ES202

Performance Innovative Task

(Instructional/ educational manual for Engineering Mechanics)

Edres, Acmad B.
Uy, Vince Jacinto L.
Audal, Jan Michael
Dagayday, Mark Vincent
Capistrano, Cristobal III

INSTRUCTOR:

Abdullah, Abdul Halil II S.

 TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS

CHAPTER 2: MOTION CONCEPT

CHAPTER 3: FORCES AND FORCE SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4: EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES

CHAPTER 5: RECTILINEAR AND CURVILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLE

CHAPTER 6: RELATIVE MOTION AND FRAMES OF REFERENCE

CHAPTER 7: DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM AND INERTIA

CHAPTER 8: DEPENDENT MOTION

CHAPTER 9: WORK AND ENERGY PRINCIPLE

CHAPTER 10: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM-UY

CHAPTER 11: MOMENTS AND COUPLES-UY

CHAPTER 12: REDUCTION OF FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 13-14: EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES 2D AND 3D CHAPTER 15-19:

EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES 2D AND 3D CHAPTER 20-21: KINETICS OF A
RIGID BODIES

CHAPTER 22: TYPES OF PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES ELERATION IN

PLANAR MOTION

CHAPTER 23: MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA CHAPTER 24: KINETICS OF RIGID

BODIES

CHAPTER 24: ENERGY METHODS IN RIGID BODY MOTION

CHAPTER 25: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM FOR RIGID BODIES

CHAPTER 26: VIBRATIONS AND OSCILLITIONS IN RIGID BODIES

 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS

1.1 Overview of Mechanics

Mechanics is the branch of physics

concerned with the behavior of physical bodies
under the influence of forces. It studies the
motion of objects and the forces that cause or
change this motion. Historically, mechanics has
its roots in the works of early scientists like
Archimedes, but it was revolutionized by Isaac
Newton in the 17th century. The field is divided
into two main branches: Statics and Dynamics.
Statics deals with forces in equilibrium, where
objects remain at rest or move at a constant
velocity. Dynamics, on the other hand, focuses
on objects in motion, analyzing the forces
causing acceleration or deceleration.

1.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s laws of motion form the foundation of classical mechanics, describing how
objects move and interact. These laws are critical for understanding and predicting the motion
of objects in everyday life and technological applications.

1.2.1 First Law (Law of Inertia)

The first law states that an object remains at rest or continues in uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external force. This property of resisting changes in motion
is called inertia. For example, a book on a table stays in place unless pushed, and passengers
in a moving car lurch forward when it suddenly stops, demonstrating inertia.

1.2.2 Second Law (Force and Acceleration)

The second law defines the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration,
expressed as F=ma, where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration. This law explains how
the acceleration of an object depends directly on the net force acting on it and inversely on its
mass. For instance, pushing a lighter object requires less force to accelerate it compared to a
heavier object.

1.2.3 Third Law (Action and Reaction)

The third law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This
means that when one object exerts a force on another, the second object exerts a force of equal
magnitude but in the opposite direction. A clear example is rocket propulsion, where gases
expelled downward generate an upward thrust that propels the rocket.

1.3 Concepts of Particles and Rigid Bodies

In mechanics, objects can be classified as particles or rigid bodies, based on their

characteristics and how they are analyzed.

• Particles are idealized objects with no size, shape, or internal structure, considered as
a single point with mass. They are used to simplify problems where the dimensions of
the object are negligible compared to the scale of motion.
• Rigid bodies, on the other hand, are objects with fixed size and shape that do not deform
under the action of forces. Analyzing rigid bodies allows us to study both translational
and rotational motion, which is critical in real-world applications like machinery and
engineering.

1.4 Vector Operations

Vectors are mathematical quantities that have both magnitude and direction, essential in
mechanics to describe forces, velocity, and acceleration.

• Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Combining or finding the difference between

vectors involves considering both magnitude and direction.
• Dot Product: A scalar product, defined as 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 =∣ 𝐴 ∣∣ 𝐵 ∣ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 which measures how
much one vector aligns with another. This operation is used in calculating work done
by a force.
• Cross Product: A vector product, defined as 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 =∣ 𝐴 ∣∣ 𝐵 ∣ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , which results in a
vector perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors. It is used to compute torque and
angular momentum.
• Vector Projection: The projection of one vector onto another gives the component of
the first vector along the direction of the second vector.

Example: Newton's Second Law (Force and Acceleration)

Problem:

A 10 kg box is pushed with a force of 50 N on a frictionless surface. What is the acceleration

of the box.

Solution:

1. Given Data:
a. Mass of the box (m) = 10 kg
b. Force applied (F) = 50 N
c. Friction is negligible.
2. Formula:
Newton’s Second Law:

F=ma

Rearrange to solve for acceleration (a):

𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚

Substitute the values:

𝑎 = 50/10 = 5𝑚/𝑠 2

Answer:

The acceleration of the box is 5 m/s^2

Example: Work Using Dot Product

Problem:

A force of F⃗=(5,3) N acts on a box, causing it to move d⃗=(2,1) m. Find the work done by the
force.

Solution:

1. Given Data:
a. Force vector F⃗=(5,3) N.
b. Displacement vector d=⃗ (2,1) m.
2. Formula for Work:

Work done (W) is given by the dot product:

W=F⃗⋅d⃗=Fxdx+Fydy

3. Substitute Values:

W= (5)(2) + (3)(1) = 10 + 3 = 13 J.

4. Answer:

The work done by the force is 13J.

 CHAPTER 2: MOTION CONCEPT

2.1 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of a Particle

The position of a particle refers to its specific location in space relative to a chosen
reference point and is expressed as a vector 𝑟 ⃗ (𝑡), which can vary with time. Displacement, on
the other hand, is the change in the position of the particle over a period, represented as Δ 𝑟 ⃗ =
𝑟 ⃗ − 𝑟 ⃗. Displacement is distinct from distance, as it considers only the straight-line change
between the starting and ending points, including direction.

Velocity is the rate of change of position. Average velocity is defined as the

displacement divided by the time interval, 𝑣 ⃗ avg = Δ 𝑟 ⃗ / Δ 𝑡, and provides a measure of the
overall motion over a period. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of a particle at a specific
moment in time and is obtained using calculus as 𝑣 ⃗ = 𝑑 𝑟 ⃗ / 𝑑 𝑡. Similarly, acceleration describes
the rate of change of velocity. Average acceleration is the change in velocity over a time
interval, 𝑎 ⃗ avg = Δ 𝑣 ⃗ / Δ 𝑡, while instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change at a specific
time, given by 𝑎 ⃗ = 𝑑 𝑣 ⃗ / 𝑑t. These quantities are often represented as vectors to account for
both magnitude and direction. For cases involving non-constant acceleration, calculus-based
methods are used to determine motion.

2.2 Equations of Motion for Uniform Acceleration

When acceleration is constant, the motion of a particle can be described using a set of
equations known as the equations of motion. These equations link the initial velocity (𝑢), final
velocity (𝑣), acceleration (𝑎), displacement (𝑠), and time (𝑡). The first equation, 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎 𝑡,
relates velocity and time. The second equation, 𝑠 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 1/ 2 𝑎 𝑡^2, calculates displacement in
terms of initial velocity, time, and acceleration. The third equation, 𝑣^2 = 𝑢^2 + 2 𝑎 𝑠, relates
velocity and displacement. These equations are fundamental for analyzing scenarios involving
uniform acceleration, such as vehicles accelerating along a straight road or objects falling under
gravity.

2.3 Rectilinear Motion

 Rectilinear motion refers to the motion of a particle along a straight line. It can involve
either uniform or varying acceleration and serves as a fundamental type of motion in
kinematics. An important case of rectilinear motion is free fall, where an object moves under
the influence of gravity alone, with acceleration equal to 𝑔 = 9.8 m/s^2. In such cases, the
motion can be analyzed using equations of motion, substituting acceleration 𝑎 a with 𝑔. This
type of motion is commonly observed in scenarios like objects dropped from a height or
projectiles moving vertically.

Example: Equations of Motion

Problem: A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2 m/s^2 for 5 seconds. Find the
distance covered and the final velocity. Solution:

Given:

𝑢 = 0 m/s, 𝑎 = 2 m/s^2, 𝑡 = 5 s.

Final Velocity (𝑣):

Use v=u+at

v=0+(2)(5) = 10 m/s.

Distance Covered (sss):

Use s=ut+1/2at^2

s=(0)(5) + 1/2 (2)(5)2 = 1/2 (2)(25)

= 25 m.
 CHAPTER 3: FORCES AND FORCE SYSTEM

Force is an external agent capable of

changing a body’s state of rest or motion.
It has a magnitude and a direction. The
direction towards which the force is
applied is known as the direction of the
force, and the application of force is the
point where force is applied. A force can
be contact, tension, normal, air resistance,
applied, spring, gravitational, electrical or
magnetic. When there are two or more
forces acting then it is known as a force
system.

3.1 Types of Forces

A force is a push or pull acting upon an object resulting from its interaction with another
object. Forces can be broadly categorized into contact forces and non-contact forces. Contact
forces occur when two objects physically interact, such as friction, tension, normal force, and
applied forces. Non-contact forces, such as gravitational force, magnetic force, and electric
force, act without direct contact between objects.

• Contact Forces: These include:

o Tension: The pulling force transmitted along a rope, string, or cable.
o Normal Force: The perpendicular force exerted by a surface to support the
weight of an object.

o Friction: The force opposing motion when two surfaces are in contact.
 • Gravitational Force: A universal attractive force acting between all objects with mass.
For an object of mass m, the gravitational force is Fg=mg, where g≈9.8 m/s^2.

3.2 Resultant Force and Equilibrium

• Resultant Force:
• The resultant force is the single force that can replace multiple forces acting on a
particle while producing the same effect. It is calculated using vector addition. For
forces represented as vectors, the resultant F⃗R is:

F⃗R=F⃗1+F⃗2+⋯+F⃗n.

• Equilibrium:
An object is in equilibrium when the net force acting on it is zero. For particles in a concurrent
force system (forces meeting at a point), the equilibrium condition is:

∑F⃗=0,

where the sum of all force components in each direction must individually equal zero.

3.3 Force Diagrams

A force diagram, also called a free-body diagram (FBD), visually represents all the forces
acting on an object. To draw an FBD:

1. Identify the object of interest.

2. Represent the object as a point or a simple shape.
3. Draw arrows for all forces, labeling their magnitudes and directions.
4. Include force components if forces are angled.
Force diagrams simplify complex problems by providing a clear picture of the forces, aiding
in solving equilibrium and motion equations.
 CHAPTER 4: EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES

A particle is in equilibrium when the net force acting on it is zero, meaning it

is either at rest or moving at a constant velocity. For a particle to achieve equilibrium,
the forces acting on it must satisfy two essential conditions: the sum of forces in the
horizontal direction (∑ 𝐹 𝑥 = 0) and the sum of forces in the vertical direction (∑ 𝐹
𝑦 = 0) must both equal zero. These conditions ensure that the particle is in
translational equilibrium, where there is no unbalanced force causing acceleration in
any direction.

4.1.1 Two and Three-Dimensional Force Equilibrium

An object can be idealized as a particle with negligible size and with or

without mass. When forces are acting on a particle, they do not create moment
tendency on the particle. See Chapter 1 for further explanation of particles.

Whether a body can be considered

as a particle or not depends on the
problem and the information we would
like to calculate for. For example, a ring
shown in Fig. in the right is subjected to
three forces with their lines of action all
meeting at the center of the ring. Due to
the transmissivity of the forces, the forces can slide (along their lines of action) to
meet at the center without changing their effects. Therefore, the system can be
treated as three forces acting at a particle located at the center of the ring.

A free body diagram (FBD) can be used to facilitate the analysis of forces.
The FBD of a particle is achieved by isolating the particle from its surrounding (free
particle). The FBD of a particle consists of the particle, represented as a point, and
concurrent forces acting on the particle. As an example, Fig. below demonstrates
how a ring being pulled by three cable forces is idealized as a particle subject to three
forces.

A particle is said to be in equilibrium if it was originally at rest or moving along a

straight line with constant velocity, and remains so. According to Newton’s first law
of motion, if a particle is in equilibrium, the resultant forces of all the force acting
on it must be zero, expressed as the equation of equilibrium (of a particle),

The equation of equilibrium includes the necessary and sufficient conditions for a
particle to be in equilibrium. In Statics, mainly non-moving (at-rest) bodies are
considered; in other words, static equilibrium of a stationary body or structure is
concerned.

Equations of equilibrium for coplanar force systems (two dimensions)

Let F1.F2....Fn be a system of coplanar forces acting on a particle. If each force is

resolved into two perpendicular components in the x and y directions of a Cartesian
coordinate system, Eq. Above for the particle in equilibrium is written as,
meaning that equilibrium of a particle subjected to forces is maintained if the sum of the force
components in each direction is zero.

EXAMPLE

For the ring shown, If F=100N and angle= 45^\circ, determine the tension forces, T1 and T2, in the
cables.

SOLUTION

Consider the ring as a particle and draw the FBD of the ring.

Find the Cartesian (rectangular) components of each force (set a Cartesian coordinate system if not
given).

Use the scalar formulation. Determine the magnitudes of the components of the (known and unknown)
forces by decomposing them into their Cartesian components.

where the non-bold capital letters are magnitudes and hence non negative. Apply the equilibrium
equation in each direction.
Solve the system of equations for the unknowns.

√2
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 100 𝑁 = 70.7
2
 CHAPTER 5: RECTILINEAR AND CURVILINEAR MOTION OF
PARTICLE

5.1 Rectilinear Motion

Rectilinear motion refers to the motion of a particle along a straight line, where the direction of
movement does not change. This motion can involve varying velocity, where the particle speeds up,
slows down, or moves at a constant velocity. The key parameters in rectilinear motion are displacement,
velocity, and acceleration.

• Velocity () is the rate of change of displacement, and if it changes over time, the particle is
experiencing acceleration. The relationship between displacement, velocity, and time is
described by the equations of motion, especially in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
• Acceleration () is the rate of change of velocity. If the velocity increases or decreases, it
means there is acceleration or deceleration.

Real-life applications include vehicles accelerating or decelerating along a highway, such as a car
moving from rest to a certain speed or braking to a stop. The motion of objects under constant
acceleration, like a falling object under gravity, also falls under rectilinear motion.

5.2 Curvilinear Motion

The strong accelerations experienced in a roller coaster are not only due to the changes of the
speed, but also to the curved trajectory. The rate of change of the speed is only one of the
components of the acceleration, namely, the tangential component. The other component of the
acceleration depends on the curvature of the trajectory as it is shown in this chapter.

5.2.1 Tangential velocity ( ): This is the component of velocity along the direction
of motion, which indicates how fast the particle is moving along the path.
 In points where the velocity is different from zero, there is always only one tangential
unit vector ˆet , which determines the direction of the velocity vector. Namely, the
velocity vector can be written,

As mentioned in Chapter 3, the velocity vector v is given by the derivative of the position
vector r

5.2.2 Normal unit vector: The acceleration vector a is given by the derivative of the
velocity vector with respect to time. Hence, the relation between the acceleration and
the tangential unit vector can be found differentiating both sides of equation above

Note that the derivative of the tangential unit vector is not null because that vector is not
necessarily the same at different instants.

The expression for the acceleration vector is obtained substituting this derivative into equation

Example Problem:
A car accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 

Solution:
We can use the equation of motion for uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion:
V^2=u^2+2ad

Where:

• v = final velocity
• u = initial velocity = 0 (since the car starts from rest)
•  = acceleration = 
• d = distance traveled = 100 m

Substitute the given values:

V^2=0+2(2)(100)

V^2=400=20 m/s
 CHAPTER 6: RELATIVE MOTION AND FRAMES OF REFERENCE

In mechanics, relative motion is the calculation of the motion of an object with respect to
another moving object. This chapter introduces key concepts and equations related to relative
velocity, relative acceleration, and transformations between different frames of reference.

RELATIVE VELOCITY: The concept of relative velocity describes the velocity of one object as
observed from another moving reference frame.

Formula:

Key Concepts:

❖ Relative Velocity: Defined as the vector difference between the velocity of one object and
the velocity of another object. Formula:
Where:
➢ : : Velocity of object A relative to object B.
➢ : : Velocity of object A in the reference frame.
➢ : : Velocity of object B in the same reference frame.

Examples:
● Boats in a River: A boat moving upstream or downstream relative to the current.
● Moving Trains: A passenger on one train observing the speed of another train moving in the
same or opposite direction.

Steps to Analyze Problems:

1. Identify the reference frame.
2. Determine the velocities of all objects in the same reference frame.
3. Use the relative velocity equation to find the required velocity.

RELATIVE ACCELERATION: The relative acceleration describes how the acceleration of one
object appears to change when observed from a non-inertial or moving reference frame.

Key Concepts:

1. Relative Acceleration: The vector difference between the acceleration of two objects.
Formula:
Where:
○ : : Acceleration of object A relative to object B.
○ : : Acceleration of object A in the reference frame.
○ : : Acceleration of object B in the same reference frame.
 1. Transformation of Acceleration: Used in dynamic systems to shift between inertial and
non-inertial reference frames.

Steps to Analyze Problems:

1. Identify the motion of both objects relative to a common reference frame.

2. Calculate individual accelerations.
3. Apply the relative acceleration formula.

EXERCISES: Solve the following problems to practice relative motion concepts:

1. A boat crosses a river with a current velocity of 3 m/s. The boat’s velocity relative to the
water is 5 m/s. Find the boat’s resultant velocity relative to the riverbank.
2. Two trains are moving on parallel tracks. Train A moves at 20 m/s east, and Train B moves at
30 m/s west. What is the velocity of Train B relative to Train A?
3. A car accelerates at 2 m/s² relative to the ground, and a truck accelerates at 1 m/s² relative to
the same ground. Find the acceleration of the car relative to the truck.

Follow these step-by-step processes to solve problems efficiently:

1. Understand the Problem: Identify the objects, their reference frames, and what is being
asked.
2. Draw a Diagram: Visualize the motion with a simple sketch showing directions and
velocities/accelerations.
3. Apply Formulas: Use the equations for relative velocity and acceleration.
4. Solve and Verify: Perform calculations and check if the results make sense logically and
physically.
 CHAPTER 7: DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM AND INERTIA

This chapter focuses on dynamic equilibrium, D’Alembert’s principle, and the concept of
inertia. These ideas are critical in understanding motion and forces in systems where acceleration is
present.

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

Dynamic equilibrium involves applying D’Alembert’s principle to systems in motion, converting

dynamics problems into a pseudo-static framework by introducing inertial forces.

D’Alembert’s Principle

This principle states that the sum of the real forces acting on a body and the inertial forces is zero.

Formula:

Where:

Inertial Force

The inertial force is a fictitious force introduced in the analysis:

Example:
EFFECTIVE FORCE DIAGRAMS

Effective force diagrams incorporate real forces and inertial forces to analyze motion.

Steps to Create Effective Force Diagrams

1. Draw the free-body diagram of the system.
2. Add the inertial force acting opposite to the acceleration.
3. Apply D’Alembert’s principle:

Formula:

Example:

Exercises
 CHAPTER 8: DEPENDENT MOTION

This chapter focuses on analyzing the motion of particles connected by systems such as
pulleys and cables. Dependent motion refers to the relationship between the movements of
interconnected objects, constrained by the geometry of the system.

ANALYSIS OF INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS

Key Concepts
1. Constraint Relationships:
Motion in interconnected systems is governed by the lengths of cables or other constraints.
These constraints establish mathematical relationships between the displacements, velocities,
and accelerations of the objects.
2. Pulley Systems:
○ Assume cables are inextensible and taut.
○ The sum of the cable lengths remains constant.

Example:
DEPENDENT EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Key Steps to Derive Relations:

1. Identify Constraints:
Write equations representing the constant length of the cable.
2. Differentiate:
Differentiate the constraint equation to obtain relationships for velocity and acceleration.

Example:
Exercises:

1. A block of 8 kg is connected to another block of 12 kg using a pulley system.

Determine their accelerations and the tension in the string

2. In a two-pulley system, a 5 kg and a 3 kg block are connected. Write the constraint

equation and solve for the accelerations.

3. An elevator of mass 500 kg is lifted by a cable with an upward acceleration of

2 m/s^2. Determine the tension in the cable.
 CHAPTER 9: WORK AND ENERGY PRINCIPLE

This chapter explores the relationship between work and energy in mechanical systems,
focusing on the Work-Energy Theorem, potential and kinetic energy, and conservation principles.

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

Key Concepts
1. Definition of Work:
Work is done when a force acts on an object and causes displacement in the direction of the
force.

Formula:

Where:

1. Work-Energy Theorem:

The net work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.

Formula:

Where:

Example:
POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY
1. Kinetic Energy (KE):

Energy due to motion.

Formula:

2. Potential Energy (PEPEPE):

Energy due to position or height.

Formula:

Where:

1. Conservation of Mechanical Energy:

In the absence of non-conservative forces (e.g., friction), total mechanical energy remains
constant.
APPLICATIONS IN MECHANICS
1. Energy Conservation in a Pendulum:
At the highest point, energy is entirely potential (PE). At the lowest point, it’s entirely kinetic
(KE).
2. Work Done Against Friction:
If friction is present, mechanical energy decreases as some energy converts to heat.

Example: Energy Conservation with Friction

EXERCISES

1. A 20kg object is lifted 5m vertically. Find the work done.

2. A 10kg car accelerates from 5m/s to 15m/s. Find the work done on the car.
3. A 3kg ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 10m/s. Find the maximum
height it reaches.

4. A 4kg object slides 8m on a rough surface with a frictional force of 10N. Find its final
velocity if it starts with 15J of kinetic energy.
 CHAPTER 10: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

This chapter focuses on the relationship between impulse and momentum, the principles of
linear momentum conservation, and the different types of collisions.

IMPULSE-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE

Key Concepts
1. Impulse (J):
Impulse is the product of a force acting on an object and the time duration during which the
force acts.

Formula:

Where:

Momentum (p):

Momentum is the product of an object’s mass and its velocity.

Formula:
Where:

Impulse-Momentum Principle:

The impulse on an object is equal to the change in its momentum.

Example: Impulse on a Soccer Ball

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

1. Law of Conservation of Momentum:
In an isolated system (no external forces), the total momentum before and after an event
(e.g., collision) remains constant.

Formula:

COLLISIONS

Types of Collisions
1. Elastic Collision:
 ○ Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
○ Example: Collision between two billiard balls.
2. Inelastic Collision:
○ Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not.
○ Example: A car crash where the cars stick together.
3. Perfectly Inelastic Collision:
○ The objects stick together after the collision, moving as one mass.

Coefficient of Restitution (e)

The coefficient of restitution measures the elasticity of a collision.

Formula:

Where:

Example: Elastic Collision of Two Balls

EXERCISES
1. A 3kg object moving at 10m/s collides inelastically with a 5kg stationary object. After the
collision, they move together. Find their final velocity.
2. A ball of mass 0.2kg experiences a force of 10N for 0.05s. Find the change in momentum.
3. Two cars collide elastically. Car A (1,500kg) moves at 10m/s, and Car B (2,000kg) is
stationary. After the collision, Car A moves at 2m/s. Find the velocity of Car B.
4. A 0.5kg ball moving at 3m/s rebounds off a wall at 2m/s. Find the impulse delivered by the
wall.
 CHAPTER 11: MOMENTS AND COUPLES

MOMENTS AND COUPLES

This chapter explores the concepts of moments, couples, and their applications in analyzing forces
and rotational effects on structures.

MOMENT OF A FORCE

Key Concepts
1. Moment of a Force:

A moment is the tendency of a force to cause rotation about a point or axis.

Formula:

Where:

1. Sign Convention:
● Counterclockwise moments are considered positive.
● Clockwise moments are considered negative.

COUPLES

Key Concepts
1. Definition:
A couple is a system of two parallel forces of equal magnitude but opposite direction,
separated by a distance d.
2. Moment of a Couple:
The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between them.

Formula:
Where:

1. Characteristics:
a. The net force of a couple is zero.
b. Couples cause pure rotational motion without translation.

Example: Calculating the Moment of a Couple

APPLICATIONS
1. Torque in Structures:
○ Moments and couples are critical in analyzing torque in beams, bridges, and rotating
shafts.
○ Proper calculation ensures structural stability and prevents failure.
2. Rotational Effects:
○ Moments cause bending or rotation in rigid bodies, important in machinery and
mechanical systems.

Example: Torque in a Beam

EXERCISES
1. A 100N force is applied 1.5m from a pivot. Calculate the moment of the force about the pivot.
2. Two 40N forces form a couple with a perpendicular distance of 0.3m between them. Find the
moment of the couple.
3. A wrench applies a 250N force 0.4m from a bolt. Determine the torque applied to the bolt.
4. A seesaw has a 60N force acting 2.5m on one side and a 40N force acting 1.5m on the other.
Determine the net moment.
 CHAPTER 12: REDUCTION OF FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEMS

This chapter focuses on simplifying complex force systems by reducing them into equivalent force-
couple systems. Such reductions help in analyzing and solving mechanics problems efficiently.

EQUIVALENT FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEMS

Key Concepts
1. Force-Couple System:
A force acting at a point can be replaced by an equivalent force and a couple at another point.
2. Equivalent System:
The process involves transferring a force to a new location while introducing a couple to
account for the moment generated by the relocation.
3. Formula for Equivalent Systems:
● A force F acting at a distance d from a point generates a moment:

● The equivalent system consists of:

○ A force F applied at the new location.
○ A couple M equal to F * d.

Example: Reducing a Force to an Equivalent Force-Couple System

The equivalent system consists of:

Key Concepts
1. Definition:
Coplanar forces lie in the same plane, simplifying the analysis of force systems.
2. Resultant Force and Moment:

3. Simplifying Coplanar Systems:

● Combine forces into a single resultant force.
● Calculate the resultant moment about a reference point.
● Represent the system as an equivalent force and couple.

Example: Reducing a Coplanar Force System

APPLICATIONS
1. Structural Analysis:
○ Reducing complex force systems simplifies the calculation of stresses and reactions
in beams and frames.
2. Machine Design:
○ Helps analyze loads on gears, shafts, and other components.

EXERCISES
1. A 120N force acts at 4m from a point. Replace it with an equivalent force-couple system.
2. In a coplanar force system, three forces act: 60N, 40N, and 20N at distances 3m, 2m, and 1m,
respectively. Find the resultant force and moment.
3. Two forces, 80N and 50N, act on a rigid body at 2m and 1m from a reference point. Calculate
the equivalent force-couple system.
4. A 200N force is applied at an angle, generating a horizontal moment of 400 N*m. Determine
the perpendicular distance of the force from the reference point.
 CHAPTER 13-14: EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES 2D AND 3D

EQULIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES

- In mechanics, equilibrium of a rigid body means that the body is at rest or moving
with constant velocity, with no net force or moment acting on it.
- Also, a rigid body is in equilibrium when it satisfies the following two key
conditions:

1.) The sum of all forces acting on the body must be zero:

This ensures that there is no net translational motion (no acceleration).

2.) The sum of all moments about any point must be zero:

For the step-by-step process to solve rigid body equilibrium problems:

1.) Understand the problem

• Read the problem statement carefully.
• Identify what is asked (e.g. support reactions, forces, moments).
• Understand the geometry and constraints (fixed supports, hinges, rollers, etc.)

2.) Free Body Diagram (FBD)

• Isolate the rigid body and draw its Free Body Diagram.
• Show all forces and moments acting on the body, including:

1.) External Forces (e.g., weights, applied forces).

2.) Support reactions (e.g., pin, roller, fixed supports).

3.) Dimensions and angles of forces or geometry.

• Label all unknown forces and moments clearly.

3.) Apply the equilibrium Conditions

• Write the two conditions of equilibrium:

1.) Sum of forces in the horizontal direction.

2.) Sum of forces in the vertical direction.

3.) Sum of moments about a convenient point.

• Choose a point to calculate moments that simplifies the equations (e.g., where
multiple unknowns intersect).

4.) Solve Equations

• Solve the system of equations for unknowns (forces, moments, or reactions).
• You may need algebraic techniques if equations are simultaneous.

5.) Verify Solution

• Check if the solution satisfies all equilibrium equations.
• Ensure the results make sense physically (e.g., forces and directions should match the
problem’s description).

EQULIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES (3D)

- In 3D, it refers to the state in which a rigid body remains at rest or moves with constant
velocity under the action of forces and moments in a three-dimensional space. For a rigid
body to be in equilibrium, both the resultant force and the resultant moment acting on the
body must be zero.
Conditions for Equilibrium in 3D
- To satisfy the equilibrium of a rigid body in 3D, the following conditions must be met:
1.) Force Equilibrium:

- The sum of all forces acting on the body in each of the three directions must be zero:

2.) Moment Equilibrium:

- The sum of all moments about any axis (or any point) must also be zero:

, ,

Where:

• : Components of the resultant force.

• : Components of the resultant moment.

Steps to analyze equilibrium in 3D;

1.) Free-Body Diagram (FBD)

• Identify the rigid body to analyze and isolate it from its surroundings.
• Draw all the forces acting on the body including:
• Applied forces (e.g., loads, weights, external forces).
• Reaction forces at supports or connections (e.g., pins, rollers, fixed supports).
• Indicate the coordinate or axes (e.g., x, y, z) for reference.

2) Write the Force Equilibirum Equations

• Resolve all forces into their components along x, y, and z directions.
• Write the force equilibirum equations:

3.) Write the Moment Equiliibirum Equations

• Choose a point or axis about which to calculate the moments.

• Resolve all forces into components and calculate their moments (using the cross
product or scalar method).
• Write the moment equilibrium equations:

4.) Solve the equations

• You will have six equilibrium equations in total:

• Solve the equations simultaneously to find unknown forces, moments, or reactions.

 CHAPTER 15-19: EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES 2D AND 3D

CENTROID OF GRAVITY AND CENTROID OF SHAPES

- In mechanics, the center of gravity and centroid of shapes helps to locate a point
where the total weight or geometry of an object seems to act.

1,) Center of Gravity

• The point at which the entire weight of a body can be considered to act.
• It depends on the distribution of mass or weight of the object.
• For uniform gravitational fields, the center of gravity coincides with the centroid.

2.) Centroid of Shapes

• The geometric center of a shape or object, irrespective of weight or material.
• It depends only on the shape and dimensions.
• For regular shapes (e.g., rectangles, triangles, circles), the centroid is easy to locate
and lies symmetrically in the middle.

For simplicity, at least consider 2D planar shapes:

1.) For Composite Shapes (Centroid):

• Composite shapes are made by combining simple basic shapes like, rectangles,
triangles; or circles.

Steps:

1.) Divide the Shapes into Simpler Components:

- Break the given shape into rectangles, triangles, or circles.

2.) Locate the Centroid of each component:

- Use standard centroid formulas for basic shapes

• Rectangle: Centroid lies at its center.

• Triangle: Centroid lies at 1/3 the height from the base.
 • Circle: Centroid lies at its center.

3.) Calculate the Area of each component (A)

- Find the area of each individual shapes.

4.) Apply the Centroid Formula for Composite Areas:

- Use these formulas to find the coordinates of the overall centroid (, ):

Here:

• xi, yi: Coordinates of the centroid of each component.

• Ai: Area of each component.

2.) For Center of Gravity

• Similar to finding the centroid but based on weight distribution rather than geometric
shape.
• The formula becomes:

Where:

• Wi: Weight of each part (proportional to area for uniform material).

First Moment of Lines and Areas, Centroids of Composite shapes

Line (for Center of Gravity of Lines)

- For slended members like wires or beams, the first moment of a line is used.

The formula is similar to the area case but with dL (a differential line element) of

dA.
Where:

• L: Total length of the line

First moment of Area

- The first moment of an area about an axis quantifies how the area is distributed relative to
the axis. Mathematically it is given as:

Where:

• : First moment of Area about the x-axis

• : First moment of Area about the y-axis
• : Differential element of Area
• x, y: Coordinates of the area element

First moment of Volumes and Center of Gravity

- is the integral of the volume multiplied by its perpendicular distance from a reference axis.
Mathematically, it is given as:

Where:

• dV: Differential Volume element.

• x, y, z: Coordinates of the volume element relative to the reference axis.

Centroid Using First Moment of Volume

- In a 3D body (analogous to the center to the center of gravity for uniform materials) it can
be determined from the first moment of volume as:
Here:

• First moments of the volume about the respective axes.

• V: Total Volume of the shape.

Therefore, this expressed the centroid (x, y, z ) as the “weighted average” of the volume
distribution.

First moment of weight (Center of Gravity in 3D)

- For a body with varying density or material, the center of gravity is determined using the
first moment of weight:

Where:
• dW: Differential weight element (dW = pg dV, where p is the material density and g
is gravity).
• W: Total weight of the body

Therefore, If the material is uniform, the density p is constant, and the center of a gravity and
centroid coincide.
 CHAPTER 20-21: KINETICS OF A RIGID BODIES

- It deals with the relationship between the motion of a rigid body and the forces and
moments that causes this motion. In essence, it combines Newton’s Second Law with
rotational dynamics to analyze how forces and torques influence the linear and angular
motion of rigid bodies.

Kinetics is typically studied using three fundamental approaches:

1.) Force and acceleration

2.) Work and Energy

3.) Impulse and Momentum

Force and Acceleration approach

- This approach uses Newton’s Second Law for both translation and rotation to determine the
motion of a rigid body under given forces.

Key Equations:

1.) Translation (Linear Motion) :

Where:

• : Sum of external forces.

• m: Mass of the rigid body.
• : Acceleration

2.) Rotation (Angular Motion):

Where:

• : Sum of external moments about the center of gravity.

• : Mass moment of inertia about the center of gravity.
• : Angular acceleration

Steps for solving Force-Acceleration Problems:

1.) Free Body Diagram (FBD):

• Draw the rigid body.

• Identify and label all forces (applied forces, weights, normal forces, friction, etc.)
• Show the dimensions necessary for calculating moments.

2.) Kinetic Diagram:

• Show the inertia forces and torques acting on the body:

• Inertia force for linear motion.
• Inertia torque for angular motion.

3.) Apply Newton’s Second Law:

• Write equations for translation

• Write equations for rotation

4.) Solve for unknowns:

• Solve the system of equations to determine unknown forces, acceleration, or torques.

Work and Energy Approach:

- This method involves calculating the work done by all forces and equating it to the change
in kinetic energy of the rigid body.

KEY EQUATION:
Where:

• T1, T2: Initial and Final kinetic energy

• U1 TO U2: Work done by all forces during motion.

Therefore, this approach is useful when the motion is complex, but forces are not explicitly
required.

Impulse and Momentum Approach:

- This method is based on the principle of impulse and momentum:

1.) Linear Momentum:

2.) Angular Momentum: A

Therefore, this approach is open used in collision or impact problems.

CHAPTER 21: TYPES OF PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES
CHAPTER 22: ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION IN PLANAR MOTION
CHAPTER 23: MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA
CHAPTER 24: KINETICS OF RIGID BODIES
CHAPTER 25: ENERGY METHODS IN RIGID BODY MOTION
CHAPTER 26: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM FOR RIGID BODIES
CHAPTER 27: VIBRATIONS AND OSCILLITIONS IN RIGID
BODIES
 REFERENCE

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Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics by Beer and Johnston

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HIBBELER 14TH EDITION BOOK DYNAMICS