least. Small-size
abrasive particles yield in better surface
finish compared to a larger one.
Kumar and Soda-lime glass CeO2 Flow rate Speed and down pressure have the
Omkumar powder Speed maximum influence over the material
(2019) Down pressure removal rate and surface roughness,
(Ramesh Processing respectively. The 0.9924 mm2/min and
Kumar and 0.3925 μm are the best optimal response
Omkumar, values obtained using the hybrid
2019) Taguchi and ANOVA methodology.
(Xue et al., Chalcogenide Alumina Slurry The surface roughness can be improved
2019) glasses (Al2O3) composition with NaOH and H2O2 chemicals. The
Ge10As40Se50 1.0 μm surface defects are significantly reduced
(IG-4), at higher CMP slurry concentrations
(H2O2). The best surface roughness was
obtained at 0.292 nm at 20% wt. of H2O2.
(Singh Fused silica glass CeO2 Abrasive size The relative velocity and its interaction
et al., samples 100 mm powder Concentration with concentration are found to be
2017b) Relative velocity significant. The abrasion theory explains
the results obtained, but the chemical
aspect cannot be ignored. The best
surface roughness was received at 7 nm.
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 95

MR-polishing fluid used in the MRAFF process has rheological characteristics that
an external magnetic field can control. This method can smooth out complex interior
and external geometries with surface roughness values as low as nanometers.
The spherical shaped components are finished through a differently developed
process called magnetic flow polishing (MFP). The spherical shaped parts are not
processed through the aforementioned finishing techniques. In this process, mag-
netic field given to the abrasive slurry is utilized to finish the spherical components.

5.6 RESEARCH CHALLENGES OF ADVANCED

ABRASIVE-BASED FINISHING PROCESSES
The advanced abrasive-based finishing processes are effective nano-finishing tech-
niques; nevertheless, there are several unresolved issues. The phenomenon, cause,
and proposed solutions of various research challenges of advanced abrasive-based
finishing processes have been discussed in this section. In the AFM process, the fin-
ishing time is high. Externally viscosity of AFM media cannot be controlled. Higher
viscosity media are used where the passage is larger and where the passage is smaller
or around radius edges; lower viscosity media are used. Media viscosity changes with
change in shear rate, shear stress, media temperature, grain diameter, base medium,
or by changing the percentage concentration of abrasives. MRR and surface quality
improves with increased medium viscosity (Loveless et al., 1994). The AFM process
is not able to properly finish the blind holes, and also, its setup and media cost needs
high capital investment. The cost of viscoelastic carriers like silicon or polyborosil-
ixane (PBS) is too high, which makes the whole AFM media highly costly. In place
of these carrier media, natural rubber or butyl rubber media can be used, which is
easily available and has a low cost (Kar et al., 2009a). For controlling the viscosity of
AFM media, the proper percentage of the viscoelastic carrier should be mixed with
processing oil (turpentine oil); it is generally kept in between 2.5:1 ratio by weight.
The weight ratio of carrier media and abrasives also should be between 1:1 to 1.5:1
for proper maintenance of viscosity of media (Jain and Adsul, 2000). By optimiz-
ing the process parameters, the finishing time of the AFM process can be reduced
(Cheema et al., 2012). In MFAF processes, finishing time is also high. The MFAF
process, like MAF, can be difficult to implement in mass production operations due
to high finishing time (Mikno, 2018). In this MAF process, friction between magnetic
abrasive particles (MAPs) and walls of the container causes structural changes in IPs.
This changed IPs structure decreases the finishing performance due to a decrease in
their magnetization ability causing a reduction in the holding capacity of abrasives.
The higher rotational speed of the roller workpiece also reduces the finishing abil-
ity of MAF processing (Fox et al., 1994). As the rotational speed of the workpiece
increases, there will be less time available for the contact of MAPs with the roller
surface, which causes inappropriate finishing. The optimum rotational speed will
maintain the finishing efficiency and time. The other MFAF process, like MFP, is
mainly used for spherical ball polishing.
Certain modification in the MFP setup is needed for making it flexible for proper
polishing of other complex components. In place of vertical plane drive shafts, free-
form shafts can be used, which will be the same as the shape of the workpiece
96 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

(Umehara et al., 2006). This modification in the setup can make the MFP process
more flexible. MRFF processes take a higher amount of finishing time to polish
tough material; however, it takes less time to polish soft materials. High-quality
MRPFs are expensive (Jacobs et al., 1995; Golini et al., 1998). The machining setup
of the MRF process is complex for freeform optics polishing. Settling of ferro-
magnetic IPs in this MRF process is also a major problem. Stability issues are also
observed in the MRF processing. Stability is the resilience of MRPFs to endure
sedimentation and agglomeration of ferromagnetic particles. The suspension of
the ferromagnetic particles stays homogenous in the MRPF system, which keeps
sedimentation stability consistent. In the lack of a magnetic field, the capacity of
the MRPF to stay in a distributed state rather than agglomeration is referred to as
agglomerative stability. An additive is often used to improve sedimentation sta-
bility, such as when stearic acid is added (Barman and Das, 2018). The presence
of iron naphthalate and iron stearate increased the dispersibility of IPs (Nagdeve
et al., 2018b). By introducing nano-sized IPs with the micro-sized IPs in MRPF, the
yield stress and the sedimentation stability of the MRPF are improved. A common
method of controlling sedimentation is to use thixotropic agents and surfactants,
such as silica gel, stearates, xanthan gum, grease, and carboxylic acids. When flow is
disrupted at a lower shear rate, the thixotropic network shows excellent viscosity, but
when the shear rate is raised, the network becomes thinner. In addition, treating the
polishing particles with polymers may help to enhance the dispersion stability of the
MRPF particles (Kumar et al., 2019). In the MRF process, relatively higher power
is required. This process is generally not preferable for polishing the inner surface/
outer complex contour of the free-form component (Yang et al., 2017). In the CMRF
process, non-uniform corrosion layers are formed on SiC wafers at higher concentra-
tions of IPs, which ultimately reduces the finishing performance (Liang et al., 2016).
The proper use of a higher concentration of chemicals in CMRF polishing media
damages the workpiece surface and sometimes causes burning along the workpiece
surfaces (Liang et al., 2018). The handling of chemicals in the CMRF polishing
media is also a major problem (Kumari and Chak, 2018). During CMRF process-
ing, a caring environment is needed, where the operator has to definitely use safety
equipment. In the BEMRF process, continuous replenishment of MRPF is needed at
the cylindrical tool end (Saraswathamma et al., 2015). If MRPF at the tool end is not
replaced, then abrasives of MRPF get blunt, and it will not properly polish the work-
piece surface after a certain time. For solving this issue, a throughout circular hole
can be made at the center inside the BEMRF tool, where a pipe can be connected
to continuously flow the MPF from the media container. The heating of the electro-
magnet coil in the BEMRF processes causes a decrement in viscosity of MRPF, as
a consequence of which, the inappropriate development of a polishing brush at the
end of the cylindrical tool takes place (Khan and Jha, 2019). This issue could be
solved through the usage of a permanent magnet, where before using it, its magnetic
flux density distribution can be optimized using FEA based software like Ansys®
Maxwell. Also, to ensure that only polishing brush form at the end of the BEMRF
tool, a proper magnetic shielding material like Mu-metal can be used to make the
tool. Because of the spatial variation in magnetic field distributions (MFDs) along
workpiece surfaces, uniform polishing of free-form surfaces is difficult to achieve in
Advancement of Abrasive-Based Nano-Finishing Processes 97

the MRAFF method [44]. This spatial variation of MFDs is caused by the positions
of magnets from workpiece freeform surfaces, as the distance of each magnet is at
a different distance from each point on the workpiece surface. To avoid this issue, a
negative replica of workpiece profiles can be used as a fixture in the MRAFF method
(Barman and Das, 2017). This fixture will force the MRPF to uniformly pass across
each and every corner of the workpiece profiles for uniform finishing. After a large
number of finishing cycles, sedimentation issue in MRPF during the MRAFF pro-
cess occurs due to frictional heat generation, which decreases the viscosity of MRPF
(Kanthale and Pande, 2019). MRPF must be replaced after a certain amount of time.
One of the other issues is particle clogging in experimental setup fixtures when sub-
jected to a non-uniform magnetic field and instability in applied pressure. To avoid
this issue, some additives can be applied to MRPF (Jain, 2008). During the MRAFF
method of polishing hard materials, it was discovered that certain unnecessary shape
modifications occur mostly at the workpiece surface’s corner points and sharp edges
(Houshi, 2016). This may be attributed to instabilities in applied pressure during the
MRPF’s continuous to-and-fro movements. The MRAFF method often has diffi-
culty in polishing spherical components due to its free-from surfaces, which needs a
complex fixture design. To a certain extent, the composition of the MRPF shifts due
to the mixing of the workpiece’s induced nano chips during the MRAFF process.
MRAFF experiment setup is tedious in nature; due to this, sometimes leakage prob-
lem from the experimental setup occurs. For overcoming this issue, proper sealing
materials like rubber or gasket can be used (Nagdeve et al., 2018a). In the R-MRAFF
process, the off-state viscosity of MRPF increases at higher finishing cycles. As
the MRPF’s off-state viscosity increases, radial force and yield shear stress drop
as well reduce the MRR and surface finishing rate. One of the major problems in
the R-MRAFF and MRAFF process, for every differently shaped complex compo-
nent, a different fixture is needed. Higher rotational speed causes more vibration to
the R-MRAFF setup reducing finishing performance (Kanthale and Pande, 2019).
The higher rotational speed of magnets/workpiece causes the generation of large
centrifugation force and tangential force, which makes the abrasives break the IPs
chain and move freely without any polishing activity. An optimum rotational speed
is needed for maximizing the finishing performance. The optimum rotational speed
of magnets/workpieces varies from 80–100 rpm (Das et al., 2010; Das et al., 2012b).
Further, many other studies reported the post-processing over additive manufactured
substrates. For getting finished surfaces, several finishing and machining processes
have been implemented. In addition, while most post-processing procedures involve
a single finishing step, AM components can be completed with hybrid successive
operations, allowing manufacturers to make use of a variety of post-processing
methods without being constrained by any one of them.

5.7 CONCLUSIONS
In this article, the comprehensive discussion has been made to understand the abra-
sive-based finishing processes. The abrasive particle majorly plays an important role
in effective removal of material from the surface during finishing along with some
external actions like magnetic forces, mechanical forces, ultrasonic vibrations, etc.
98 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

The past research conducted in this domain has been discussed. The research gaps
have been drawn to explore the potential research areas. The following conclusions
may be drawn from the previous discussion.

• The primary manufacturing processes yield surface irregularities. The con-

ventional finishing is not able to finish the surface and remove all defects
including sub-aperture disparities.
• The advanced finishing can finish the surface with required accuracy and
precision at the micro and nano level.
• The AFM and its variants can achieve better surface compared to conven-
tional finishing operations with lower cost by controlling the process. The
process has potential applications in miniature applications such as MEMS/
MOEMS components.
• The magnetic field plays an important role in directing the abrasive cutting
forces during finishing at the micro and nano level. The pulsating effect
DC power and magnetic forces (electromagnet) considerably improve the
surface finish.
• Frictional force has an essential parameter in governing the material
removal rate (MRR) and surface integrity parameters. The CMP perfor-
mance is a semimanual skilled process, and finishing highly depends on
the handling of the machine.
• The disposal of abrasive media and slurry have a critical consequence to the
operator and environment. There is very limited research available on the
sustainability of the processes.

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Allen, D. (2003). The state of the art of photochemical machining at the start of the twenty-
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 6 Defects during
Conventional Machining
of Polymer Composites
A Review
Rahul Mehra, Santosh Kumar, Satish Kumar

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING OF

POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS

In recent times, replacing metallic machine components with composite materials has
been considered a viable solution to a number of problems, such as excessive metal
costs, rusting, and component weight. Composite materials with physical and mechan-
ical qualities that are comparable to or even better than those of metals are highly
encouraged in the current machining industry. (Sarde and Patil, 2019; Yahaya et al.,
2014; Hsissou et al., 2021)

However, polymer composite materials (PCMs) are acknowledged as a class of

materials that are challenging to machine (Valino et al., 2019; Sharma et al., 2022a,
2022b). Due of differences in filler and matrix phase characteristics, PCMs have sig-
nificant machining constraints (Shlykov et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2021). As dem-
onstrated in Figure 6.1, numerous non-traditional machining techniques have been
created for processing these materials to prevent such issues (Ablyaz et al., 2021).

FIGURE 6.1 Classifications of non-conventional machining techniques of PCMs.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-6 107

108 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Although non-conventional technologies like electrochemical and chemical pro-

cessing have several advantages over traditional machining techniques, they are
environmentally harmful (Sharma et al., 2018a, 2019a, 2019b, 2022). “The clay
bricks may be made more durable and stronger by reinforcing the clay with straw
and wood, as man learned long ago. Many naturally occurring composites (wood
and bones) are also available” (Ahmad, 2009). A lignin matrix holds strong cellulose
fibers together in wood. Bones are made up of short fragile collagen fibers that are
encased in a mineral matrix. Both wood and bones illustrate composite materials’
exceptional versatility and capability in bearing loads under a variety of circum-
stances. So far, composite materials have been defined as materials made up of two
or more elements (phases) that are macroscopically joined but not soluble in each
other. In civilian, aerospace and military applications, modern synthetic composites
with reinforcing fibers (one phase) and matrices (another phase) of various sorts have
been developed as metal replacement materials. The invention of carbon and boron
fibers in the 1960s was a watershed moment in the composites revolution (Boothroyd
and Knight, 1989).

These new fibers, which are stiffer than glass fibers, increased the rigidity of compos-
ite structures significantly. This growing adoption is due to the capacity to customise
these materials to specific demands as well as their better features. Carbon-fiber-
reinforced plastics were more appropriate for different applications, because of their
high strength & stiffness-to-weight ratio. Glass fibers’ better resilience to environ-
mental assault makes glass fiber reinforced polymers more appealing for maritime
applications, as well as the chemical and food sectors. (Chawla, 1987; Mathews and
Rawlings, 1994)

As a result, as indicated in Figure 6.2, the current review is separated into distinct
sections.

6.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Conventional machining of fiber composites like drilling, milling, turning, etc., has
been reviewed. Various researchers have investigated machining using different
mechanical properties like flexural strength, tensile strength, inter shear laminar
strength (ILSS), impact strength, etc. Meshram et al. (2018) compared the tensile

FIGURE 6.2 Classification of composites review area.

Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer Composites 109

strength and drilling thrust force between nylon reinforced composite and pure
epoxy (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3 shows tensile testing results. They concluded that the tensile strength
of nylon reinforced composites has enhanced mainly due to the nylon mat presence.

FIGURE 6.3 Tensile testing of nylon and pure epoxy.

110 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Moreover, there is not much variation in the values of thrust forces between nylon
reinforced and pure epoxy composites.
Thereafter, Nayak et al. (2014) carried out flexural testing on TiO2-, SiO2- and
Al2O3-reinforced glass fiber hybrid composites. It is quite clear from Figure 6.4 that
flexural strength and flexural modulus of SiO2-based epoxy composites are more as
compared to Al2O3 and titania-based composites. It is mainly due to the finer par-
ticle size of silica (Nayak et al., 2014).

FIGURE 6.4 Flexural testing of glass fiber using epoxy modifiers.

Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer Composites 111

FIGURE 6.5 Impact testing of various glass fibers.

Moreover, Suresh et al. (2017) measured impact strength of various composites

with varying weight percentage of epoxy, glass fiber, epoxy, glass fiber, titanium and
silicon powder (Figure 6.5).
It is quite clear from Figure 2.3 that 5% of silicon carbide composite have maxi-
mum impact strength.

6.3 DEFECTS DURING CONVENTIONAL

MACHINING OF COMPOSITES
The various problems arise during conventional machining of composites include
rapid tool wear, delamination, pull out of fiber, deformation and deterioration of the
machined surface (Abrate, 1997; Boldt and Chanani, 1987).
These machining problems also occur due to the fiber orientation of reinforced
composite with the matrix. Fiber placed in perpendicular direction results in large
number of fractures and chips, whereas in parallel orientation, good machining with
smooth surface is observed with small amount of cracks in it (Koplev et al., 1983).
The composite materials are basically non-homogeneous and mostly anisotropic.
The development of machining force and stresses during machining is majorly influ-
enced by the angle of fiber orientation.
The forces increase when the angle of fiber orientation is in between 0 to 60º,
decreases when it lies between 60 to 120º and again increases largely above 120º.
112 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

When the angle increases to 135º, the fiber is again subjected to bending and com-
pression in its opposite direction. The infringement of the fiber is majorly due to the
compression and bending. The minimum favorable orientation angles lie between
120º to 150º. The amicable angle for machining is 45º (Klocke et al., 1998; Dalai
and Ray, 2011).
Dalai and Ray (2011) carried out failure and fractography studies on FRP compos-
ites at various loading speeds. The extensive fiber/matrix de-bonding and fiber pull-
out occurs in glass/epoxy composite at higher crosshead speed. Moreover, increased
fiber/matrix adhesion also occurred due to thermal conductivity. Furthermore, the
angle of the tool is another favorable reason causing problems and defects during
conventional machining of the fiber composites. When the angle of the tool is <90º,
the workpiece is pressed by the machine in the direction perpendicular to axis, there-
fore the workpiece gets additional support by the material present at its back which
results in less bending of the fiber. Due to this tensile stress is also produced which
can easily fracture the brittle fiber material. Moreover, there is less damage to the
surface which leads to lesser amount of surface roughness. For the angles >90º, the
surface roughness is greatly increased due to increase in axial compression, bulged
fiber. When there is a large angle and with much deeper depth of cut, the adjacent
material to the workpiece becomes weak, resulting in bending and de-bonding of
the fiber composite, thereby causing poor surface finish along with huge amount of
damage to the inner surface of the fiber (Wang et al., 2011).
Various researchers have focused on turning of hard to cut materials. In this con-
text, Ramulu (1998) investigated that high tool wear rate (TWR) and poor surface
of FRPs occurred during turning with HSS and carbide as the tool materials. This
occurs mainly due to abrasive and inhomogeneous nature of material. Turning with
ceramic tooling is not recommended because of its low thermal conductivity. PCD
(polycrystalline diamond) has been used in turning of FRPs and shows satisfactory
but limited results due to its better tool geometry as compared to other turning tools.
Diamond abrasive cutters were also used during turning of extremely difficult to
machine GFRPs due to its tremendous abrasive nature (Faridnia et al., 1989).
Furthermore, turning operation was carried out on three different types of rein-
forced fiber composites (glass, carbon and aramid) using K20 tool made of car-
bide. It has been observed that reinforcements in the fiber were prominent reason for
the cracks or rupture, deformation, delamination and shearing during the material
removal mechanism (Srivatsan and Bowden, 1992).
Moreover, variation in temperature is noticed during turning of fiber reinforce-
ment composite (Sreejith et al., 1998). At 100 mm/min turning speed, minimum rise
in temperature has been observed, whereas, at higher turning speeds, greater rise in
temperature has been observed.
Various authors have also focused on milling operation of FRPs. It has been
observed that during milling operation, low volume ratio is removed as compared
to conventional drilling. Due to this reason, milling operation is considered more fit
than the drilling for high-speed machining and low feed rates (Ali et al., 2013). Also,
the quality of machining surface is deeply affected by the abrasive nature and fric-
tion between the workpiece and the tool. Machining parameters combinations like
low feed and high speed even leads to the chipping and melting of matrix or can even
Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer Composites 113

burn. The thermal stress produced on the tools during the machining is a serious
problem while using small diameter tools. FRPs are low thermal conductivity mate-
rials and have to absorb large amounts of heat generated during the conventional
milling operation. Therefore, if the ability of the tool to absorb the generated heat is
low, there is increase in large amount of friction, resulting in high thermal stresses,
greater tool wear along with unsafe operational conditions.
During grinding of reinforced fibers, huge amount of problems like fiber pullout,
delamination, flaming and rough projections like burrs and burning is observed.
With deeper depth of grinding, more damage is done to the material surface.
Therefore, grinding operation leads to large problems as compared to other conven-
tional machining processes (Hu and Zhang, 2001). Kim and Lee (2005) uses dry and
wet grinding conditions for grinding the reinforced composites. During the experi-
mentation, the direction of fiber orientation was kept parallel and perpendicular. The
rise in temperature was observed more up to 280ºC in dry condition, which causes
matrix degradation. Therefore, to avoid this wet condition is more preferred. The
temperature during the wet condition reaches minimum up to 60ºC, which in turn
helps to avoid the degradation and higher surface roughness. Therefore, grinding
process is more preferred for machining of reinforced materials and possesses high
resistance to heat (Tonshoff et al., 1998).
Various researchers have focused on drilling of FRPs. Due to in-homogeneous
and anisotropical nature of fiber reinforced material, drilling also raises particular
issues related to damages like peel up at entrance, peel out at exit, inter laminar
cracking, matrix de-bonding, etc. Due to these problems and defects, the tool wear
rate is very high which can affect the production rate (Persson et al., 1997; Hamdoun
et al., 2004).
Delamination occurs between the adjacent layers in the intra laminar parts of the
material. The defect not only depends upon the character of the fiber material but
also upon the epoxy and its properties. Mechanism of delamination is character-
ized into two types, viz. peel-up delamination mechanism at entrance and push-out
delamination at exit. Mechanism of peel up is caused by drilling up thrust forces
which pushes the abraded material to the surface. In the initial phase, the cutting
edge will erode the laminate, and as the drill starts to move deeper in the surface,
the material will start spiraling up before the actual drilling takes place. This will
create an upward peeling force which will split the plate of the laminas. On the other
hand, push-out mechanism is the drilling resultant of compressive thrust force which
always exerts downwards pressure. The drill bit after crossing the upper plies breaks
the inter laminar bond in the region of the hole and tends to approach at the other
end of the material surface. At this point, the downwards thrust force of the drill
overpowers the strength of fiber bonding and completely penetrates into the other
side of the composite material (Hocheng and Dharan, 1990).
As a result, there are various types of drilling like pilot hole drilling, backup drill-
ing in which special drill bits made of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) and carbide
are used to avoid delamination and tool wear which generally happens due to the
high abrasiveness of the composite fiber. But this also leads to increase in the overall
cost of the drilling and makes the production process more expensive (Taylor, 2000;
Schulze et al., 2011).
114 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Another severe issue with machining of FRC is the formation of dust leading
to rigorous health problems for both humans as well as for machines and requir-
ing extra caution while extracting and filtrating (Tandon et al., 1990; Lemma et al.,
2002).
The thermal stresses developed while drilling also assist in the delamination defect
by softening of the matrix material. De-bonding, tearing of fiber and inter laminar
cracks of the are also observed along the side walls fiber and matrix. Composites
due to less thermal conductivity and high abrasive nature cause heating of the tool,
resulting in heavy tool wear. While drilling epoxy, almost 50% of thermal energy
is absorbed by the tool and the rest is uniformly absorbed by workpiece and chips
formation during the machining. While drilling metals, 75% is eliminated with chips
formation, 18% by tool and the rest 7% by workpiece. Circularity of the hole should
be observed after the drilling process is completed because it has the possibility of
the drilled hole to cause the deformation of the hole. It has the tendency to again
return to its original position, causing tightening of the hole around the drilling area.
Anisotropy is the major cause for this defect in the composite material while conven-
tional drilling. These aforementioned problems and defects are very much account-
able for the rejection of the part production which leads to increase in the overall cost
of the product (Piquet et al., 2000).
Moreover, the grinding variables also have an effect on the grinding chips in
grinding of two-dimensional carbon/silicon carbide composite (Liu et al., 2017).
Furthermore, various researchers performed drilling of GFRPs with HSS drills.
In this context, Tagliaferri et al. (1990) analyzed that damage is done due to the varia-
tion in feed and cutting speed. Thereafter, a number of GFRP plates were drilled by
Bongiorno et al. (1998) using 5 mm diameter HSS drills. Results revealed that various
cracks along the machined holes were formed that greatly affects the fatigue property
of the material. Therefore, cracking can be avoided by using low feed rate and support
plates at the back, resulting in reduction in push-out defects. An experimental study
on GFRPs has been done to examine the outcome of process parameters like speed
and feed on thrust force and delamination (Khashaba, 1996). The result shows that
the process of push-out delamination is more rigorous than the peel up. Also, the size
of delamination area increases with the rise in feed and decreasing speed. The change
in matrix material and orientation causes great effect on the delamination (Sonbaty
et al., 2004; Velayudham et al., 2005). The thrust forces and torque were used as the
processing parameters. The result shows that huge amount of delamination occurred
at higher torque. During drilling with carbide tools, surface roughness (SR), thrust
force and other damages were also analyzed by Davim et al. (2004). Results show
that the SR rises with the increase of feed rate and diminishes in the cutting speed.
The machining of hybrid GFRPs is difficult due to their non-homogeneous struc-
ture and harder reinforcements. Conventional methods like milling, drilling and turn-
ing are not able to machine these types of advanced materials (Mathews and Rawling,
1999; Nayak et al., 2014; Bhoopathi et al., 2014). Various problems like tool wear, low
surface quality, de-lamination, pulling out of fiber and matrix recession may occur
during machining of these types of materials. This is also mainly due to high disas-
sociation temperature and high thermal conductivity (Muller and Monaghan, 2000;
Birhan and Ekici, 2010; Liu et al., 2012; Kashwani and Al-Tamimi, 2014).
Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer Composites 115

6.4 NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

OF POLYMER COMPOSITES
The carbon is frequently combined with a matrix such as resin, metal or ceramic
to make a structural composite due to its appealing qualities, which include low-
density and high-density modulus and strength, low thermal expansion coefficient,
high thermal conductivity, etc. The use of fiber-reinforced composites is currently
widespread in numerous industries. The schematics illustration of FRCs (Du et al.,
2019) is shown in Figure 6.6.
The CFRCs is widely employed in aircraft, advanced structural, energy, break
system, defense applications, etc., owing to its low weight, corrosion resistance,
chemical stability, wear resistance, specific strength, etc. (Du et al., 2019).
Problems and defects as discussed in the previous literature related to conven-
tional machining can be minimized to a great extent by using non-conventional
machining methods. It is very much necessary to understand the various alterna-
tive non-conventional machining methods to achieve better and optimized results,
including good surface finish.
There are various reasons like abrasiveness, poor machinability, high hardness,
cracks, stresses and lower thermal resistance which arise the need to use the advanced
machining techniques.

FIGURE 6.6 The schematic illustrations of FRCs.

116 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

To obtain complex shape, high precision accuracy in small or micro parts and
better surface finish, non-conventional methods are in much demand. The various
alternative non-conventional methods which can be used are ultrasonic machining
(USM), chemical machining (CM), etc.
The development of micro features on polymer materials can be done using a
variety of manufacturing processes (Rawal et al., 2022) as shown in Figure 6.7.
Many of these procedures call for additional steps to render the final result use-
ful. The total cost of production goes higher as a result of some procedures requiring
expensive initial setup fees and specialized environments like vacuum chambers and
clean rooms. Due to material ablation, laser processing results in uneven polymer
composition and non-uniform micro channel surface. Hazardous chemicals are used
in the chemical process. As a result, traditional micro machining techniques like
micro drilling/milling can efficiently and quickly produce complex shapes (Malayath
et al., 2019).
Minimum chip thickness, workpiece microstructure, tool edge radius, specific
cutting force, surface quality and dynamic instability are a few of the crucial vari-
ables [64]. Surface finish, machinability and material removal rate are three met-
rics that can be used to assess how well the machining performed. In the fish bone

FIGURE 6.7 Various micromachining processes for polymer materials.

Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer Composites 117

diagram (Figure 6.8), various process variables that affect how polymer composites
are machined are depicted (Rawal et al., 2022).
The different properties of the different materials decide the applicability of using
that advance machining process. All conventional processes are not able to machine
the polymer composites owing to the presence of hard reinforcements. As a result,
it is very important to understand the machining nature and purpose of both the
materials and machine. Therefore, non-conventional machining methods has been
adopted by various small- and large-scale industries due to its various advance fea-
tures like noncontact of tool with the workpiece, can machine the hard composite
and fragile parts like glass, use of simple clamping devices, high-energy density of
up to 106 W/mm2, etc. This causes vaporization of the material at the localized areas
which helps in reduction of the heat-affected zone. Figure 6.9 shows the cause-and-
effect diagram for laser beam machining to achieve higher quality products.
The thermal non-conventional method like laser-based machining has been con-
sidered the best alternative for machining the hard to cut materials (Maclean et al.,
2018; Joshi and Sharma, 2018). Various authors have also used thermal and physical
surface modification techniques such as thermal spray coatings. These also enhanced
the erosion, corrosion and wear resistance of the machined surface (Bedi et al., 2019;
Kumar and Kumar, (2018); Kumar et al., 2019a, 2019 b, 2020a ,2021).
This study provides a comprehensive view of the composite materials and their
machining processes, whereas, some other trending machining processes and addi-
tive manufacturing processes provide details about the defects and damages dur-
ing these processes. Several machinability criteria (i.e. cutting forces, tool wear,
delamination and surface finish) were reported for getting required machined sub-
strates (Akhai and Rana, 2022; Babbar et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d, 2021,
2022; Kalia et al., 2022; Khanduja et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2021b, 2021c; Prakash
et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021; Rana and Akhai, 2022; Sharma et al., 2018b, 2019c,

FIGURE 6.8 Fish bone chart illustrating various factors that affects the machining of poly-
mer composite.
118 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 6.9 Cause-effect diagram of laser beam machining.

2020a, 2020b, 2021a, 2021b, 2022c, 2022d, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c; Sharma and Jain,
2020; Sharma, V.K. et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2021, 2022, 2023).

6.5 CONCLUSIONS
In this present research scenario, machining of advanced fiber-reinforced materi-
als still requires a very big challenge while machining with conventional methods.
In addition, the industrial cost of cutting such materials by traditional methods is
also high due to shorter tool life and other tool-based problems. Therefore, from
the outcome, it has been concluded that the various problems like tool wear, fiber
pullout, fiber fracture, delamination, etc., arises while machining of the compos-
ite materials with conventional methods can be minimized to much greater extent
by using non-conventional processes, which are in great demand for the machining
of composites. The non-conventional process majorly uses thermal energy as the
source of heat for melting or vaporizing the surface material to get the desired result.
It has been observed that various research works have been performed by using non-
conventional machining which shows great results, including high material removal
rate, low surface roughness along with fine precision. Moreover, the combination
Defects during Conventional Machining of Polymer Composites 119

of various process parameters to machine hybrid polymers using non-conventional

machining provides all the necessary outcomes which helps in getting the desired
values at its best which has not been reported till yet by conventional methods.

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 7 Optimization of
Machining Parameter
Using Electric Discharge
Machining on Fabricated
Aluminium-Based Metal
Matrix Composite
Rajinder Kumar, Navdeep Singh,
Harish Kumar Garg

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the recent era of technology, the demands for metal matrix composite materi-
als are rapidly increased due to their high corrosion-resistance property and good
machineability. Due to this, it is mostly used in the field of aircraft, aerospace, and
automotive industries. But it is very difficult to machine these composite materials
by traditional machining methods (Gupta et al., 2014; Srivastava et al., 2014; Nag
et al., 2018; Jha et al., 2014). The constituents of composites are called the individual
material that makes up them. The advantages of metal matrix composite are having
a lower coefficient of thermal expansion with high stiffness and specific strength and
better fatigue resistance. Composites are not only used for their properties but they
are also used to enhance their structural properties. The composite is defined as fol-
lows: “The composites are compound materials which differ from alloys by the fact
that the individual components retain their characteristics but are so incorporated
into the composite as to take advantage only of their attributes and not of their short-
comings” (Verma et al., 2013).
One of the most recently created materials, metal matrix composites are presently
attracting the attention of industries due to their exceptional mechanical qualities.
However, due to severe tool erosion, it is highly challenging to manufacture such materi-
als using a conventional machine. Through the non-conventional machining technique,
such an issue may be shorted out. Therefore, non-conventional machining is best suited
to mill the aforementioned materials. Spark erosion machining (EDM) is the most
used non-conventional machining method for such materials (Rizwee & Rao, 2021;
Rizwee et al., 2021). A crucial non-traditional technology known as electric discharge

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-7 125

126 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

machining (EDM) is widely used to manufacture a variety of challenging materials,

including heat-treated tool steels, composites, ceramics, carbides, and heat-resistant
steels with convoluted shapes (Gupta & Kumar, 2021).
EDM is a well-liked non-traditional machining technique that can produce
intricate forms. In EDM, the only requirement is that the workpiece is electrically
conducting (Trzepiecinski et al., 2022; Maurya et al., 2022). Because copper has a
superior surface polish, a higher MRR, a lower diametric overcut, and less electrode
wear than other tool electrode materials, copper electrodes provide relatively low
electrode wear for aluminium workpieces (Singh et al., 2004) . The significant local-
ized stress caused by the high-temperature differential created at the inter- electrode
gap led to material removal (Yadav et al., 2002). Therefore, modeling, simulation,
and optimization are the three important issues for manufacturing a product. Out
of these three approaches for any non-traditional machining, it is very essential to
optimize the machining parameters. The optimization not only increases the util-
ity for the economics of machining but also increases the product quality to a great
extent. EDM is a precision machining process used to machine complex or simple
geometries within parts and assemblies. The effects of control parameters such as
pulse-on time, pulse-off time, and current on the material removal rate over the
machining of metal matrix composites with regards to electric discharge machining
were investigated, where crushed ash of mustard husk and SiC as reinforcement with
the aid of Taguchi L18 orthogonal array. Two different types of tool electrodes such
as copper and brass were used to conduct the comparative study (Choudhary, 2019).
Current, pulse-on, and pulse-off times, as well as the gap voltage, were used as
input parameters, while MRR was set as the output parameter. The study found that
voltage has a very small impact on the material’s MRR. Additionally, it was shown
that the MRR is mostly affected by the current and pulse-on time. MRR decreased as
pulse-off time was lengthened (Singh & Maharana, 2020). The effect of current (I),
voltage (V), and pulse on-time (Ton) on the cutting rate and surface finishing during
machining Al 7075-B4C. Results found that beyond the mentioned control param-
eters possess a higher cutting rate and poor surface finish (Gopalakannan et al., 2012).
It was discovered that when flushing pressure, supply current, and pulse duration rise,
so does the rate of material removal. Additionally, the rate of tool wear increases pro-
portionally as supply current increases and decreases in proportion to pulse-on time.
Conducted studies using grey relational analysis on Al6061 reinforced with Al2O3.
The Al6061-Al2O3 composite’s MRR and surface roughness were mostly affected by
the pulse current (Hourmand et al., 2019).
The Al 20Mg2Si composite was produced by melting a commercially available
ADC12 alloy (Al 11.7Si-2Cu) using a 2 kg SiC crucible in an induction furnace. After
melting, pure aluminium (99.7 wt %) and pure magnesium (99.9 wt %) were added to
adjust the composite composition (Hourmand et al., 2019). The prediction accuracy of
the ANN model is almost three times better than that of the response surface method-
ology. The percentage of error in the ANN prediction of MRR was found to be around
5.25%, while for the RSM model, it was more than 15% (Shandilya et al., 2013),
optimizing the EDM of the 8% SiC/Al6061 composite. The work used Box-Behnken
design (BBD) for the experimental design and response surface methodology (RSM)
for the mathematical model. Current, pulse-on time, and duty cycle were the input
Optimization of Machining Parameter 127

parameters used. The material removal rate (MRR), electrode wear rate (EWR), and
surface roughness of the machined specimen were all examined in this work. The
current predominated the fluctuation in MRR (Srivastava et al., 2021). MRR increases
as voltage rises from 40 V to 50 V. Additionally, when the voltage is raised from 50
to 60 volts, MRR first rises before beginning to fall (Singh et al., 2021). The environ-
mental impact of hydrocarbon-based dielectric versus green dielectrics like water, dry
EDM, and near-dry EDM has been examined, along with the sustainability of EDM
(Kalyon & Fatatit, 2019; Evertz et al., 2006).
Using the multi-response function of the RSM approach, WEDM parameters like
MRR and Kerf width were optimized. It was located that the main factors influenc-
ing material removal rate and kerf breadth are peak current, gap voltage, and duty
cycle (Singh et al., 2021). It was also observed that a higher value of current causes
frequent wire breakage during cutting (Bobbili et al., 2015). Chaudhari et al. (2020)
worked on the surface analysis of shape memory alloy by WEDM. They found that
defect-free and better surface finish obtained at optimized values of current, pulse-
on time, and pulse-off time. For varying pulse on time and wire tension, the wire
electrical discharge machining (EDM) of 6061 aluminium alloy was examined in
terms of material removal rate, kerf/slit width, surface finish, and electrode wire
wear. It appears that increased wire tension makes machining more stable, which
results in less wire electrode wear and greater surface smoothness. Constant dielec-
tric fluid supply pressure and specimen thickness were used (Pramanik et al., 2015).
A fascinating recent development in stir casting is a two-step mixing process. In this
process, the matrix material is heated above its liquidus temperature initially. It is
then kept at a temperature halfway between the liquidus and solidus points to main-
tain its semi-solid state. Now add and combine the warmed reinforcement particles
(Singla et al., 2009), developing a composite of aluminium 6063 reinforced with 5%
SiC (30 mm in size). The outcome revealed that the fabricated MMC had increased
toughness and strength. Further, the authors studied the effectiveness of MMC pro-
duced using EDM. The results concluded that all the input parameters have a positive
effect on the MRR (Srivastava, 2020).
There is a fresh wave of change sweeping through the manufacturing sector. The
manufacturing sector is no exception to the rule that technological progress and
innovation go hand in hand. These additive and subtractive manufacturing devel-
opments are motivated by a variety of factors, including financial and ecological
considerations. The future of manufacturing, including the functions of additive and
subtractive methods, is laid bare by this study (Akhai & Rana, 2022; Babbar et al.,
2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d, 2021, 2022; Kalia et al., 2022; Khanduja et al., 2021;
Kumar et al., 2021; Parikh et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021;
Rana & Akhai, 2022; Sharma et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2019a, 2019b, 2020a, 2020b,
2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2023a, 2023b; Sharma & Jain, 2020;
Sharma V K et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2022, 2023).
The composite is produced by the stir casting method (SCM). To find out the SiC
particles distribution in the Al matrix of the composites (as-cast), an optical micro-
scope was used (Shehata et al., 2012). The process conditions, such as the stirring
speed and the fixed temperature, can have an impact on the mechanical proper-
ties when this approach is used (Ibrahim et al., 2022). The machining properties of
128 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

an aluminium-based metal matrix composite were examined by utilizing the EDM

method and aluminium powder (average particle size of 15 μm) in a kerosene-based
dielectric medium and discovered that the MRR is improved when aluminium powder
is added to the dielectric medium (Talla et al., 2015). Adding powder to the dielectric
fluid to better the machining process could affect or improve the effectiveness of the
fluid. The effects depend on the type of powder and its concentration (Abukhshim
et al., 2006). De-ionized water is used as a dielectric fluid, and brass wire of 0.25
mm diameter is used as an electrode. At first, we conducted experiments to identify
the parameters that affect material removal rate and surface roughness. The analysis
was carried out using the statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique (Rani
et al., 2017). The influence of four machining parameters (duty cycle, pulse duration,
discharge current, and flushing pressure) and two material parameters (mesh size and
weight fraction of silicon carbide in the composite) on the material removal rate has
been analyzed by repeated experiments carried out on the workpieces. The average
values of the key machining parameters were obtained in the present study (Puhan
et al., 2013). Electrode wear rate is high in micro EDM due to short pulse duration.
They investigated how materials used for the tool electrodes affect wear and the surface
formation process (Uhlmann & Roehner, 2008). In comparison to typical manufactur-
ing methods, this results in less tool wear. The material is removed in the presence of
the dielectric medium by creating carefully controlled electrical discharges between
the tool and the workpiece (Wasif et al., 2022).

7.2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL

7.2.1 FABRICATION OF WORK MATERIALS
Work materials in this investigation are the aluminium (Al6061) based MMC which
was fabricated with the aid of the stir casting technique. The chemical composi-
tion of Al6061 is given in Table 7.1. Silicon carbide particles (SiC) and alumina
(Al2O3) act as a reinforcement and are the major constitute with the proportion of
Al:SiC:Al2O3 = 80:16:4 respectively.
Firstly, the aluminium was converted to molten form by placing the solid materi-
als into the furnace. On the flip side, the reinforcement materials were preheated at
630°C for three hours separately in another furnace (Kumar et al., 2016). The MMCs
were prepared under the temperature of 750°C, and molten metal with reinforcement
was mixed with the help of a motor stirrer. The speed of the motor is maintained
at 500 RPM for three hours to become a homogeneous mixture. Further, the mould

TABLE 7.1
Chemical Composition of Al6061
Element Al Mg Cu Zn Si Fe Mn Cr Others Ti
Max Rest 0.81–1.21 0.15–0.40 Max 0.41–0.82 Max Max 0.04–0.35 0.05 Max
Weight (%) 0.25 0.71 0.15 0.15
Optimization of Machining Parameter 129

FIGURE 7.1 Pictorial view of equipment used during the casting process.

was preheated at 500°C temperature for 30 minutes and then obtained molten metal
is poured into the mould of the desired shape to obtain uniform solidification and
avoid the oxidation during the pouring of molten metal in it. However, the solidifica-
tion of molten metal carried under room temperature. After the turning operation,
workpieces were divided into a number of pieces having a diameter of 44 mm and a
height of 15 mm.

7.2.2 PROPERTY ANALYSIS OF AL/(SICP + AL2O3P)—MMC

Hybrid metal matrix composites are a diverse class of materials in which all con-
stituents maintain their identity, as they do not dissolve or melt in each other and
act in such a way that a new material results whose properties are better than the
sum of their constituents. The addition of graphite in Al/SiC MMC put a significant
effect on the properties of the casted composite specimens. Following are the tests
performed to check the mechanical properties of the cast specimen.

7.3 TENSILE TEST

A tensile test on the prepared sample of length 200 mm and diameter 10 mm was
conducted using comprised UTM machine of capacity 400 KN, make mechatronics.
A tensile test was performed three times on material of the same composition and
dimensions to have accurate results (Table 7.2). Specimen testing before and after
tensile testing is shown in Figure 7.2 and Figure 7.3.

TABLE 7.2
Tensile Strength of the Aluminium/(SiCp + Al2O3) Hybrid Composite
Avg. Tensile Percentage
Material Sample 1 (MPa) Sample 2 (MPa) Sample 3 (MPa) Strength (MPa) Elongation
Al/16% SiCp + 260 262 256 259.33 3.8
4% Al2O3p
130 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 7.2 Specimen of MMC in desire shape before tensile test.

FIGURE 7.3 Specimen of MMC in desire shape after tensile test.

7.4 DENSITY TEST

Density is a measure of the “compactness” of matter within a substance. The hydrom-
eter measures density directly. An object that is less dense than a liquid will float in
that liquid density to a depth such that the mass of the object submerged equals the
mass of the liquid displaced (Archimedes’ principle).
Density measurements were carried out on the base metal and reinforced sam-
ples using the Archimedes’ principle. This method of density measurement simply
involves weighing the sample in air and another fluid of known density. Application
of Archimedes’ principle leads to the following expression for the density (ρmmc)
of the composites:

ρmmc = m1/(m1—m2) ρw g/cm3

Optimization of Machining Parameter 131

Where m1 is the mass of the composite sample in air, m2 is the mass of the same
composite sample in distilled water, and ρw is the density of the distilled water. The
density of distilled water at 20ºC is 998 kg/m3.

7.4.1 PROCEDURE FOLLOWED TO MEASURE DENSITY

Weigh and record the mass of the composite sample of cylindrical shape using a
precise weighing machine with 0.001g least count. Calculate the volume of the com-
posite cylinder by measuring (in cm) the height (h) and diameter (d) of the metal
cylinder and then applying the formula: volume (cc) = h x 0.785d2. Also, measure
the volume of the composite cylinder by displacement of water in a 50 ml graduated
cylinder. Calculate the density of the composite cylinder for each method of measur-
ing volume.
Area of circle ¼ πd2, where d = diameter and π = 3.14159 volume of a cylinder =
area of base x height. Using this method, the densities of the base metal and hybrid
composites were measured. The density of stir cast Al/16wt%SiC/4wt%Al2O3-
MMC. Table 7.3 represent the value of density which is calculated by using the den-
sity measurement apparatus. From the sample, density is measured at three different
times and the average value is calculated by the sum of the measured value divided
by the number of tests performed.

7.5 HARDNESS TEST

During microhardness testing, a Vickers (DPH) diamond indenter is pressed into
the material’s surface with a penetrator and a light load of up to 1,000 grams. The
result of applying the load with a penetrator is an indent or permanent deformation
of the material surface caused by the shape of the indenter. Vickers hardness test
methods use specific measurements from the indent, in conjunction with formulas
to calculate material hardness. Accurate measurement of the resulting indentation
requires the use of a special microhardness-testing microscope because the indents
are so small. For this study, test specimen of Al/16wt%SiC/4wt%Al2O3-MMC com-
position is used to check microhardness by a highly precised microhardness tester
by Mitutoyo (Figure 7.4) at NITTTR, Chandigarh. Before the test specimen was
polished from both sides using diamond paste, a load of 200 g was applied for ten
seconds. A square indentation was formed on the workpiece, and by measuring the
distance between opposite corners of the indentation, the final reading for hardness
was on the screen. Tests were performed three times at different locations to have the

TABLE 7.3
Density of Aluminium/(SiCp + Al2O3) Hybrid Composite
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
Material (g/cm3) (g/cm3) (g/cm3) Avg. Density
Al/16% SiCp + 4 % Al2O3 p 2.82 2.85 2.80 2.82 g/cm3
132 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 7.4 Microhardness tester (Mitutoyo).

TABLE 7.4
Microhardness of Aluminium/(SiCp + Al2O3) Hybrid Composite
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Avg. Hardness
Material (HV) (HV) (HV) (HV)
Al/16wt%SiC/4wt%Al2O3-MMC 118 119 123 120

correct value of hardness. The average microhardness of the tested sample is 120 HV
(Table 7.4), whereas the hardness of the base metal is 107 HV (ASM material data).

7.6 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PROCEDURE

In this analysis, the experiment was taken into account during the process of electric
discharge machining (CMAX S645) of metal matrix composite. It is an advanced
CNC type of sinker EDM machine having features with three-dimensional (3D)
mode motion machining. The six axes are controllable with C, A, and B axes that
serve as optional electrode heads.
A 0.025 mm gap is maintained between the workpiece and tool. Moreover, for
automation, it can be connected to the robot’s hand, and the electrodes can be replaced
by the hand of the robot. For the smooth function of the process consideration of
dielectric fluid, EDM oil (flash point = 94°C, specific gravity = 0.763) was taken.
A copper cylinder bar that has a diameter of 12 mm was used in the experiment.
Moreover, the use of a digital weighing machine (least count = 0.1 mg) after each
run to measure the surface roughness and material removal rate was measured with
a surface roughness device having a model INSIZE ISR-S400. Figure 7.5 shows the
detail of the electric discharge machine and the operation performed by it.
Optimization of Machining Parameter 133

FIGURE 7.5 Casted, machined workpiece, copper tool, and electric discharge machine.

TABLE 7.5
Experimental Parameters and Their Levels
Level

S. No. Parameter Notation Unit −1 0 1

1 Pulse-on time (Ton) A μs 30 60 90

2 Pulse-off time (Toff) B μs 30 60 90
3 Current (I) C A 6 7 8
4. Voltage (V) D V 10 12 14

To attain the best staging of the EDM process and to ensure that the results are
predictable, parametric design is necessary and involves characterizing multiple pro-
cess responses, such as surface finish, material removal rate, surface integrity and
tool wear rate, heat affected zone, etc., concerning different machining parameters,
like peak current, pulse-on time, pulse-off time, gap voltage, duty factor, dielectric
flushing pressure, dielectric fluid, etc. The study found that different combinations
of EDM process parameters are needed to achieve a higher MRR and lower SR. In
this investigation, pulse-on time, pulse-off time, peak current, and gap voltage are
selected as numeric factors. Table 7.5 shows the experiment parameter and their level.

7.7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This study presents the effects of different processing parameters on the surface
roughness and removal rate of an electrical discharge machining (EDM) process.
Pulse-on time, pulse-off time, current, and voltage were varied, while EDM experi-
ments were conducted to analyze how they affect the response of surface roughness
and material removal rate. In order to identify the main parameters (significant) as well
as the interaction effect of process parameters, analysis of acquired data is important.
Design expert 7.0.0® software was used to check the adequacy of the model. To check
the acceptability of the model, ANOVA technique was used, as lack of fit and model
134 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

summary statistics. Single objective optimization is done using design expert 7.0.0®
software. The following results have been drawn from the experiments.

7.7.1 PARAMETRIC INTERACTION EFFECT ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS HEIGHT

EDM is known for its accuracy and high surface quality. A good response output is
an interaction effect of input parameters. Given next are some graphs for the signifi-
cant interaction effect.
Figure 7.6 represent the interaction effect of pulse-on time and pulse-off time,
reflecting that surface quality deteriorates at higher values of pulse-on time, whereas
with the increase in pulse-off time, there is a significant improvement in surface
quality. From the plot, it may experimentally prove that with the interaction of both
pulse-on time and pulse-off time, a lower value of pulse-on time and a higher value
of pulse-off time may lead to higher surface quality.
Surface roughness decreases, whereas pulse-off time goes higher at a constant
value of pulse-on time. At higher values of pulse-off time and lower values of pulse-
on time, the surface roughness was found to be decreased. Whereas a lower value
of both pulse-on time and current leads to better surface quality. From Figure 7.7,
surface roughness has been found to be high at a higher value of both pulse-on time
and current. Whereas, surface quality is best at lower values of both current (I) and
pulse-on time (Ton). Lower the duration of spark time (pulse-on time) and low inten-
sity of the energy (current) result in lower surface roughness.

FIGURE 7.6 Interaction effect of pulse-off time and pulse-on time on surface roughness height.
Optimization of Machining Parameter 135

FIGURE 7.7 Interaction effect of current and pulse-on time on surface roughness height.

Surface roughness is also a strong function of voltage (V) and pulse-off time
(Toff ). From Figure 7.8, it is observed that surface roughness is higher at the
increased value of pulse-off time and raised value of voltage. With the interaction
of both pulse-off time and voltage, a lower value of pulse-off time and voltage
may lead to lower surface roughness. Surface roughness value is minimum at a
low value of voltage and current, Figure 7.9 (i.e. at 3 V and 5.5 A). Thereafter, the
roughness height increases on an increase in current and voltage. High voltage
and higher value of current (intensity of energy discharge) result in high surface
roughness.

7.8 PARAMETRIC INTERACTION EFFECT ON MRR

There is a notable effect of the interaction of process parameters on MRR.
From Figure 7.10, it is clear that MRR (material removal rate) is increasing with an
increase in pulse-on time and decreases with an increase in pulse-off time. Although
with the interaction of both pulse-off time and pulse-on time, the pulse-off time has
little impact and pulse-on time has a greater impact. Also, pulse-off time has a little
slope as compared to pulse-on time with respect to MRR. The high impact of the
pulse-on time as compared to the pulse-on time over the MRR is only caused by the
high time interval of spark produced during the machining.
Figure 7.11 shows the interaction between the pulse-on time (Ton) and voltage (V)
over the MR (material removal) rate. From the graph, it is clearly observed that as
the pulse-on time as well as voltage increases, the material removal rate increases,
136 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 7.8 Interaction effect of pulse-off time and voltage on surface roughness.

FIGURE 7.9 Interaction effect of current and voltage on surface.

Optimization of Machining Parameter 137

FIGURE 7.10 Interaction effect of pulse-on time and pulse-off time on MRR.

FIGURE 7.11 Interaction effect of pulse-on time and voltage on MRR.

138 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

where the pulse-on time has a higher impact as compared to the voltage on MRR.
For the higher MRR, a high pulse-on time and high voltage range may be selected.
Figure 7.12 shows the interaction between the voltage and pulse-off time
over the MRR. Reverse trends have been found over the MRR. Pulse-off time is
inversely proportional to the MRR, whereas the voltage is directly proportional
to MRR.
As the pulse-off time increases, the spark interval decreases, which further leads
to a lower rate of deformation of the materials. With the interaction of both pulse-off
time and current, a higher value of voltage and lower pulse-off time are suggested
for higher MRR.
Figure 7.13 shows the interaction effect of the current and voltage over the MRR.
Both the voltage and current are directly proportional to the MRR. As both volt-
age and current increases, the MRR increases. High intensity of the spark (peak
current) as well as the high voltage results in a higher MRR. For high material
removal rate, the selection of higher value for both current and voltage have been
suggested.

7.8.1 SINGLE OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION FOR SR

Surface quality is the most prominent factor in product manufacturing. As far
as single objective optimization is concerned, this can be achieved at low MRR
given next is a predicted set of parametric values for the optimal value of surface
quality.

FIGURE 7.12 Interaction effect of current and voltage on MRR.

Optimization of Machining Parameter 139

FIGURE 7.13 Interaction effect of current and pulse-off time on MRR.

TABLE 7.6
Single Objective Optimization for SR Using Desirability Approach
Constraints

Lower Upper Lower Upper

Name Goal Limit Limit Weight Weight Importance
On time is in range 25 75 1 1 3
Off time is in range 15 60 1 1 3
Voltage is in range 2 4 1 1 3
Current is in range 4 8 1 1 3

On Time Off Time SR

Sr. No (μs) (μs) Voltage (V) Current (A) (μm) Desirability

1 25.00 60.00 2.12 6.06 1.26027 0.764 (Selected)

2 25.00 60.00 2.03 6.12 1.26034 0.764
3 25.02 60.00 2.13 6.00 1.2605 0.763
4 25.00 60.00 2.04 6.37 1.2606 0.763
140 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Surface roughness height of 1.26 μm can be achieved as predicted by the desir-

ability approach at pulse-on time 25 μs, pulse-off time 60 μs, voltage ≈ 2 V, and
current ≈ 6 A as process parameters. To validate the predicted results validity experi-
mentation is as follows.

7.8.2 SINGLE OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION FOR MRR

EDM is a slow process. The industry is always interested to have maximum pro-
duction (i.e. maximum production per day as far as rough machining is concerned).
Therefore, the optimal set of EDM parameters is important to have a high MRR. The
desirability approach in RSM is used to optimize EDM parameters for desired MRR.

TABLE 7.7
Confirmatory Experiment for Surface Roughness Height (Ra in μm)
Predicted Experimental
On Time Off Time Voltage Current SR SR Percentage
Sr No (μs) (μs) (V) (A) (μm) (μm) Error
1 25 60 2 6 1.26 1.18 -6.34

TABLE 7.8
Single-Objective Optimization for MRR
Constraints

Lower Upper Lower Upper

Name Goal Limit Limit Weight Weight Importance
On time is in range 25 75 1 1 3
Off time is in range 15 60 1 1 3
Voltage is in range 2 4 1 1 3
Current is in range 4 8 1 1 3

MRR
S. No. On time Off time Voltage Current (g/min) Desirability

1 75.00 15.05 3.89 8.00 1.71042 0.828

2 75.00 15.01 3.39 8.00 1.71039 0.828
3 75.00 15.00 2.79 8.00 1.71027 0.828
4 75.00 15.00 2.33 7.98 1.70965 0.827
5 74.98 15.00 2.10 8.00 1.70962 0.827
Optimization of Machining Parameter 141

TABLE 7.9
Confirmatory Experiment for MRR
Predicted Experimental Percentage
S. No. On Time Off Time Voltage Current MRR MRR Error
1 75 15 4 8 1.711 1.801 5.26

The predicted MRR of  1.711 g/min can be achieved by on time 75 μs, off time 15 μs, voltage 3.89 V, and
current 8 A by the copper tool.

7.9 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE OUTLOOK

• Tensile strength increases with the addition of alumina and silica as rein-
forcement. With the addition of reinforcement into the base material, the
average tensile strength of the composite was observed to be 259.33 MPa
with 3.8% of elongation.
• Tensile strength has been recorded highest for five min of stirring time.
Further increase in stirring time will lead to a partial solidification of alu-
minium, and hence, tensile strength starts decreasing.
• Optimal value of MRR (1.80 g/min) has been achieved at, 8 A, 4.0 V, 75 μs,
and 15 μs as peak current, gap voltage, pulse-on time, and pulse-off time,
respectively.
• A correlation between SR and the frequency of pulse on time has been
observed. Low frequencies result in a negligible SR, while high frequencies
result in a high SR. The optimal value of SR (1.14 μm) has been achieved at
25 μs, 60 μs, 2 V, and 6 A as a pulse-on time, pulse-off time, gap voltage,
and peak current respectively.

7.10 FUTURE SCOPE

• The size of the graphite particles also affects the material’s wear resistance.
The particle size employed in the current investigation is 200 mesh (avg.
75 m) for both SiC and alumina (Al2O3). To evaluate the machinability
studies of hybrid MMC, the size and weight percentage of the reinforce-
ment particles can be changed.
• In the current work, RSM has been applied to the desirability strategy to
optimize the response variables. Other optimization methods exist, includ-
ing artificial neural networks (ANN) and artificial bee colonies (ABC). The
possibility of optimizing the machining settings could be investigated using
genetic algorithms (GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO), instructor
learning-based optimization, etc.
• Using a different set of electrodes to adjust the process parameters during
EDM could lower the final product’s cost.
142 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

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 8 Experimental
Investigation on Surface
Texture of Inconel-800
with Hybrid Machining
Method Using
Optimization Technique
Satish Kumar, Harvinder Singh,
Rahul Mehra, Aneesh Goyal

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Capacity to bear temperature and surface stability are the unique properties of the
Inconel-800 which is very difficult to machine with traditional machining process
like EDM. Many researchers have reported the various machining aspects in the
conventional EDM, which have some restrictions to accomplish the mirrorlike sur-
face texture. To fulfill today’s demand, we need hybrid machining method over
conventional machining method. Authors have investigated various methods of
EDT for texture and attempted to establish the relationship between surface topog-
raphy and surface and also applied artificial intelligence techniques for topography
prediction. Suhas & Joshi (2018), Lian et al. (2021), and Jain & Parasher (2021)
investigated various methods of EDT for texture and attempted to establish the
relationship between surface topography and surface and also applied artificial
intelligence techniques for topography prediction. Mohanty et al. (2018), Suhas &
Joshi (2021), Jeavudeen et al. (2021), Alam et al. (2021), Kumar et al. (2022a), and
Goyal et al. (2022) focused on flake problem during processing of titanium alloy
with EDM. For this problem, the authors used a B4C powder additive in spark oil
and observed the reduction of recast layer, and this improved the surface qual-
ity. Sharma et al. (2021a, 2021b), and Mehra et al. (2020) discussed the effect of
process variables on biomedical ingredients, along with their properties which are
essential for their biocompatibility. They also reviewed the optimization process on
the machining parameters employed for various biomedical applications (Sharma
et al., 2021, 2022). PMEDM as a machine and copper as a tool electrode were used
on metal matrix composites (MMCs).

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-8 147

148 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Some studies mentioned that when the limits of both additive manufacturing
(AM) and subtractive manufacturing (SM) methods are considered, the necessity for
hybrid manufacturing as we know it today emerges. The idea transcends the simple
post-production machining of additively manufactured components to become a new
paradigm with far-reaching implications. The essay discusses the development of
the relevant concepts and highlights the primary research and industry difficulties
with the help of the relevant scientific literature. In its final analysis, it provides
a coherent description of hybrid manufacturing AM/SM and highlights the most
important factors in its evolution (Akhai & Rana, 2022; Babbar et al., 2020a, 2020b,
2020c, 2020d, 2021, 2022; Kalia et al., 2022; Khanduja et al., 2021; Kumar et al.,
2021; Prakash et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021; Rana & Akhai, 2022; Sharma &
Jain, 2020; Sharma et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2019a, 2019b, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2022c,
2023a, 2023b, 2023c; Sharma V K et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2021, 2022a, 2023).
Various techniques have been used for the optimization of the result and its validation.
Kumar et al. (2021) examined surface characteristics of titanium alloys with powdered
EDM using carborundum abrasive powder. They investigated the significant effect on
MRR and surface finish, with different process parameters. Chauhan et al. (2022) and
Kumar et al. (2021) investigated the stability and uniformity of powders in terms of their
particle size and concentration in the powder mixed dielectric. The outcomes showed
that through TOPSIS analysis, proximity value improved by 2.39% compared to the
expected value. Singh et al.’s (2021) machining of titanium alloys with powder mixed
EDM has been investigated with graphite and titanium oxide as the powder and kerosene
as the dielectric. MRR, TWR, and surface roughness have been selected for the response
parameters. It is evident from the previous iterative review that work done by researchers
are not sufficient on the PMEDM of the Inconel-800. Therefore, we need to develop a
method in which powder is added to the dielectric oil to enhance the surface properties.

8.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the selection of final process parameters, pilot experiments were performed with
metal powder mentioned in the Table 8.3 changing from 1 to 12 g/l in the EDM oil
on the die-sinking EDM machine as shown in Figure 8.1 (a) and (b). Better surface
roughness achieved with powder concentration of 7 g/l. Therefore, for final experi-
mentation powder concentration 7 g/l has been taken.
For further experimental study, Cu, Cu-Cr, and Gr were chosen as the electrodes.
The chemical composition of the work samples and electrode materials are presented
in Table 8.1 and 8.2.
Figure 8.2 shows the workpiece in the form of rectangular shape. Table 8.3 reveals
the process variables along with their levels. The Box-Benken design of RSM was
used for the experiments.

8.2.1 RSM
It discovered the connection between different input variables and response param-
eters. By creating contour plots and residual plots to check for accuracy, it examines
the data. The equation for RSM is the following:
Experimental Investigation on Surface Texture of Inconel-800 149

FIGURE 8.1 (a), (b) Schematic diagram and experimental setup for EDM machine of
Inconel-800.

TABLE 8.1
Material Inconel-800’s Chemical Composition
Element Ni Fe Cr C Mn S Si Cu
% Base material 7.78 14.56 0.15 1 0.015 0.5 0.5

TABLE 8.2
Chemical Evaluation of Electrode Materials (wt%)
Elements Copper Copper-Chromium
Cu 99.1 98.4
Zn 0.0148 <0.0050
Pb 0.0206 0.0118
Sn 0.0356 <0.0050
Mn 0.005 0.006
Fe 0.109 0.0319
Ni 0.0083 0.0104
Si <0.0050 <0.0050
Cr 0.0061 1.36
Al <0.0020 <0.0020
S <0.0020 <0.0020
Bi <0.0050 <0.0050
Sb <0.0050 0.0072
150 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 8.2 Workpiece material for Inconel-800 after machining.

TABLE 8.3
Variables in the Machining Process and Their Levels
Level
S. No Symbols Input Factors I II III Units
1 A Current (Ip) 4 5 12 Ampere
2 B Pulse-on time (Ton) 60 90 120 μs
3 C Pulse-off time (Toff) 30 45 60 μs
4 D Tool material Cu Cu-Cr Graphite ∅ 12mm
5 E Powder particles WC Cobalt B4C gram

/ /
yu D  ¦D x  ¦D
i i

ii x i  ¦D ij xi x j K KK  (1)
L  L  L

Where xi (1, 2, . . . , L) are coded levels of L process variables, Yu is the response,

and the terms are the IInd order regression coefficients. For this, Eq. (1) can be modi-
fied according to the five variables used as follows:

yu D   D  x  D  x  D x  D  x  D x  D x  D  x  D x

 D  x  D x  D x x  D x x  D x x  D x x  D  x x (2)
 D  x x  D  x x K K K 
Experimental Investigation on Surface Texture of Inconel-800 151

8.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

8.3.1 INVESTIGATION OF SR
Table 8.4 shows the combination of input variables and output (i.e. SR).
From Figure 8.3 (a), it is revealed that when current is increased, SR also hikes.
When both Toff and Ton hike, SR has a fraction effect. Figure 8.3 (b) and (c) illustrate

TABLE 8.4
Design of Experiments and Results
Input Factors Response
Pulse-on
time Pulse-off
Current (Ton) time (Toff) Tool Mean
Run No. (Amp) (μs) (μs) Material Powder Surface Roughness (Ra) Value
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) R-1 R-2 R-3
1 4 90 60 Cu-Cr Co 4.503 4.504 4.511 4.506
2 8 90 45 Cu-Cr Co 7.918 7.92 7.952 7.93
3 8 90 60 Gr BC 6.45 6.482 6.466 6.466
4 8 90 45 Cu WC 9.89 9.892 9.876 9.886
5 8 90 30 Cu-Cr BC 7.156 7.206 7.406 7.256
6 8 120 30 Cu-Cr Co 9.16 8.95 9.67 9.26
7 8 90 60 Cu-Cr BC 5.9 6.11 6.65 6.22
8 8 90 60 Cu Co 8.88 8.78 9.1 8.92
9 4 90 45 Cu Co 4.01 4.81 4.41 4.41
10 8 90 45 Cu-Cr Co 7.718 7.72 7.752 7.73
11 8 90 45 Cu-Cr Co 7.7 7.76 7.82 7.76
12 8 90 45 Gr WC 8.333 8.38 8.616 8.443
13 8 90 30 Gr Co 9.68 9.699 9.769 9.716
14 12 90 30 Cu-Cr Co 11.715 11.698 10.256 11.223
15 8 90 30 Cu Co 6.15 6.1 6.2 6.15
16 12 90 45 Cu-Cr BC 9.175 9.187 9.217 9.193
17 12 90 60 Cu-Cr Co 6.435 6.475 8.096 7.002
18 8 120 45 Cu-Cr WC 8.56 8.56 8.569 8.569
19 4 90 45 Gr Co 5.1 5.1 5.28 5.16
20 12 90 45 Gr Co 10.58 10.602 10.627 10.603
21 8 120 60 Cu-Cr Co 7.11 7.1 7.15 7.12
22 4 90 45 Cu-Cr BC 3.702 3.701 3.706 3.703
23 8 90 45 Gr BC 8.88 8.882 8.887 8.883
24 8 120 45 Cu Co 9.45 8.42 7.63 8.5
(Continued)
152 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

TABLE 8.4 (Continued)

Design of Experiments and Results
Input Factors Response
Pulse-on
time Pulse-off
Current (Ton) time (Toff) Tool Mean
Run No. (Amp) (μs) (μs) Material Powder Surface Roughness (Ra) Value
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) R-1 R-2 R-3
25 12 60 45 Cu-Cr Co 9.55 10.5 11.66 10.57
26 8 90 45 Cu-Cr C 7.33 7.32 7.34 7.33
27 8 90 60 Cu-Cr WC 7.84 7.84 7.87 7.85
28 4 90 30 Cu-Cr Co 3.67 3.67 3.679 3.673
29 12 90 45 Cu Co 9.9 9.7 9.8 9.8
30 4 120 45 Cu-Cr Co 4.56 4.562 4.567 4.563
31 8 120 60 Cu-Cr Co 6.6 6.61 6.65 6.62
32 12 90 45 Cu-Cr WC 8.984 8.983 8.991 8.986
33 8 90 45 Cu BC 5.505 5.505 5.508 5.506
34 8 90 45 Cu-Cr Co 8.3 8.31 8.38 8.33
35 8 60 45 Cu-Cr WC 7.031 7.032 7.036 7.033
36 12 120 45 Cu-Cr Co 9.092 9.091 9.096 9.093
37 8 120 45 Gr Co 8.025 8.025 8.028 8.026
38 8 120 45 Cu-Cr BC 7.4 7.35 7.6 7.45
39 8 90 45 Cu-Cr Co 7.71 7.707 7.812 7.743
40 8 90 30 Cu-Cr WC 9.28 9.275 9.234 9.263
41 8 60 60 Cu-Cr Co 7.88 7.81 7.998 7.896
42 4 60 45 Cu-Cr Co 2.801 8.795 2.735 2.777
43 8 60 45 Cu-Cr BC 7.443 7.493 7.693 7.543
44 8 60 45 Gr Co 8.5 8.6 9.09 8.73
45 8 60 45 Cu Co 7.73 7.69 6.348 7.256
46 4 90 45 Cu-Cr WC 4.001 4.009 4.029 4.013

this, while SR increased when graphite is used as a tool electrode. Figure 8.3 (e)
shows that B4C has the vital effect on SR.
Ideal parameters for SR during PMEDM of Inconel-800 are Ip = 4 A, Ton = 60 s, Toff
= 60 s, Cu-Cr as an electrode, and B4C as a powder. The perturbation plot is displayed
in Figure 8.3 (f) in order to illustrate the overall impact of all the factors. After backward
elimination, ANOVA for SR is shown in Table 8.5. Non-vital terms are removed by
using backward elimination process so that SR is fit using a quadratic model. According
on ANOVA shown in Table 8.5, terms except B, A2, D2, and AB are vital terms.

Eq. for SR = +8.7475 + 3.57 × A + 1.36 × B − 1.57 × C + 1.38 × D − 1.056 ×

E − 2.11 × A2 + 0.43× D2–1.53 × A × C − 1.99 × B × C − 1.75 × B ×
D − 1.67 × B × E − 1.44 × C × D
Experimental Investigation on Surface Texture of Inconel-800 153

FIGURE 8.3 Surface roughness displayed as one factor.

The value of R2 is .9503, Pred-R2 = .8911, and Adj- R2 = .9322 along with high
correlation between the “Pred R2” of.8911 and the “Adj R2” of.9322. Arriving with a
p-value of 0.1003 means this model is fit for data. For factors A and E, counter plot is
shown in Figure 8.4 (a), whereas normal plots of residuals are shown in Figure 8.4 (d).
From the figure, it is observed that all the outcomes gotten are near to the predicted
terms. 3D plots and Figure 8.4 (b), (c) also showed that Ton has very fraction influence
on SR.

8.4 SEM MICROGRAPH ANALYSIS

Surface texture was examined by SEM, while the machined surface superiority
is shown by the crack creation, pits, and debris on the sample surface. All param-
eters we took for study are the main factors that are responsible for machined
surface superiority (Kumar & Kumar, 2022; Kumar & Singh, 2022; Kumar &
154 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

TABLE 8.5
Variance Analysis for Surface Roughness (After Elimination)
Source Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F Value Prob>F
Model 169.98 12 14.17 52.54 <0.0001 significant
A 119.16 1 119.16 442.03 <0.0001
B 0.69 1 0.69 2.56 0.1189
C 3.55 1 3.55 13.17 0.0009
D 1.96 1 1.96 7.27 0.011
E 4.29 1 4.29 15.91 0.0003
A2 9.4 1 9.4 34.88 <0.0001
D2 2.21 1 2.21 8.18 0.0073
AB 2.66 1 2.66 9.87 0.0035
AC 6.39 1 6.39 23.69 <0.0001
BC 1.79 1 1.79 6.64 0.0146
CD 9.06 1 9.06 33.61 <0.0001
DE 5.81 1 5.81 21.54 <0.0001
Residual 8.9 33 0.27
Lack of Fit 8.24 27 0.31 2.8 0.1003 not
significant
Pure Error 0.65 6 0.11
Cor Total 178.88 45
R2 0.9503 Adj R2 0.9322
Pred R2 0.8911 Adeq Pre 29.873

Dhingra, 2015, 2018). Magnification power of SEM images are 1.00 X and 3.00
KX respectively. Micrograph of Inconel-800 machined with Cu electrode in B4C
powder mixed dielectric fluid at 8A current, 90 μs Ton, and 60 μs Toff is shown in
Figure 8.5 (a) and (d). Figure 8.5 (a) describes the creation of micro cracks on
the texture, but with advanced magnification, sub-cracks can be observed on the
texture shown in Figure 8.5 (d). Figure 8.5 (b) and (e) showed the micro holes and
hole on the surface, but there are no cracks noticed with Ip 4A, Ton corresponds
to the 90 μs, while Toff is now 30 μs. SR is reduced with low current as shown
in Figure 8.5 (b), but few sub-cracks were noticed with higher magnification as
shown in Figure 8.5 (e). With machining condition, 12 A current, 90 μs Ton, and
45μs Toff, micrograph is shown in Figure 8.5(f). During the serious examination
of the specimen, surface defects mentioned earlier also melted carbon particles
Experimental Investigation on Surface Texture of Inconel-800 155

FIGURE 8.4 Surface plots for the response: (a) SR counter plot, (b) and (c) 3D surface plots,
and (d) visualization of normal probability residuals.

and craters of different sizes, and surface cracks observed resulted in a poor
surface fi nish. This is due to the reason that as the current hikes, specimen melts
with the heat energy.

8.5 CONCLUSION
Based on investigational study, the SR variation is between the 4.063 mm and 9.521
mm. Except Ton, all other vital factors affected the SR. It improves with Toff and
Cu-Cr as an electrode, and B4C is taken as powder elements while it hiked with the
hike of Ip. Ton has a fraction effect on SR. R2, adj. R2, and predicted R2 found for
SR is 0.9503, 0.9322, and 0.8911. The “Pred R2” of .8911 and the “Adj R2” of 0.9322
concur satisfactorily. The surface morphology of the material is negatively impacted
by peak current, resulting in the development of fractures, holes, and debris, but
improved results may be achieved with reduced current and greater Toff, according
to SEM micrographs.
156 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 8.5 Shows the SEM images (500* and 2.000 KX) of experiment no. 8 at Ip = 8 A,
Ton = 90 s, and Toff = 60 s, using a Cu electrode in a blended dielectric of B4C powder; at Ip =
8 A, Ton = 90 s, Toff = 30 s, and Cu-Cr tool in blended WC powder dielectric, trial number 13
(b and e); and trial no. 16 (c and f), at Ip = 12 A, Ton = 90 s, Toff = 45 s, dielectric using a Cu
tool and B4C powder.

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tions. In Characterization, Testing, Measurement, and Metrology (1st ed., pp. 93–108).
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Babbar, A., Jain, V., Gupta, D., Prakash, C., Singh, S., & Sharma, A. (2020d). 3D bioprint-
ing in pharmaceuticals, medicine, and tissue engineering applications. In Advanced
Manufacturing and Processing Technology (1st ed., pp. 147–161). Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press, 2021.
Babbar, A., Jain, V., Gupta, D., & Sharma, A. (2020c). Fabrication of microchannels using
conventional and hybrid machining processes. In Non-Conventional Hybrid Machining
Processes (1st ed., pp. 37–51). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Babbar, A., Rai, A., & Sharma, A. (2021). Latest trend in building construction: Three-
dimensional printing. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1950, 012007.
Babbar, A., Sharma, A., & Singh, P. (2022). Multi-objective optimization of magnetic abrasive
finishing using grey relational analysis. Materials Today: Proceedings, 50, 570–575.
Chauhan, A., Kumar, M., & Kumar, S. (2022). Fabrication of polymer hybrid composites
for automobile leaf spring application. Material Today Proceeding, 48(5), 1371–1377.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.114
Goyal, A., Singh, H., Goyal, R., Singh, R., & Singh, S. (2022). Recent advancements in abra-
sive flow machining and abrasive materials: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.109
Jain, S., & Parasher, V. (2021). Critical review on the impact of EDM process on biomedical
materials. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 36(15), 1701–1724.
Jeavudeen, S., Zailani, H.S., & Murugan, M. (2021). Enhancement of machinability of tita-
nium alloy in the Eductor based PMEDM process. SN Applied Sciences, A Springer
Nature Journal, 3, 490.
Kalia, G., Sharma, A., & Babbar, A. (2022). Use of three-dimensional printing techniques
for developing biodegradable applications: A review investigation. Materials Today:
Proceedings, 62, 346–352.
Khanduja, P., Bhargave, H., Babbar, A., Pundir, P., & Sharma, A. (2021). Development of
two-dimensional plotter using programmable logic controller and human machine
interface. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1950, 012012.
Kumar, R., Kumar, M., Chauhan, J.S., & Kumar, S. (2022a). Overview on metamaterial:
History, types and applications. Material Today Proceedings, 56(5), 3016–3024. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.423
Kumar, R., & Kumar, S. (2022). Conventional and 3D Printing technology for the manufac-
turing of metal matrix composite: A study. In Metal Matrix Composites, Fabrication,
Production and 3D Printing. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, eBook.
Kumar, S., & Dhingra, A.K. (2015). Multiresponse optimization of process variables of
powder mixed electrical discharge machining on inconel-600 using taguchi methodol-
ogy. International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering Research and
Development (IJMPERD) Journal Scopus Indexed Journal, 60(6).
Kumar, S., & Dhingra, A.K. (2018). Effect of machining parameters on performance charac-
teristics of powder mixed EDM of inconel-800. International Journal of Automotive
and Mechanical Engineering, 15(2), 5221–5237. Scopus Indexed Journal, https://doi.
org/10.15282/ijame.15.2.2018.6.0403, ISSN: 2229–8649 (Print); ISSN: 2180–1606
(Online).
158 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Kumar, S., Kumar, S., Sharma, R., Bishnoi, P., Singh, M., & Singh, R. (2022b). To evaluate
the effect of boron carbide (B4C) powder mixed EDM on the machining character-
istics of INCONEL-600. Materials Today: Proceedings, 56, 2794–2799. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.10.096
Kumar, S., Kumar, S., Singh, R., Bishnoi, P., & Chahal, V. (2021). Analysis of PMEDM
parameters for the machining of inconel-800 material using Taguchi methodology,
advances in materials and mechanical engineering. In Advances in Materials and
Mechanical Engineering: Select Proceedings of ICFTMME 2020 (pp. 321–328).
Springer Singapore.
Kumar, S., & Singh, S. (2022). Corrosion behavior of metal, alloy and composite: An over-
view. In Metal Matrix Composites: Properties and Application. CRC Press, eBook
ISBN9781003194910. www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.1201/9781003194910/
metal-matrix-composites-suneev-anil-bansal-virat-khanna-pallav-gupta
Kumar, S., Sudhakar, R.P., Goyal, D., & Sehgal, S. (2021). Process modelling for machin-
ing Inconel 825 using cryogenically treated carbide insert. Metal Powder Report, 76,
66–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mprp.2020.06.001
Lian, M.G., Chen, S.G., Lei, J.G., Wu, X.Y., Guo, C., Peng, T.J., Yang, J., Luo, F.L., & Zhao,
H. (2021). Combining PMEDM with the tool electrode sloshing to reduce recast
layer of titanium alloy generated from EDM. The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 11, 1535–1545.
Mehra, R., Mohal, S., Lonia, B., & Kumar, M. (2020). Optimization of laser engraving pro-
cess parameters for the engraving of hybrid glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) com-
binations. Laser in Engineering, LIE, 45, 4–6.
Mohanty, S., Mishra, A., Nanda, B.K., & Routara, B.C. (2018). Multi-objective paramet-
ric optimization of nano powder mixed electrical discharge machining of AlSiCp
using response surface methodology and particle swarm optimization. Alexandria
Engineering Journal, 57(2), 609–619.
Prakash, C., Kumar, V., Mistri, A., Sharma, A., Uppal, A.S., Babbar, A., & Pathri, B.P.
(2021). Investigation of functionally graded adherents on failure of socket joint of FRP
composite tubes. Materials, 14, 6365.
Rampal, R., Goyal, T., Goyal, D., Mittal, M., Dang, R.K., & Bahl, S. (2021). Magneto-
rheological abrasive finishing (MAF) of soft material using abrasives. Materials Today:
Proceedings, 45, 51140–5121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.629
Rana, M., & Akhai, S. (2022). Multi-objective optimization of Abrasive water jet Machining
parameters for Inconel 625 alloy using TGRA. Materials Today: Proceedings, 65,
3205–3210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.05.374
Sharma, A., Babbar, A., Jain, V., & Gupta, D. (2018b). Enhancement of surface roughness
for brittle material during rotary ultrasonic machining. MATEC Web of Conferences,
249, 01006.
Sharma, A., Babbar, A., Tian, Y., Pathri, B.P., Gupta, M., & Singh, R. (2022a).
Machining of ceramic materials: A state of the art review. International Journal
on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12008-022-01016-7
Sharma, A., Fidan, I., Huseynov, O., Ali, M.A., Alkunte, S., Rajeshirke, M., Gupta, A.,
Hasanov, S., Tantawi, K., Yasa, E., Yilmaz, O., Loy, J., & Popov, V. (2023b). Recent
inventions in additive manufacturing: Holistic review. Inventions, 8(4), 103. https://doi.
org/10.3390/inventions8040103
Sharma, A., Grover, V., Babbar, A., & Rani, R. (2020c). A trending nonconventional hybrid
finishing/machining process. In Non-Conventional Hybrid Machining Processes (1st
ed., pp. 79–93). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Experimental Investigation on Surface Texture of Inconel-800 159

Sharma, A., & Jain, V. (2020). Experimental investigation of cutting temperatureduring drilling
of float glass specimen. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
(Vol. 715, No. 1, p. 012050). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/715/
d1/012050
Sharma, A., Jain, V., & Gupta, D. (2018a). Characterization of chipping and tool wear during
drilling of float glass using rotary ultrasonic machining. Measurement, 128, 254–263.
Sharma, A., Jain, V., & Gupta, D. (2019a). Comparative analysis of chipping mechanics of
float glass during rotary ultrasonic drilling and conventional drilling: For multi-shaped
tools. Machining Science and Technology, 23, 547–568.
Sharma, A., Jain, V., & Gupta, D. (2019b). Multi-shaped tool wear study during rotary
ultrasonic drilling and conventional drilling for amorphous solid. Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical
Engineering, 233, 551–560.
Sharma, A., Jain, V., & Gupta, D. (2021a). Effect of pre and post tempering on hole quality
of float glass specimen: For rotary ultrasonic and conventional drilling. Silicon, 13,
2029–2039.
Sharma, A., Jain, V., & Gupta, D. (2022b). Mathematical approach on chipping volume esti-
mation generated during rotary ultrasonic drilling for float glass. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, India Section A: Physical Sciences, 92, 285–291.
Sharma, A., Jain, V., Gupta, D., & Babbar, A. (2020a). A review study on miniaturization.
In Advanced Manufacturing and Processing Technology (1st ed., pp. 111–131). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Sharma, A., Jain, V., Gupta, D., & Babbar, A. (2020b). A review study on miniaturization.
In Advanced Manufacturing and Processing Technology (1st ed., pp. 111–131). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2021.
Sharma, A., Kalsia, M., Uppal, A.S., Babbar, A., & Dhawan, V. (2022c). Machining of hard
and brittle materials: A comprehensive review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 50,
1048–1052.
Sharma, A., Kumar, V., Babbar, A., Dhawan, V., & Kotecha, K. (2021b). Experimental inves-
tigation and optimization of electric discharge machining process parameters using
grey-fuzzy-based hybrid techniques. Materials, 14(19), 5820.
Sharma, A., Parikh, P.A., Roy, D., Joshi, K., & Trivedi, R. (2023c). Performance evalua-
tion of an indigenously-designed high-performance dynamic feeding robotic struc-
ture using advanced additive manufacturing technology, machine learning and
robot kinematics. International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing
(IJIDeM), 1–29.
Sharma, A., Sandhu, H.S., Goyal, D., Goyal, T., Jarial, S., & Sharda, A. (2023a). Sustainable
development in cold gas dynamic spray coating process for biomedical applications:
Challenges and future perspective review. International Journal on Interactive Design
and Manufacturing (IJIDeM), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-023-01474-7
Sharma, V.K., Rana, M., Singh, T., Singh, A.K., & Chattopadhyay, K. (2021c). Multi-response
optimization of process parameters using Desirability Function Analysis during
machining of EN31 steel under different machining environments. Materials Today:
Proceedings, 44, 3121–3126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.02.809
Singh, B.P., Singh, J., Bhayana, M., & Goyal, D. (2021). Experimental investigation of
machining nimonic-80A alloy on wire EDM using response surface methodology.
Metal Powder Report, 76, 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mprp.2020.12.001
Singh, B.P., Singh, J., Bhayana, M., Singh, K., & Singh, R. (2022a). Experimental examina-
tion of the machining characteristics of Nimonic 80-A alloy on wire EDM. Materials
Today: Proceedings, 69, 291–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.08.537
160 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Singh, G., Singh, M., Singh, R., Mohal, S., Kumar, S., & Kumar, S. (2022c). Numerical approach
for solution of fluid and heat transfer coupled problem through porous media. Materials
Today: Proceedings, 56, 3031–3034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.11.631
Singh, H., Kumar, M., & Singh, R. (2022b). An overview of various applications of cold spray
coating process. Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.10.160
Singh, J., Singh, C., & Singh, K. (2023). Rotary ultrasonic machining of advance materials:
A review. Materials Today: Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.01.159
Suhas, S.J., & Joshi, S. (2021). Surface topography generation and simulation in electrical dis-
charge texturing: A review. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 298, 117–297.
ISBN9781003194897. www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.1201/9781003194897/
metal-matrix-composites-suneev-anil-bansal-virat-khanna-pallav-gupta
 9 Advanced Finishing
Processes for Cylindrical
Surface Finishing
A Review
Manpreet Singh, Gagandeep Singh,
Mohammad Alshinwan

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The term “roughness” is used to describe the extent to which a surface deviates from
being perfectly flat in a normal direction. While it is possible to make a surface as
smooth as possible, the roughness value will never be able to be decreased to zero.
Surface finishing is the process of smoothing out a product’s exterior. Surface finish-
ing of components is currently a crucial industry requirement for their precise opera-
tional functionality (Balogun & Mativenga, 2017). Some industrial products require
surface finishing just for having the good appearance or aesthetic look. However,
many industrial products need a finished surface with good surface characteristics
in order to achieve benefits, such as dimensional precision, near resistance fit or
shape, improved tool life, and lower wear and frictional losses, among other things
(Mohanty et al., 2013). Various industries like electronics, optics, automotive, and
avionics require specific surface characteristics of micro products and components
for their precise operational requirements (Rjurkar et al., 2006). However, it can be
challenging to give industrial components’ surfaces the necessary precise surface fin-
ish. In the manufacturing industry, finishing components that need higher precision
is a complex and time-consuming job (Pattnaik et al., 2012). Almost 10% to 15% of
the total production cost of a component is expended for its precise surface finishing
(Verma et al., 2017).

9.2 CYLINDRICAL SURFACE FINISHING PROCESSES

9.2.1 CONVENTIONAL FINISHING PROCESSES
The surface polish of the individual components can be achieved by a number of
traditional finishing procedures used in industry, including honing, lapping, and
grinding. But these traditional finishing operations might sometime provide the fin-
ished surface with some defects, such as cracks, residual stresses, etc. (Benardos &

DOI: 10.1201/9781003327905-9 161

162 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

Vosniakos, 2003). Various conventional finishing processes are explained as

under.

9.2.2 LAPPING
Lapping is the oldest finishing operation which is commonly used for finishing of flat
surfaces. In spite of its slow pace and low pressure, the resulting structure is remark-
ably well-fitted and accurate (Khanna & Lal, 2010).
Three-body abrasive wear is the basic operating basis (Chang et al., 2000; Jha &
Jain, 2005). It employs a slurry of loose abrasive materials, such as silicon carbide,
aluminium oxide, etc. When using a lap plate as a backup wheel, loose abrasives are
sandwiched between the workpiece and the wheel. When abrasives are pressed on
the surface of a workpiece, the surface is smoothed out. Flat workpieces are finished
using a lapping technique, the schematic of which is seen in Figure 9.1.

9.2.3 HONING
Honing is the most common finishing technique for completing the inner surface of
a cylindrical workpiece (Pawlus et al., 2009). It is a procedure that is typically used
during a boring or drilling operation to achieve a smooth finish over the internal
surface of application (Sabri et al., 2009). Figure 9.2 shows the honing method, as
it finishes the internal surface of work-part. It consists of various honing stones hav-
ing abrasives embedded in it. Within the cylindrical parts, the honing instrument is
rotated and reciprocated at the same time. The roughness crests found on the inner
surface of the workpiece are slashed out, and the finished surface is obtained due to
the action (rotation and reciprocation) of the embedded abrasives. The process is used
for the components which require precise geometric and form accuracy (Dimkovski

FIGURE 9.1 Schematic of the lapping process performs the finishing on the flat workpiece.
Advanced Finishing Processes for Cylindrical Surface Finishing 163

FIGURE 9.2 Schematic of honing process while it performs finishing.

et al., 2009; Sabri et al., 2011; Spencer et al., 2011; Shaji & Radhakrishnan, 2003). It
is also helpful in manufacturing the components where good dimensional tolerance
is required.

9.2.4 GRINDING
For a variety of purposes, including the final polishing of surfaces, grinding is a
common technique. It’s versatile enough to work with anything from a soft material
to something extremely hard (Beyerer & Leon, 1997). Figure 9.3 shows a picture of
the experimental grinding setup. The grinding process only uses a circular grind-
ing wheel with silicon carbide (SiC) abrasives embedded around the outside of the
wheel. The grinding wheel is rotated over the surface to be finished.
The relative movement between the workpiece surface and the abrasives removes
the material in the form of microchips. The previously stated traditional finishing
processes have various limitations due to which these processes cannot be opted for
manufacturing the very high precise industrial components. Conventional finishing
processes are unable to finish complicated surfaces which need a very detailed sur-
face finish at the nanometer level. Since these methods use rigid tools for finishing,
they have no control over the finishing forces. As a consequence, these processes
may also result in degraded surfaces or sub-surfaces (Lawrence & Ramamoorthy,
2011). Due to the high amount of heat generated during the surface finishing pro-
cess in conventional finishing systems, problems such as surface crack forming and
residual stresses have been observed (Gupte et al., 2008; Jain, 2009). Various innova-
tive finishing methods have flourished to improve surface finish consistency in order
to address these limitations.
164 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 9.3 Photograph of the experimental setup of grinding process.

9.3 ADVANCED FINISHING PROCESSES WITHOUT

EXTERNALLY CONTROLLED FORCES
9.3.1 ABRASIVE FLOW FINISHING (AFF) PROCESS
AFF process is an advanced finishing process which was basically invented for deburr-
ing and finishing the cylindrical internal intricate surfaces (Rhoades, 1988). Figure 9.4
shows the setup for abrasive flow finishing and its components schematically.
AFF use the abrasive particles which are mixed in the carrier fluid for finishing
the internal cylindrical surfaces. Carrier fluid having abrasives mixed in it is allowed
to flow through internal surfaces of cylindrical workpieces under an extrusion pres-
sure. Under the influence of extrusion pressure, abrasives erode surface roughness
crests in the form of tiny chips, producing cylindrical internal finishing. The abra-
sives’ abrasive effect in the constricting tube changes due to the rheological quality
of the fluid (Loveless et al., 1994; Genc & Phule, 2002). The fluid’s viscosity plays
a crucial part in the finishing action (Jha & Jain, 2006). Chip removal is caused by
the axial force acting on the abrasive particles, thus abrasive indentation into the
workpiece’s surface is caused by the radial force. The method is also used to com-
plete non-ferromagnetic aircraft hydraulic and fuel system part (Lam & Smith, 1997;
Jain, 2008). Components requiring uniform and repeatable outputs need this type of
finishing processes. It can polish any surface through which fluid can flow. In this
process, the abrading forces are not controllable during the finishing operation.

9.3.2 ELASTIC EMISSION MACHINING (EEM) PROCESS

As can be observed in Figure 9.5, the EEM is a specific finishing process in which tiny
abrasives target individual atoms on the surface of the workpiece, therefore, separating the
material from the surface. The method is capable of extracting material from the work-
piece’s surface on an atomic scale and producing a smooth surface (Kanaoka et al., 2007;
Advanced Finishing Processes for Cylindrical Surface Finishing 165

FIGURE 9.4 Schematic of abrasive flow finishing setup and its components.

FIGURE 9.5 Elastic emission machining process.

Mori et al., 1990). It is a material-removal procedure in which the surface energy phenom-
enon is used to remove atoms due to abrasive interaction with the workpiece’s surface.
In this process, the inclusion of atomic scale fracture elastically produces super finished
surface without any plastic deformation (Yamauchi et al., 2002). In this process also, the
abrading forces are not controllable during the surface finishing.

9.3.3 CHEMO-MECHANICAL (CMP) PROCESS

The CMP is an advanced finishing method in which the silica slurry and the work-
piece undergo a chemical reaction (Bassea & Liangb, 1999; Komanduri et al., 1997;
Seok, 2009). The process results in a surface that is free from surface defects. It’s a
finishing process that blends chemical and mechanical behavior, and it’s useful in
the electronics industry. The polishing rate is high, averaging 200 nm/min (however,
this varies with the length of time spent polishing). The workpiece is polished under
an applied load over the rotating polishing pad as depicted in Figure 9.6.
166 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

FIGURE 9.6 Process flow diagram for chemo-mechanical polishing.

The process is useful in semiconductor and electronics industries for polishing of

silicon and optical and glass disc. As a surface finishing method, it avoids the issues of
abrasive damage (such as scratching, brittle fracture, and surface pitting). For the time
being, this technique can only be used to complete the finishing of flat surfaces. The
finishing forces in the processes described earlier cannot be externally controlled, lim-
iting their usefulness. As a result, these high-tech methods of finishing can cause flaws
like micro cracks, surface damage, and even deeper levels of surface and sub-surface
wear. Several new ways of finishing have been developed to overcome the problems
with the aforementioned procedures, and they all share the ability to externally regu-
late the finishing forces by adjusting the intensity of the magnetic field.

9.4 ADVANCED FINISHING PROCESSES WITH

EXTERNALLY CONTROLLED FORCES
By altering the current passing through the electromagnet coil, the magnetic field
intensity in the working zone may be altered. As a result, the normal indenting force
produced by the magnetic particles on the work-surface part is altered. Here are a
few examples of sophisticated finishing techniques that are externally controlled.

9.4.1 MAGNETIC ABRASIVE FINISHING (MAF) PROCESS

The MAF is a sophisticated operation which uses either joined or unbonded particles
in a magnetic field that functions like a flexible, self-deforming magnetic abrasive
brush (FMAB) (Shinmura et al., 1990). The research was carried forward by Japan
(Yamaguchi & Shinmura, 2004). The process was utilized to fine finish the inner
or external surfaces of several applications (Umehara et al., 2006; Sidpara et al.,
2009; Jayswal et al., 2005). Vibratory motion is performed in MAF to finish the edge
and surface (Yamaguchi et al., 2007). Unbonded magnetic abrasive was used in the
experiment on the cylindrical workpiece.
The ferromagnetic and SiC abrasives are combined with an SAE30 lubricant to
create the unbonded magnetic abrasive. The cylindrical workpiece was subjected to
the finishing examination using steel and iron grit ferromagnetic particles. Following
Advanced Finishing Processes for Cylindrical Surface Finishing 167

testing, it has been determined that steel grit ferromagnetic particles, with their
higher hardness and polyhedron shape, is better suitable for finishing the external
surface of cylindrical workpieces (Umehara et al., 2006).

9.4.2 STATIC FLEXIBLE MAGNETIC ABRASIVE BRUSH (S-FMAB) PROCESS

The static flexible magnetic abrasive brush (S-FMAB) process has limitation of
non-uniform strength of abrasive brush. The reason for non-uniform strength is non-
homogenous mixing of abrasive particles and iron particles. The surface roughness
was reduced from 0.25 μm to 0.05 μm with the use of 180 μm steel grit mixed with 1.2
μm SiC abrasives. Figure 9.7 shows the initial and final MR finished surface images
of the scanning electron microscopy and mirror, respectively. In S-FMAB, the current
supplied is DC to the electromagnet and the chain of carbonyl iron particles (CIPs)
with the abrasive particles is formed to perform the surface finishing. After finishing
on some places, the workpiece has high roughness peaks at some places and has low
roughness peaks at other places. The reason behind that is the non-homogeneous mix-
ing of abrasives as well as CIPs. Limitation of S-FMAB was overcome by supplying
the pulsating current to the electromagnet. This pulsating current allows the mixing
of CIPs and abrasive particles in regular interval which improves the surface finishing
obtained as compared to the S-FMAB (Chang et al., 2002).
In order to reduce tool wear, magnetic abrasive finishing is tested on the bare car-
bide surface (MAF). The uncoated carbide tool’s flank, rake, and nose surfaces were
used in the experiments. Each surface, such as the flank, rake, and nose, required
a unique magnetic circuit configuration in order to ensure an even dispersion of
magnetic particles. The tool’s nose, rack, and flank were all finished on a five-axis,
high-speed machining center. Experiments were run for 20 minutes on the flank
surface, 15 minutes on the nose surface, and 20 minutes on the rake surface. The
experimental results showed that Ra values on the flank and nose surfaces were less
than 25 nm, while those on the rack surface were less than 50 nm. As a result of the
finishing process, the authors found that the blades suffered minimal damage. As
a bonus, this enhances tribological characteristics and lowers friction (Singh et al.,
2005; Judal et al., 2014; Saraeian et al., 2016; Saraswathamma et al., 2015; Wang &
Lee, 2009). A unique vibration-assisted cylindrical magnetic abrasive finishing sys-
tem has been developed to polish cylinders. This study investigates the influence
of the magnetic flux density, workpiece rotation speed, vibration frequency, and
abrasive particle size on the smoothing of a cylinder’s surface. The examination of
the process variables revealed that the final smoothness of the cylinder’s exterior is
significantly influenced by the frequency of vibration and the size of the abrasive
particles. In about 300 seconds, the roughness of the surface goes from 0.46 m to
0.18 mw (Kansal et al., 2018).

9.4.3 MAGNETIC FLOAT POLISHING (MFP) PROCESS

Another method that may be adjusted to achieve ultrafine finishing of spheres such
as ball bearings and ceramic balls by means of tiny abrasive particles is the MFP
(Saraswathamma et al., 2015; Judal et al., 2013a; Sidpara & Jain, 2011; Jiao et al.,
168 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

2013; Seok et al., 2009; Kordonski & Jacobs, 1999; Kordonski & Golini, 1999; Jha &
Jain, 2004, 2006; Jain et al., 1999; Michalski & Pawlus, 1992). The non-magnetic
abrasives floating in the magnetic fluid experience levitation as a result of the fluid’s
hydrodynamic characteristics. The small abrasives and ferromagnetic particles that
make up the magnetic polishing solution float in a foundation of kerosene oil or
water. It is standard practice to utilize controlled finishing pressures in conjunc-
tion with magnetic float polishing (MFP) or magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF) for
bringing the surface of exceptionally hard materials up to snuff. Stainless steel, non-
ferrous metals, and ceramics are some examples of materials that benefit from these
finishing procedures. Since the finishing medium in the MAF is often a dry powder
made of iron and abrasives, its flow-ability with the brush on the surface of the work-
piece is severely restricted. So MAF process with the dry magnetic brush may not
be used for soft kind of materials. With the use of this process for soft materials, the
problems such as scratches, sub-surface damage, or micro cracks may pertain over
the surface. As a response to these issues, a wide variety of sophisticated finishing
techniques using magnetorheological (MR) fluid, a smart fluid, are being developed.

9.5 MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL FLUID (MRF)

MRF is the intelligent fluid of choice for a wide range of manufacturing applications.
Because its rheological characteristics may be adjusted rapidly, often within millisec-
onds, to meet specific needs, it has been dubbed a “smart fluid”. In most cases, it func-
tions when a magnetic field is present. To control the MR polishing fluid’s rheological
characteristics, engineers can adjust the magnetic flux density in the working zone. Under
the dominance of the applied magnetic field, MR fluid parameters like yield strength and
apparent viscosity change extremely quickly. MR fluid has a low shear strength and low
viscosity, making it behave similarly to liquid when no magnetic field is present. In con-
trast, when the magnetic field is dominant, the fluid transforms into a viscous one with a
high shear strength.
Figure 9.7 depicted that when an external magnetic field is not applied, the magnetic
particles in MR fluid float freely in the base medium. When MR fluid is placed in a
magnetic field, the magnetic particles in the fluid form chains along the field lines (as
seen in Figure 9.7 [b]). MR fluids are made suitable for finishing by the addition of
abrasive particles. MR polishing fluid, which contains abrasives, may be used to put the
finishing touches on many different materials. When subjected to an external magnetic

FIGURE 9.7 MR fluid (a) in the nonappearance of flux density and (b) in the existence of
flux density.
Advanced Finishing Processes for Cylindrical Surface Finishing 169

field, magnetic iron particles arrange themselves into chains, creating a tight grip on the
abrasives. Viscosity of MR fluid is altered by an external magnetic field (Kordonski &
Jacobs, 1996; Bossis et al., 2002; Jolly et al., 1999; Judal et al., 2013a). The MR pol-
ishing fluid acts like a Bingham plastic fluid when subjected to an external magnetic
field. In Figure 9.8, the rheological behavior of the magnetorheological fluid modeled
by the Bingham plastic. When an external magnetic field is introduced, iron chains can
trap more abrasive particles. The externally supplied magnetic field also regulates the
MR polishing fluid’s viscosity, making the fluid either more or less rigid (Kordonski &
Golini, 1999; Kim et al., 1997). Magnetic iron particles also exert a levitational force
on the abrasives, causing them to fly toward the direction of the workpiece’s surface,
where the magnetic field gradient is lowest. Because of the influence of the magnetic
field, MR polishing fluid is resistant to sedimentation (Ashtiani et al., 2015). MR pol-
ishing fluid’s smart properties of varying shear strengths make it more flexible for
use in surface-finishing applications involving a wide range of workpiece materials
(Vicente et al., 2011; Premalatha et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2011). The primary compo-
nents of MR fluid are magnetic particles, which have a size on the order of microns.
To construct the chains and secure the abrasives between them, the magnetic particles
react to the applied magnetic field by aligning along the magnetic field lines. There
are two main types of magnetic particles used in MR polishing fluid, carbonyl iron
particles (CIPs) and electrolytic iron particles (EIPs). When finishing with MR fluids,
magnetic iron particles are drawn to the tool’s surface (a region with a high magnetic
flux density), where they use levitation force to push back the abrasives on the work-
piece’s surface. Shearing action is employed to complete the task when non-magnetic
abrasive particles are combined with an MR polishing solution (Carlson & Jolly, 2000;
Haeri & Hashemabadi, 2008; Zantye et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2015b; Golini et al.,
1999; Shorey et al., 2001; Lambropoulo et al., 1996; Sujith et al., 2019; Tu et al., 2019).
There are various kinds of abrasive available which are used in MR polishing fluid
such as CeO2 for fine polishing of optical glasses, Al2O3 for the materials having
low hardness, and diamond abrasives for high strength materials (Kordonski et al.,

FIGURE 9.8 Bingham plastic model of magnetorheological fluid.

170 Modern Hybrid Machining and Super Finishing Processes

2006, 2007; Tricard et al., 2006; Jha & Jain, 2004; Furst & Gast, 2000; Das et al.,
2011, 2010; Sadiq & Shunmugam, 2009; Singh et al., 2015, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c;
Chen et al., 2016, 2017). The silicon carbide (SiC) abrasives are commonly used
for finishing of metals. The kind of surface finishing required also depends on the
shape and size of abrasives (Wang et al., 2015a; Singh et al., 2017, 2013; Brecker
et al., 1969; Grover & Singh, 2017). Workpieces having high initial surface rough-
ness are finished with abrasives of bigger size, whereas abrasives of lower size are
utilized for fine surface finishing (Grover & Singh, 2018; Mann et al., 2016; Singh
et al., 2016). In order to keep particles from settling to the bottom of the MR polish-
ing fluid, certain additives are combined with the carrier fluids. Particles’ consistent
dispersion throughout the fluid is also maintained with the help of the additives.
There are various types of additives available which are used for the synthesis of MR
polishing fluid, such as grease, glycerol, or oleic acid. Some special additives like
polystyrene and gaur gum are coated over the magnetic particle to prevent their oxi-
dation in water-based carrier medium. There are varieties of carrier fluids available,
such as oil, synthetic hydrocarbon, esters, water and paraffin oil heavy, etc. Carrier
fluids like paraffin oil (heavy) are used in MR polishing for better flowability dur-
ing the surface finishing of the metal workpieces (Singh et al., 2018, 2021; Singh &
Singh, 2019, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; Kumar et al., 2022). These fluids are being
selected on the basis of various physical, chemical, or thermal (boiling temperature)
properties according to the requirement of the finishing processes. Carrier fluid must
be nonreactive with magnetic particles. Advanced finishing processes improves the
functionality and life span of the industrial applications (Pathri et al., 2022; Babbar
et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2022d, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d, 2021e, 2021f,
2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d, 2020e, 2020f, 2019a; Sharma & Rai, 2022; Sharma
et al., 2021, 2020a, 2020b; Khanduja et al., 2021; Prakash et al., 2021; Singh et al.,
2021b, 2020). These processes are utilized for both the ductile and brittle material
for fine finishing (Baraiya et al., 2020c; Babbar et al., 2019b, 2019c, 2019d, 2017;
Kumar et al., 2019; Sharma et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2022c, 2021, 2019a, 2019b, 2018a,
2018b, 2021a; Sharma & Jain, 2020; Kumar et al., 2018).
Further, the potential of additive manufacturing (AM) to produce parts with intri-
cate geometries has garnered a lot of attention in many studies. Laser polishing and
other forms of post-production processing have been utilized to refine the surface
and the result. The impacts of post-processing procedures on surface finish, stress
levels, and fatigue performance are discussed, along with the current state of the art
in these areas (Babbar et al., 2020, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c, 2020d; Kalia et al., 2022;
Kumar et al., 2021; Parikh et al., 2023; Prakash et al., 2021; Rampal et al., 2021;
Rana & Akhai, 2022; Sharma et al., 2018b, 2021a, 2021b, 2020a, 2020b, 2023a,
2023b, 2023c; Singh et al., 2021a, 2022a, 2023a).

9.6 CONCLUSION
Numerous technical applications employ the MRF technique to achieve the greatest
finishing and overall product uniformity. The MRF is now the smart technology of the
future as a result of its enhanced technology. External cylindrical finishing procedures
are essential in the packaging sector. These procedures fulfill the specifications for
Advanced Finishing Processes for Cylindrical Surface Finishing 171

cylindrical component finishing, improving machinery dependability and the automo-

tive sector. In the mechanical industry, these processes are in high demand. Nano-level
finishing is used to enhance the geometrical and functional features of cylindrical
components in a number of applications.

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Index
A H
abrasive, 1, 7, 8 hardness, 11, 28
alloys, 3, 60 HAZ, 61
anode, 2, 6, 62 honing, 80, 81, 87
arc, 2, 61 hybridized, 83
auxiliary, 7, 67
I
B
impact strength, 108, 111
BK7, 94 in-homogeneous, 113
bones, 108 inter shear laminar strength, 108
borosilicate, 8, 9
brittle, 21, 24 J
bubbles, 11, 62
jet, 1, 20
job, 9
C
carbides, 19, 29, 126 K
ceramics, 2, 7
chamfered, 25 K9 glass, 25
composites, 25, 29 KCL, 10
conicity, 19, 24 KOH, 10, 61

L
D
lab-on-a-chip, 65
debris, 50 laser, 1, 20, 66
discharge, 60, 61 lays, 43
drilling, 3, 65 lignin, 108, 169
droplets, 7, 38 liquidus, 127

E M
ECDM, 60 machining, 1, 2, 3
EDM, 1 magnetorheological fluid, 77, 87, 92
electrolyte, 66, 69 manufacturing, 6, 7, 35
erosion, 60, 125 metal-cutting, 45
etching effect, 61 milling, 3, 6, 21
minimum quantity lubrication, 35, 36
F
fabrication, 2, 3
N
feed rate, 7 near-dry, 127
flexural, 110 non-conventional, 1, 2, 20
flushing agent, 67 non-ferromagnetic, 164
forming, 78 non-traditional, 10, 12
fractography, 112
O
G
oil, 36, 37, 38
galvanizing, 80 oleic acid, 170
granules, 81 operation, 4, 25
greenhouse gases, 92 optics, 60, 96
grinding, 2, 6, 9 orthopedic, 66, 69
181
182 Index

P tool, 2, 3
turning operation, 50, 129
perimeter, 67
photochemical, 78
polishing, 26, 77 U
powder, 8, 10, 69 ultrasonic, 1, 19
pulse-off time, 126 USM, 21,23

Q V
quartz, 6, 7, 24
valves, 23
velocity, 38, 41, 48
R venturi effect, 38
vibration, 9, 21
reliability, 61, 68
removal rate, 68, 92
residue, 78, 79, 80 W
rotation rate, 66
waviness, 42, 79
roughness, 69
wear, 11, 25
RUSM, 21,22,23
workpiece, 5,6,7

S
X
S-FMAB, 167
shear, 85, 89 xanthan gum, 96
silicon, 4, 29
spark erosion machining, 60 Y
stiffness, 27, 125
stiffness-to-weight ratio, 108 years, 19
yields, 7
T
Z
tensile test, 129, 130
tension, 127 zirconia, 24
thermal spray coatings, 117 zone, 117