UNIT II SENSORS AND ACTUATORS FOR AUTOMOTIVES

Review of automotive sensors- sensors interface to the ECU, Smart sensor and actuators for
automotive applications.

Sensor
Sensors work by detecting changes in their environment and outputting the information as
digital signals or analog voltages. This information can then be displayed, transmitted, or
used by other electronic devices.

Automotive sensors
Automotive sensors are essential to the smooth operation of modern automobiles. These
sensors provide information about numerous vehicle parameters to the Electronic Control
Unit (ECU) so that safety, efficiency, and performance are maximized. They do this by
translating physical quantities into electrical impulses

A sensor converts the physical action to be measured into an electrical equivalent and
processes it so that the electrical signals can be easily sent and further processed. The
sensor can output whether an object is present or not present (binary) or what
measurement value has been reached (analog or digital).
These sensors can be categorized along two main lines: first, by the physical characteristics
they measure, and second, by the underlying technology they use.

Classification Based on Physical Properties

Automotive sensors are made to measure a wide range of physical qualities that are
essential to the functioning of the vehicle. Among the notable divisions according to physical
characteristics are:

• Pressure Sensors: These devices identify and gauge the pressure of the car's various
fluids, including air, fuel, and oil. They ensure that the pressures stay within
predetermined limits for ideal functioning and are frequently utilized in fuel injection
and brake systems. They are predicated either on differential pressure sensing or
absolute pressure sensing theory.

• Temperature Sensors: Integral to engine management, temperature sensors monitor

the engine's coolant, oil, and air temperatures. This prevents possible harm and the
engine is guaranteed to run within a safe temperature range. Furthermore,
temperature sensors are integrated into all power electronic controllers so that, if
the temperature rises above safe limits, the power can be derated or switched off.

• Position Sensors: These sensors determine where different parts are located.
Examples are the Camshaft/Crankshaft Position Sensors, which help with engine
 timing, and the Throttle Position Sensor (TPS), which senses the position of the
throttle in internal combustion engines.
• Speed Sensors: These sensors detect the rotational speed of the wheels and axis and
are frequently used in the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) and Transmission Control
Units (TCU). This information enables the ECU, for example, to make real-time
changes to prevent wheel lockup while braking.

• Level Sensors: These sensors keep an eye on the fluid levels in a variety of reservoirs,
such as engine oil sump pumps, braking fluid reservoirs, and gasoline tanks.

Classification Based on Technology

The methods by which sensors identify and quantify these physical attributes have expanded
due to technological advancements:

• Capacitive Sensors: When a physical quantity varies, they work on the basis of
capacitance alteration. In capacitive proximity sensors, for example, an object's
approach modifies the capacitance, which is then detected. Certain fluid-level
sensors rely on the fluid's capacitance.

• Ultrasonic Sensors: These sensors produce ultrasonic waves and are mostly utilized
in parking assistance and obstacle detection. The sensor measures the distance by
measuring the time it takes for the waves to reflect back after hitting an obstruction
and receiving the information.

• Infrared Sensors: These sensors use the infrared spectrum to detect obstacles and
provide night vision, particularly in low-light situations.

• Piezoelectric Sensors: These sensors produce a voltage in response to mechanical

stress. Engine knock sensors use this feature to identify engine knock or pinging.

• Hall-Effect Sensors: Operating on the principle of the Hall Effect, these sensors can
detect magnetic fields and are commonly employed for position detection, notably in
the context of camshaft and crankshaft positions.

• Resistive Sensors: These sensors, such as temperature sensors, whose resistance

varies inversely with temperature, alter their resistance in response to the physical
quantity they detect.

Applications of Sensors in Automotive Systems

The use of sensors in the automotive industry is not merely an outcome of technological
advancements; rather, it is an essential progression toward achieving enhanced
performance, increased safety, and increased efficiency in automobiles. There are many
sensors in modern cars, and each one has a specific purpose. The crucial roles that sensors
play in a variety of automotive applications are explained in the sections that follow:

Engine Management and Control

The engine management system's core components are the sensors, they enable peak
performance, fuel economy, and emission control:

• Fuel/Air Mixture Control: By measuring the amount of oxygen in exhaust gasses

through the use of oxygen sensors installed inside the exhaust system, the engine
control module is able to modify the fuel-air mixture for the best possible
combustion.

• Ignition Timing: Crankshaft and camshaft position sensors help establish the engine's
phase and speed. This information helps the engine control unit (ECU) to time the
spark for combustion exactly.

• Cooling System: Temperature sensors monitor the engine's coolant temperature. If

the temperature crosses a defined threshold, the ECU can modify the functioning of
the cooling fan or communicate a potential overheating issue to the driver.

• Turbocharger Control: Pressure sensors are used in turbocharged engines to monitor

the boost pressure and ensure that it remains within the safe operating parameters
established for the engine.

Safety Systems
Safety is fundamental in vehicle design, and sensors play a critical part in numerous safety-
enhancing systems:

• Airbag Deployment: Accelerometers detect fast deceleration characteristics of a

collision. The sensor alerts the airbag control unit to activate the airbags, which
cushion the occupants and lower the possibility of injury in the event of a large
accident.

• Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS): Wheel speed sensors constantly track the rotational
speed of each wheel in the anti-lock braking system (ABS). The ABS adjusts brake
pressure to prevent wheel lockup when it senses it is about to happen, preserving
steering control.

• Traction Control System: This system detects when one or more wheels lose grip by
using wheel speed sensors. In order to regain traction, the ECU can then lower
engine power or apply brake force to particular wheels.
 • Collision Sensors: These are particularly crucial for battery electric vehicles (BEVs), as
they ensure that all high-voltage parts are deactivated in the event of a collision. This
is accomplished via the collision sensor circuit, which modifies the crash signal state
that high-voltage components expect in the case of a crash and ensures that any
circuits that may have become accessible to persons due to the collision and vehicle
damage are de-energized.

Driver-Assistance Systems
As a result of technological improvements, cars now feature a variety of sensors to support
and enhance the driving experience:

• Parking Assistance: This is provided by ultrasonic sensors installed all around the car
to identify nearby obstructions. By giving the driver input regarding the distance to
objects, these sensors help make parking in confined places easier to handle.
• Lane-Keeping Assistance: Roadside lane markers are detected by optical or infrared
sensors. Depending on how sophisticated the system is, it may alert the driver or
even take corrective action if it detects an inadvertent lane departure without
signaling.
• Adaptive Cruise Control: This technology keeps a safe following distance between
itself and the car in front of you using radar or LIDAR sensors. The mechanism
automatically lowers speed to preserve the predetermined gap if the car in front of it
slows down.
• Blind Spot Detection: This system lowers the likelihood of side-swiping accidents by
alerting drivers to cars in their blind spots, usually through the use of radar or
ultrasonic sensors.
Below are the advantages of car sensors:
• Car sensors make driving an easy task.
• The sensors can easily detect faulty components in a vehicle.
• Sensors ensure that the engine is maintained correctly.
• Sensors also enable automatic control of specific functions such as windscreen
wipers, headlights, etc.
• The ECU can make precise adjustments with the information received from sensors.
• Sensors can also relay warning information to the driver if there is any
fault/malfunction with the car’s components.
Here are some of the disadvantages of car sensors:
• One major disadvantage of having so many sensors on board is that they can fail over
time.
 • A faulty sensor can lead to damage to vital components of the vehicle. Getting them
repaired or replaced can be an expensive affair.

Referred from : https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/learning/mpscholar/automotive-

electronics/automotive-sensing-and-actuators/types-and-functions-of-
sensors?srsltid=AfmBOorhMxypN0HTPUdWd1gdWv6KwsYipm3kzJ_U-uTnrnRHqWIQTzFL
More about sensors : Different Types of Sensors in a Car and its Functions

Sensors interface to the ECU

Sensors interface with an ECU (Electronic Control Unit) by sending electrical signals that
represent the physical values they are measuring, like temperature, pressure, or position,
which the ECU then interprets and uses to make control decisions based on the vehicle's
current operating conditions; essentially, the sensors provide real-time data to the ECU to
adjust various systems within the vehicle, like fuel injection, ignition timing, and throttle
control
How Sensors Interface with the ECU
1. Signal Generation:
o Sensors measure specific parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, speed) and
generate signals, typically in analog or digital form.
2. Signal Transmission:
o The signals are transmitted to the ECU via the vehicle's wiring harness.
3. Signal Conditioning:
o Signals from sensors often need to be processed (e.g., amplified, filtered, or
converted) before the ECU can interpret them. This is done by:
▪ Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): For analog sensors.
▪ Signal Conditioning Circuits: To remove noise and adjust signal levels.
4. Communication Protocols:
o Some advanced sensors communicate with the ECU using digital protocols
like:
▪ CAN (Controller Area Network)
▪ LIN (Local Interconnect Network)
▪ SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface)
▪ I²C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)
5. Data Processing:
o The ECU processes the sensor data using algorithms to determine appropriate
control actions.
Sensor Signal Types
1. Analog Sensors:
o Output continuous signals (e.g., voltage, current).
o Require analog-to-digital conversion for ECU processing.
 o Example: Coolant temperature sensor.
2. Digital Sensors:
o Output binary or pulse signals (on/off, high/low).
o Easier for the ECU to process.
o Example: Wheel speed sensor.
3. Communication Sensors:
o Use digital protocols like CAN, LIN, or I²C for transmitting data.
o Common in advanced sensors.
o Example: Gyroscope for stability control.

Example of how a sensor interfaces with an ECU:

• Coolant temperature sensor:
o The sensor measures the engine coolant temperature and outputs a voltage
signal proportional to the temperature.
o The ECU reads this voltage, converts it to a temperature value, and uses it to
adjust the fuel injection timing to maintain optimal engine operating
temperature.
Types of Sensors and Their Interfaces
1. Engine Sensors:
o Mass Air Flow (MAF) Sensor:
▪ Measures the amount of air entering the engine.
▪ Interface: Analog signal (voltage) or digital frequency signal.
o Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor:
▪ Measures air pressure in the intake manifold.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
o Oxygen (O2) Sensor:
▪ Monitors the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas for air-fuel ratio
control.
▪ Interface: Voltage signal or digital communication.
o Crankshaft Position Sensor:
 ▪ Tracks the crankshaft's position and rotational speed.
▪ Interface: Pulse signal or digital encoder.
o Throttle Position Sensor (TPS):
▪ Measures the position of the throttle valve.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
2. Vehicle Dynamics Sensors:
o Wheel Speed Sensors:
▪ Provide input for ABS and traction control.
▪ Interface: Digital pulse signal.
o Accelerometer/Gyroscope:
▪ Measures acceleration and angular velocity for stability control.
▪ Interface: CAN or SPI communication.
o Steering Angle Sensor:
▪ Tracks the direction and angle of steering.
▪ Interface: CAN or analog signal.
3. Temperature Sensors:
o Coolant Temperature Sensor:
▪ Monitors engine coolant temperature.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
o Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor:
▪ Measures the temperature of air entering the engine.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
4. Fuel System Sensors:
o Fuel Pressure Sensor:
▪ Monitors fuel pressure for fuel injection control.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage or CAN.
o Knock Sensor:
▪ Detects engine knocking or pinging.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage or digital output.
 5. Emission Control Sensors:
o Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Valve Sensor:
▪ Monitors EGR valve position for emissions control.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
o Particulate Matter (PM) Sensor:
▪ Measures the level of soot in the exhaust for diesel engines.
▪ Interface: Digital communication (e.g., CAN).
6. Comfort and Safety Sensors:
o Rain Sensor:
▪ Detects rain intensity for automatic wipers.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage or digital communication.
o Cabin Temperature Sensor:
▪ Measures interior temperature for climate control.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
o Occupant Detection Sensor:
▪ Identifies seat occupancy for airbag deployment.
▪ Interface: CAN or LIN.
7. Battery and Charging Sensors (in EVs and Hybrids):
o Voltage and Current Sensors:
▪ Monitors battery state of charge (SOC) and health.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage or digital protocols like CAN.
o Temperature Sensors:
▪ Prevent overheating in battery packs.
▪ Interface: Analog voltage.
Challenges in Sensor-ECU Interface
• Noise and Interference: Mitigation through shielded cables and filtering circuits.
• Signal Latency: Minimizing delays in signal processing with high-speed
communication protocols like CAN-FD.
• Sensor Calibration: Regular calibration for sensor accuracy, ECU for real-time
corrections.
• Compatibility: Ensuring sensor output format matches ECU input requirements.
Advancements in Sensor-ECU Integration
1. Smart Sensors:
o Include onboard processing and can send pre-processed data to the ECU.
o Reduce the processing load on the ECU.
2. Wireless Sensors:
o Eliminate wiring for certain applications, especially in harsh environments.
o Example: Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS).
3. Edge Computing in Sensors:
o Sensors with edge computing capabilities can perform localized data
processing, reducing data traffic to the ECU.

Smart sensor and actuators for automotive applications.

What is a Smart Sensor/Define Smart Sensors?
A smart sensor is a device that uses a transducer to gather particular data from a physical
environment to perform a predefined & programmed function on the particular type of
gathered data then it transmits the data through a networked connection.
The features of the smart sensor are; self-identification, digital sensor data, smart
calibration & compensation, multi-sensing capacity, sensor communication for configuration
of remote & remote monitoring, etc.
Smart Sensor Functions
1. Measurements: Detect physical signals and convert them into electrical signals for
monitoring temperature, traffic, and industrial applications.
2. Configuration: Detects position errors and ensures correct installation.
3. Verification: Supervises sensor behavior using supervisory circuits or equipment.
4. Communication: Enables communication with the main
microcontroller/microprocessor.
Actuator
An actuator is a part of a device or machine that helps it to achieve physical movements by
converting energy, often electrical, air, or hydraulic, into mechanical force.
What is the actuator in a car?
Actuators are an essential part of electronic control systems in passenger cars and
commercial vehicles. It is their job to convert the electrical signals from the control unit into
an action. Most actuators are electric motors or electro-magnetic valves.
How do actuators work?
• Actuators receive an input signal, usually electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic.
• The actuator converts the input signal into mechanical energy.
• The mechanical energy produces force, torque, or displacement.
• The actuator then moves or controls the components in the system.

Types of actuators
• Pneumatic actuators: Use compressed air to create mechanical motion
• Electric actuators: Use electrical current to create mechanical motion
• Manual actuators: Use a handwheel to open or close a valve
• Hydraulic actuators: Use water pressure to create mechanical motion
• Spring actuators: Use a spring to create mechanical motion
Applications of actuators
• Actuators are used in valves to open and close them
• Actuators are used in robotics to control the movement of robots
• Actuators are used in manufacturing to control the movement of machines
 • Actuators are used in aerospace to control the movement of aircraft
• Actuators are used in heating and cooling systems to control the temperature

Smart Sensors and Actuators in Automotive Applications

In modern vehicles, the integration of smart sensors and actuators is revolutionizing various
aspects of performance, safety, and efficiency.
Smart Sensors
• Definition: A smart sensor is more than just a passive measurement device. It
incorporates integrated intelligence, often including:
o Microprocessor: For data processing, signal conditioning, and self-
diagnostics.
o Memory: For storing calibration data, sensor readings, and diagnostic
information.
o Communication Interface: For transmitting data to other systems via
networks like CAN, LIN, or Ethernet.
• Examples in Automotive Applications:
o Radar Sensors: Used in advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) for object
detection and distance measurement.
o LiDAR Sensors: Provide high-resolution 3D point cloud data for autonomous
driving applications.
o Camera Sensors: Capture visual information for lane departure warning,
traffic sign recognition, and driver monitoring.
o Pressure Sensors: Monitor tire pressure, brake fluid pressure, and engine oil
pressure.
o Temperature Sensors: Measure engine coolant temperature, oil temperature,
and ambient temperature.
o Accelerometers and Gyroscopes: Used in electronic stability control (ESC)
and airbag deployment systems.
Smart Actuators
• Definition: Smart actuators go beyond simple on/off commands. They incorporate
intelligence to:
o Adapt to changing conditions: Adjust their operation based on sensor
feedback and environmental factors.
 o Perform self-diagnostics: Monitor their own health and report any
malfunctions.
o Communicate with other systems: Exchange information with other
actuators and control units.
• Examples in Automotive Applications:
o Electric Power Steering (EPS): Adjusts steering assistance based on vehicle
speed and driver input.
o Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC): Adjusts vehicle speed to maintain a safe
distance from the vehicle ahead.
o Active Suspension Systems: Adjust suspension stiffness and damping based
on road conditions.
o Electric Powertrain Components: Control electric motors, inverters, and
batteries in hybrid and electric vehicles.
Benefits of Smart Sensors and Actuators:
• Improved Performance: Enhanced control and optimization of vehicle systems.
• Enhanced Safety: Improved driver assistance and collision avoidance features.
• Increased Efficiency: Reduced fuel consumption and emissions.
• Enhanced Comfort: Improved ride quality and driving experience.
• Reduced Maintenance: Predictive maintenance capabilities and self-diagnostics.
Challenges and Considerations:
• Cost: Smart sensors and actuators can be more expensive than traditional
components.
• Complexity: Designing and integrating complex systems can be challenging.
• Reliability: Ensuring the reliability and safety of these systems is critical.
• Cybersecurity: Protecting against cyberattacks on connected vehicles is crucial.
Future Trends
1. Integration with AI:
o Use of artificial intelligence for predictive maintenance and adaptive control.
2. IoT and Connectivity:
o Smart sensors and actuators enabling Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X)
communication.
3. Advancements in Autonomous Vehicles:
 o Increased reliance on intelligent components for Level 4 and Level 5
automation.
4. Applications in Electric Vehicles (EVs):
o Smart battery management systems and electric motor actuators for
efficiency and safety.

Additional topics