UNIT I

Introduction

Everywhere you look in the real world you see objects—people, animals, plants, cars, planes,
buildings, computers and so on. Humans think in terms of objects. Telephones, houses, traffic lights,
microwave ovens and water coolers are just a few more objects. Computer programs, such
as the Java programs you’ll read in this book interacting software objects.

We sometimes divide objects into two categories: animate and inanimate. Animate objects are
―aliveǁ theyinmovesomearound andsensedothings. —Inanimate objects, on the other hand, do not move
on their own .Objects of both types, however, have some things in common. They all have attributes
(e.g., size, shape, color and weight), and they all exhibit behaviors (e.g., a ball rolls, bounces, inflates
and deflates; a baby cries, sleep crawls, walks and blinks; a car accelerates, brakes and turns; a towel
absorbs water). We will study the kinds of attributes and behaviors that software objects have.
Humans learn about existing objects by studying their attributes and observing their behaviors.
Different objects can have similar attributes and can exhibit similar behaviors. Comparisons can be
made, for example, between babies and adults and between humans and chimpanzees. Object-oriented
design provides a natural and intuitive way to view the software design process—namely, modeling
objects by their attributes and behaviors just as we describe real- world objects. OOD also models
communication between objects. Just as people send messages to one another (e.g., a sergeant
commands a soldier to stand at attention), objects also communicate via messages. A bank account
object may receive a message to decrease its balance by a certain amount because the customer has
withdrawn that amount of money.
Object-Oriented:

Although influenced by its predecessors, Java was not designed to be source-code compatible with
any other language. This allowed the Java team the freedom to design with a blank slate. One
outcome of this was a clean, usable, pragmatic approach to objects. Borrowing liberally from many
seminal object-software environments of the last few decades, Java manages to strike
a balance between the purist’s ―everything is of my wayǁ model. The object model in Java i such as
integers, are kept as high-performance non objects.

[JAVA PROGRAMMING] Page 4

OOD encapsulates (i.e., wraps) attributes and operations (behaviors) into objects, an object’s
attributes and operations are intim information hiding. This means that objects may know how to
communicate with one another across well-defined interfaces, but normally they are not allowed to
know how other objects are implemented ,implementation details are hidden within the objects
themselves. Wecan drive a car effectively, for instance, without knowing the details of how engines,
transmissions, brakes and exhaust systems work internally—as long as we know how to use the
accelerator pedal, the brake pedal, the wheel and so on. Information hiding, as we will see, is crucial
to good software engineering.

Languages like Java are object oriented. Programming in such a language is called object-oriented
programming (OOP), and it allows computer programmers to implement an object-oriented design as a
working system. Languages like C, on the other hand, are procedural, so programming tends to be action
oriented. In C, the unit of programming is the function. Groups of actions that perform some common task are
formed into functions, and functions are grouped to form programs. In Java, the unit of programming is the
class from which objects are eventually instantiated (created). Java classes contain methods (which implement
operations and are similar to functions in C) as well as fields (which implement attributes).

Java programmers concentrate on creating classes. Each class contains fields, and the set of methods that
manipulate the fields and provide services to clients (i.e., other classes that use the class). The programmer
uses existing classes as the building blocks for constructing new classes. Classes are to objects as blueprints
are to houses. Just as we can build many houses from one blueprint, we can instantiate (create) many objects
from one class.
Classes can have relationships with other classes. For example, in an object-oriented design of a bank, the
―bank tellerǁ class needs to relate ―safeǁ class, and so on. These relationships

Packaging software as classes makes it possible for future software systems to reuse the classes.
Groups of related classes are often packaged as reusable components. Just as realtors often say
that the three most important factors affecti location,ǁ people in the software community affecting
the future of software development are ―reuse, classes when building new classes and programs
saves time and effort.Reuse also helps

programmers build more reliable and effective systems, because existing classes and components often have
gone through extensive testing, debugging and performance tuning.

Indeed, with object technology, you can build much of the software you will need by combining classes, just
as automobile manufacturers combine interchangeable parts. Each new class you create will have the potential
to become a valuable software asset that you and other programmers can use to speed and enhance the quality
of future software development efforts.

[JAVA PROGRAMMING] Page 5

NEED FOR OOP PARADIGM:

Object-Oriented Programming:

Object-oriented programming is at the core of Java. In fact, all Java programs are object-oriented
this isn’t an option the way that it is Therefore, this chapter begins with a discussion of the theoretical
aspects of OOP.

Two Paradigms of Programming:

As you know, all computer programs consist of two elements: code and data. Furthermore,a
program can be conceptually organized around its code or around its data. That is, some
programs are writtenhappeningǁaroundand―whatothersis are wri affected.ǁ These are the two
paradigms that g
The first way is called the process-oriented model. This approach characterizes a program as a
series of linear steps (that is, code). The process-oriented model can be thought of as code acting
on data. Procedural languages such as C employ this model to considerable success. Problems
with this approach appear as programs grow larger and more complex. To manage increasing
complexity, the second approach, called object-oriented programming, was conceived.

Object-oriented programming organizes a program around its data (that is, objects) and a set of
well-defined interfaces to that data. An object-oriented program can be characterized as data
controlling access to code. As you will see, by switching the controlling entity to data, you can
achieve several organizational benefits.

Procedure oriented Programming:

In this approach, the problem is always considered as a sequence of tasks to be done. A number
of functions are written to accomplish these attention on data.

There are many high level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C used for
conventional programming commonly known as POP.

POP basically consists of writing a list of instructions for the computer to follow, and organizing
these instructions into groups known as functions.

A typical POP structure is shown in below: Normally a flowchart is used to organize these
actions and represent the flow of control logically sequential flow from one to another. In a
multi-function program, many important data items are placed as global so that they may be
accessed by all the functions. Each function may have its own local data. Global data are more
vulnerable to an in advent change by a function. In a large program it is very difficult to identify
what data is used by which function. In case we need to revise an external data structure, we
should also revise all the functions that access the data. This provides an opportunity for bugs to
creep in.
Drawback: It does not model real world problems very well, because functions are action
oriented and do not really corresponding to the elements of the problem.

Characteristics of POP:
Emphasis is on doing actions.
Large programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions.
Most of the functions shared global data.
Data move openly around the program from function to function.
Functions transform data from one form to another.
Employs top-down approach in program design.

OOP:

OOP allows us to decompose a problem into a number of entities called objects and then builds
data and methods around these entities.

DEF: OOP is an approach that provides a way of modularizing programs by creating portioned
memory area for both data and methods that can used as templates for creating copies of such
modules on demand.

That is ,an object a considered to be a partitioned area of computer memory that stores data and
set of operations that can access that data. Since the memory partitions are independent, the
objects can be used in a variety of different programs without modifications.

OOP Chars:

Emphasis on data .
Programs are divided into what are known as methods.
Data structures are designed such that they characterize the objects.
Methods that operate on the data of an object are tied together .
Data is hidden.
Objects can communicate with each other through methods.
Reusability.
Follows bottom-up approach in program design.
Organization of OOP:

method
method

method

Evolution of Computing and Programming: Computer use is increasing in almost every field
of endeavor. Computing costs have been decreasing dramatically due to rapid developments in
both hardware and software technologies. Computers that might have filled large rooms and cost
millions of dollars decades ago can now be inscribed on silicon chips smaller than a fingernail,
costing perhaps a few dollars each. Fortunately, silicon is one of the most abundant materials on
earth it is an ingredient in common sand. Silicon chip technology has made computing so
economical that about a billion general-purpose computers are in use worldwide, helping people
in business, industry and government, and in their personal lives. The number could easily
double in the next few years. Over the years, many programmers learned the programming
methodology called structured programming.
You will learn structured programming and an exciting newer methodology, object-oriented
programming. Why do we teach both? Object orientation is the key programming methodology
used by programmers today. You will create and work with many software objects in this text.
But you will discover that their internal structure is often built using structured-programming
techniques. Also, the logic of manipulating objects is occasionally expressed with structured
programming.

Language of Choice for Networked Applications: Java has become the language of choice for
implementing Internet-based applications and software for devices that communicate over a network.
Stereos and other devices in homes are now being networked together by Java technology. At the
May 2006 JavaOne conference, Sun announced that there were one billion java-enabled mobile
phones and hand held devices! Java has evolved rapidly into the large-scale applications arena. It’s
the preferred-wide programming needs. Java has evolved so rapidly that this seventh edition of Java
How to Program was published just 10 years after the first edition was published. Java has grown so
large that it has two other editions. The Java Enterprise Edition (Java EE) is geared toward
developing large-scale, distributed networking applications and web-based applications. The Java
Micro Edition (Java ME) is geared toward developing applications for small, memory constrained
devices, such as cell phones, pagers and PDAs.
Data Abstraction

An essential element of object-oriented programming is abstraction. Humans manage

complexity through abstraction. For example, people do not think of a car as a set ofte ns of
thousands of individual parts. They think of it as a well-defined object with its own unique
behavior. This abstraction allows people to use a car to drive to the grocery store without being
overwhelmed by the complexity of the parts that form the car. They can ignore the details of how
the engine, transmission, and braking systems work. Instead they are free to utilize the object as
a whole.
A powerful way to manage abstraction is through the use of hierarchical classifications.
This allows you to layer the semantics of complex systems, breaking them into more manageable
pieces. From the outside, the car is a single object. Once inside, you see that the car consists of
several subsystems: steering, brakes, sound system, seat belts, heating, cellular phone, and so on.
In turn, each of these subsystems is made up of more specialized units. For instance, the sound
system consists of a radio, a CD player, and/or a tape player. The point is that you manage the
complexity of the car (or any other
complex system) through the use of hierarchical abstractions.

Encapsulation
An object encapsulates the methods and data that are contained inside it .the rest of the system
interacts with an object only through a well defined set of services that it provides.

Inheritance

I have more information about Flora –not necessarily because she is a florist but because
she is a shopkeeper.
One way to think about how I have organized my knowledge of Flora is in terms of a
hierarchy of categories:

Fig : A Class Hierarchy for Different kinds of Material objects

CLASSES AND OBJECTS
Concepts of classes and objects:
Class Fundamentals
Classes have been used since the beginning of this book. However, until now, only the
most rudimentary form of a class has been used. The classes created in the preceding chapters
primarily exist simply to encapsulate the main( ) method, which has been used to demonstrate
the basics of the Java syntax.
Thus, a class is a template for an object, and an object is an instance of a class. Because
an object is an instance of a class, you will often see the two words object and instance used
interchangeably.
The General Form of a Class

When you define a class, you declare its exact form and nature. You do this by specifying
the data that it contains and the code that operates on that data.
A class is declared by use of the class keyword. The classes that have been used up to
this point are actually very limited examples of its complete form. Classes can (and usually do)
get much more complex. The general form of a class definition is shown here:

class classname {
type instance-
variable1; type
instance-variable2; // ...
type instance-variableN;
type methodname1(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}
type methodname2(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}
// ...
type methodnameN(parameter-list) {
// body of method
}
}
The data, or variables, defined within a class are called instance variables. The code is
contained within methods. Collectively, the methods and variables defined within a class are
called members of the class. In most classes, the instance variables are acted upon and accessed
by the methods defined for that class. Thus, it is the methods that de can be used.

Declaring Objects

As just explained, when you create a class, you are creating a new data type. You can use
this type to declare objects of that type. However, obtaining objects of a class is a two-step
process. First, you must declare a variable of the class type. This variable does not define an
object. Instead, it is simply a variable that can refer to an object. Second, you must acquire an
actual, physical copy of the object and assign it to that variable. You can do this using the new
operator. The new operator dynamically allocates (that is, allocates at run time) memory for an
object and returns a reference to it. This reference is, more or less, the address in memory of the
object allocated by new.
Ex: Box mybox = new Box();

This statement combines the two steps just described. It can be rewritten like this
to show each step more clearly:
Box mybox; // declare reference to object
mybox = new Box(); // allocate a Box object

A Closer Look at new

As just explained, the new operator dynamically allocates memory for an object. It has this
general form:

class-var = new classname( );

Here, class-var is a variable of the class type being created. The classname is the name of the
class that is being instantiated. The class name followed by parentheses specifies the constructor
for the class. A constructor defines what occurs when an object of a class is created. Constructors
are an important part of all classes and have many significant attributes. Most real-world classes
explicitly define their own constructors within their class definition. However, if no explicit
constructor is specified, then Java will automatically supply a default constructor. This is the
case with Box.

HISTORY OF JAVA

Java was conceived by James Gosling, Patrick Naughton, Chris Warth, Ed Frank, and
Mike Sheridan at Sun Microsystems, Inc. in 1991. It took 18 months to develop the first
Working version. This language was initially
Between the initial implementation of Oak in the fall of 1992 and the public Announcement of
Java in the spring of 1995, many more people contributed to the designand evolution of the
language. Bill Joy, Arthur van Hoff, Jonathan Payne, Frank Yellin, and Tim Lind Holm were key
contributors to the maturing of the original prototype.
The trouble With C and C++ (and most other languages) is that they are designed to be
compiled For a specific target. Although it is possible to compile a C++ program for just about
Any type of CPU, to do so requires a full C++ compiler targeted for that CPU. The Problem is
that compilers are expensive and time-consuming to create. An easier—and more cost-
efficient—solution was needed. In an attempt to find such a solution,Gosling and others began
work on a portable, platform-independent language thatcould be used to produce code that would
run on a variety of CPUs under differing Environments. This effort ultimately led to the creation
of Java.
 As mentioned earlier, Java derives much of its character from C and C++. This is by
intent. The Java designers knew that using the familiar syntax of C and echoing the object-
oriented features of C++ would make their language appealing to the legions of experienced
C/C++ programmers. In addition to the surface similarities, Java shares some of the other
attributes that helped make C and C++ successful. First, Java was designed, tested, and refined
by real, working programmers.

The Java Buzzwords:

No discussion of the genesis of Java is complete without a look at the Java buzzwords.
Although the fundamental forces that necessitated the invention of Java are portability and
security, other factors also played an important role in molding the final form of the language.
The key considerations were summed up by the Java team in the Following list of buzzwords:
Simple
Secure
Portable
Object-oriented
Robust
Multithreaded
Architecture-neutral
Interpreted
High performance
Distributed
Dynamic

Simple
Java was designed to be easy for the professional programmer to learn and use
effectively. Assuming that you have some programming experience, you will not find Java hard
to master. If you already understand the basic concepts of object-oriented programming, learning
Java will be even easier. Best of all, if you are an experienced C++ programmer, moving to Java
will require very little effort. Because Java inherits the C/C++ syntax and many of the object-
oriented features of C++, most programmers have little trouble learning Java..
Object-Oriented
Although influenced by its predecessors, Java was not designed to be source-code
compatible with any other language. Borrowing liberally from many seminal object-software
environments of the last few decades, Java manages to strike a balance between the everything is an
objectǁ paradigm and the programming.
Robust
The multi platformed environment of the Web places extraordinary demands on a
program, because the program must execute reliably in a variety of systems. Thus, the ability to
create robust programs was given a high priority in the design of Java.

To better understand how Java is robust, consider two of the main reasons for
program failure: memory management mistakes and mishandled exceptional conditions (that is,
run-time errors). Memory management can be a difficult, tedious ask in traditional programming
environments. For example, in C/C++, the pro grammer must manually allocate and free all
dynamic memory. This sometimes leads to problems, because programmers will either forget to
free memory that has been previously allocated or, worse, try to free some memory that another
part of their code is still using. Java virtually eliminates these problems by managing memory
allocation and deallocation for you.
Multithreaded
Java was designed to meet the real-world requirement of creating interactive, networked
programs. To accomplish this, Java supports multithreaded programming, which allows you to
write programs that do many things simultaneously. The Java run-time system comes with an
elegant yet sophisticated solution for multiprocess .synchronization that enables you to construct
smoothly running interactive systems.
Architecture-Neutral

A central issue for the Java designers was that of code longevity and portability. One of
the main problems facing programmers is that no guarantee exists that if you write a program
today, it will run tomorrow—even on the same machine. Operating system up grades, processor
upgrades, and changes in core system resources can all combine to make a program malfunction.
The Java designers made several hard decisions in the Java language and the Java Virtual
Machine in an attempt to alter this situation forever.ǁ To a great extent, this goal was accomplished.

Interpreted and High Performance

As described earlier, Java enables the creation of cross-platform programs by compiling

into an intermediate representation called Java bytecode. This code can be interpreted on any
system that provides a Java Virtual Machine. Most previous attempts at cross platform solutions
have done so at the expense of performance. Other interpreted systems, such as BASIC, Tcl, and
PERL, suffer from almost insurmountable performance deficits. Java, however, was designed to
perform well on very low-power CPUs.

Distributed
Java is designed for the distributed environment of the Internet, because it handles
TCP/IP protocols. In fact, accessing a resource using a URL is not much different from accessing
a file. The original version of Java (Oak) included features for intra address-space messaging.
This allowed objects on two different computers to execute procedures remotely. Java revived
these interfaces in a package called Remote MethodInvocation (RMI). This feature brings an
unparalleled level of abstraction to client/server programming.
Dynamic
Java programs carry with them substantial amounts of run-time type information that is
used to verify and resolve accesses to objects at run time. This makes it possible to dynamically
link code in a safe and expedient manner. This is crucial to the robustness of the applet
environment, in which small fragments of bytecode may be dynamically updated on a running
system.

DATA TYPES
Java defines eight simple (or elemental) types of data: byte, short, int, long, char, float,double,
and boolean. These can be put in four groups:

Integers This group includes byte, short, int, and long, which are for whole valued signed numbers.

Floating-point numbers This group includes float and double, which represent numbers with
fractional precision.

Characters This group includes char, which represents symbols in a character set, like letters
and numbers.

Boolean This group includes boolean, which is a special type for representing true/false
values.
Integers

Java defines four integer types: byte, short, int, and long. All of these are signed,
positive and negative values. Java does not support unsigned, positive-only integers. Many other
Computer languages, including C/C++, support both signed and unsigned integers.

Name Width Range

long 64 –9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

int 32 –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

short 16 –32,768 to 32,767

byte 8 –128 to 127

byte

The smallest integer type is byte. This is a signed 8-bit type that has a range from –128to
127. Variables of type byte are especially useful when you’re a network or file. They are also usefulnotbe
when directly compatible-intypeswith. Java’s other built
Syntax: byte b, c;

short

short is a signed 16-bit type. It has a range from –32,768 to 32,767. It is probably the
least-used Java type, since it is defined as having its high byte first (called big-endian format).
This type is mostly applicable to 16-bit computers, which are becoming increasingly scarce.
Here are some examples of short variable
declarations: short s;
short t;
int
The most commonly used integer type is int. It is a signed 32-bit type that has a range
from –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647. In addition to other uses, variables of type int are
commonly employed to control loops and to index arrays. Any time you have an integer
expression involving bytes, shorts, ints, and literal numbers, the entire expression Is promoted
to int before the calculation is done.
long
long is a signed 64-bit type and is useful for those occasions where an int type is notlarge
enough to hold the desired value. The range of a long is quite large. This makesit useful when
big, whole numbers are needed. For example, here is a program thatcomputes the number of
miles that light will travel in a specified number of days.
Floating-Point Types
Floating-point numbers, also known as real numbers, are used when evaluating expressions that
require fractional precision. For example, calculations such as square root, or transcendentals
such as sine and cosine, result in a value whose precision requires a floating-point type.
Their width and ranges are shown here:
Name Width Bits Approximate Range
double 64 4.9e–324 to 1.8e+308
float 32
float
 The type float specifies a single-precision value that uses 32 bits of storage. Single
precision is faster on some processors and takes half as much space as double precision, but will
become imprecise when the values are either very large or very small. Variables of type float are
useful when you need a fractional component, but don’t require example, float can be useful when
representing dollars and cents.
Here are some example float variable
declarations: float hightemp, lowtemp;
double
Double precision, as denoted by the double keyword, uses 64 bits to store a value.
Double precision is actually faster than single precision on some modern processors that have
been optimized for high-speed mathematical calculations.

Here is a short program that uses double variables to compute the area of a circle:
// Compute the area of a circle.
class Area {
public static void main(String args[]) {
double pi, r, a;
r = 10.8; // radius of circle
pi = 3.1416; // pi, approximately
a = pi * r * r; // compute area
System.out.println("Area of circle is " + a);
}
}
Characters
In Java, the data type used to store characters is char. However, C/C++ programmers
beware: char in Java is not the same as char in C or C++. In C/C++, char is an integertype that
is 8 bits wide. This is not the case in Java. Instead, Java uses Unicode to representcharacters..
There are no negative chars. The standard set of characters known asASCII still ranges from 0 to
127 as always, and the extended 8-bit character set, ISO-Latin-1,ranges from 0 to 255.
Booleans
Java has a simple type, called boolean, for logical values. It can have only one of
twopossible values, true or false. This is the type returned by all relational operators, suc has a <
b. boolean is also the type required by the conditional expressions that govern the control
statements such as if and for.
Here is a program that demonstrates the boolean type:
There are three interesting things to notice about this program. First, as
you can see,when a boolean value is output by println( ), ―trueǁ or ―falseǁ Second,the value of a boolean
variable is sufficient, by itself, to control the if statement. Thereis
no need to write an if statement like this:
if(b == true) ...
Third, the outcome of a relational operator, such as <, is a boolean value. This is why
the expression 10 > 9 displays the value ―true.ǁ Further, around 10 > 9 is necessary because the + operator
has a higher precedence than the >.
Variables
The variable is the basic unit of storage in a Java program. A variable is defined by the
combination of an identifier, a type, and an optional initializer. In addition, all variables have a
scope, which defines their visibility, and a lifetime. These elementsare examined next.
Declaring a Variable
In Java, all variables must be declared before they can be used. The basic form of
a variable declaration is shown here:
type identifier [ = value][, identifier [= value] ...] ;
The type is one of Java’s atomic types, or the nam interface types are discussed later in Part I of this
book.) The identifier is the name of the variable.

Here are several examples of variable declarations of various types. Note that
some include an initialization.

int a, b, c; // declares three ints, a, b, and c.

int d = 3, e, f = 5; // declares three more ints, initializing
// d and f.
byte z = 22; // initializes z.
double pi = 3.14159; // declares an approximation of pi.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.
The Scope and Lifetime of Variables
So far, all of the variables used have been declared at the start of the main( ) method.
However, Java allows variables to be declared within any block. As explained in Chapter 2, a
block is begun with an opening curly brace and ended by a closing curlybrace. A block defines a
scope. Thus, each time you start a new block, you are creating a new scope. As you probably
know from your previous programming experience, a scope determines what objects are visible
to other parts of your program. It also determines the lifetime of those objects.
Most other computer languages define two general categories of scopes: global and local.
However, these traditional scopes do not fit scope defined by a method begins with its opening
curly brace.

To understand the effect of nested scopes, consider the following

program: // Demonstrate block scope.
Arrays
An array is a group of like-typed variables that are referred to by a common name.
Arrays of any type can be created and may have one or more dimensions. A specific elementin
an array is accessed by its index. Arrays offer a convenient means of grouping related
information.
One-Dimensional Arrays
A one-dimensional array is, essentially, a list of like-typed variables. To create an array, you
first must create an array variable of the desired type. The general form of a one dimensional
array declaration is

type var-name[ ];

Here, type declares the base type of the array. The base type determines the data
type of each element that comprises the array.

// Demonstrate a one-dimensional array.

class Array {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int month_days[];
month_days = new int[12];
month_days[0] = 31;
month_days[1] = 28;
month_days[2] = 31;
month_days[3] = 30;
month_days[4] = 31;
month_days[5] = 30;
month_days[6] = 31;
month_days[7] = 31;
month_days[8] = 30;
month_days[9] = 31;
month_days[10] = 30;
month_days[11] = 31;

System.out.println("April has " + month_days[3] + " days.");

}
}
Multidimensional Arrays
In Java, multidimensional arrays are actually arrays of arrays. These, as you mightexpect,
look and act like regular multidimensional arrays. However, as you will see there are a couple of
subtle differences. To declare a multidimensional array variable,specify each additional index
using another set of square brackets. For example, the following declares a two-dimensional
array variable called twoD.
int twoD[][] = new int[4][5];
This allocates a 4 by 5 array and assigns it to twoD. Internally this matrix is implemented as an
array of arrays of int.
// Demonstrate a two-dimensional
array. class TwoDArray {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int twoD[][]= new int[4][5];
int i, j, k = 0;
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
for(j=0; j<5; j++)
{ twoD[i][j] = k;
k++;
}
for(i=0; i<4; i++) {
for(j=0; j<5; j++)
System.out.print(twoD[i][j] + "
"); System.out.println();
}
}
}

This program generates the following

output: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19
As stated earlier, since multidimensional arrays are actually arrays of arrays, the length of each
array is under your control. For example, the following program creates a two dimensional array
in which the sizes of the second dimension are unequal.
OPERATORS

Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that
they are used in algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators:

Operator Result

+ Addition
– Subtraction (also unary minus)
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus
++ Increment
+= Addition assignment
–= Subtraction assignment
*= Multiplication assignment
/= Division assignment
%= Modulus assignment
–– Decrement
The operands of the arithmetic operators must be of a numeric type. You cannot
use them on boolean types, but you can use them on char types, since the char type in Java is,
essentially, a subset of int.
The Bitwise Operators
Java defines several bitwise operators which can be applied to the integer types, long,
int, short, char, and byte. These operators act upon the individual bits of their operands.
They are summarized in the following table:
Operator Result
~ Bitwise unary NOT
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
>> Shift right
>>> Shift right zero fill
<< Shift left
&= Bitwise AND assignment
|= Bitwise OR assignment
^= Bitwise exclusive OR assignment
>>= Shift right assignment
>>>= Shift right zero fill assignment
<<= Shift left assignment

Relational Operators
The relational operators determine the relationship that one operand has to the other.
Specifically, they determine equality and ordering. The relational operators are
shown here:

Operator Result
== Equal to
!= Not equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
The outcome of these operations is a boolean value. The relational operators are
most frequently used in the expressions that control the if statement and the various
loop statements.

The Assignment Operator

You have been using the assignment operator since Chapter 2. Now it is time to take
a formal look at it. The assignment operator is the single equal sign, =. The assignment operator
works in Java much as it does in any other computer language. It has this general form:
var = expression;
Here, the type of var must be compatible with the type of expression.
The assignment operator does have one interesting attribute that you may not be
familiar with: it allows you to create a chain of assignments. For example,
consider this fragment:
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 100; // set x, y, and z to 100
This fragment sets the variables x, y, and z to 100 using a single statement. This works
because the = is an operator that yields the value of the right-hand expression. Thus, the value of
z = 100 is 100, which is then assigned to y, which in turn is assigned to x. Using a ―cha assignmentǁ is an easy
way to set a group of

The ? Operator
Java includes a special ternary (three-way) operator that can replace certain types ofif-
then-else statements. This operator is the ?, and it works in Java much like it doesin C, C++, and
C#. It can seem somewhat confusing at first, but the ? can be used very effectively once
mastered. The ? has this general form:
expression1 ? expression2 : expression3
Here, expression1 can be any expression that evaluates to a boolean value. If expression1 is
true, then expression2 is evaluated; otherwise, expression3 is evaluated. The result of the ?
operation is that of the expression evaluated. Both expression2 and expression3 are required to
return the samevoidtype,. which can’t be

CONTROL STATEMENTS
if
The if statement was introduced in Chapter 2. It is examined in detail here. The if statement is Java’s
conditionalprogrambranchexecution state through two different paths. Here is the general form of the if
statement:
if (condition) statement1;
else statement2;
Here, each statement may be a single statement or a compound statement enclosed in
curly braces (that is, a block). The condition is any expression that returns a boolean value. The
else clause is optional.
int a,
b; // ...
if(a < b) a = 0;
else b = 0;

The if-else-if Ladder

A common programming construct that is based upon a sequence of nested ifs is the
if-else-if ladder. It looks like this:
if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
else if(condition)
statement;
...
else
statement;

switch
The switch statement is Java’s multiway branch dispatch execution to different parts of your code
based on the value of an expression. As such, it
often provides a better alternative than a large series of if-else-if statements.
Here is the general form of a switch statement:
switch (expression)
{ case value1:
// statement sequence
break;
case value2:
// statement sequence
break;
...
case valueN:
// statement sequence
break;
default:
// default statement sequence
}
The expression must be of type byte, short, int, or char; each of the values specified
in the case statements must be of a type compatible with the expression. Each case
value must be a unique literal (that is, it must be a constant, not a variable). Duplicate
case values are not allowed

Iteration Statements
Java’s iterationfor,while, andstatementsdo-while.Thesestatementsarecreate what we
commonly call loops. As you probably know, a loop repeatedly executes the same set of
instructions until a termination condition is met. As you will see, Java has a loop to fit any
programming need.
While
The while loop is Java’sfundamentalloopingmoststatement. It repeats a statement or
block while its controlling expression is true. Here is its general form:
While (condition) {
// body of loop
}
The condition can be any Boolean expression. The body of the loop will be executed as long as
the conditional expression is true. When condition becomes false, control passes to the next line
of code immediately following the loop. The curly braces are unnecessary if only a single
statement is being repeated.
do-while
As you just saw, if the conditional expression controlling a while loop is initially false,
then the body of the loop will not be executed at all. However, sometimes it is desirable to
execute the body of a while loop at least once, even if the conditional expression is false to begin
with.
Systex:
do {
// body of loop
} while (condition);
Each iteration of the do-while loop first executes the body of the loop and
then evaluates the conditional expression. If this expression is true, the loop will
repeat. Otherwise, the loop terminates.
// Demonstrate the do-while loop.
class DoWhile {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int n = 10;
do {
System.out.println("tick " +
n); n--;
} while(n > 0);
}
}
For
You were introduced to a simple form of the for loop in Chapter 2. As you will see, it is a
powerful and versatile construct. Here is the general form of the for statement:
for(initialization; condition; iteration) {
// body
}
If only one statement is being repeated, there is no need for the curly braces.
The for loop operates as follows. When the loop first starts, the initialization portion of the loop
is executed. Generally, this is an expression that sets the value of the loopcontrol variable, which
acts as a counter that controls the loop.. Next, condition is evaluated. This must be a Boolean
expression. It usually tests the loop control variable against a target value. If this expression is
true, then the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the loop terminates. Next, the iteration
portion of the loop is executed. This is usually an expression that increments or decrements the
loop control variable.
// Demonstrate the for loop.
class ForTick {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int n;
for(n=10; n>0; n--)
System.out.println("tick " + n);
}
}

Using break
In Java, the break statement has three uses. First, as you have seen, it terminates a
statement sequence in a switch statement. Second, it can be used to exit a loop. Third, it can be
used as a ―civilizedǁ form of goto. The last
Return
The last control statement is return. The return statement is used to explicitly return
from a method. That is, it causes program control to transfer back to the caller of the method. As
such, it is categorized as a jump statement. Although a full discussion of return must wait until
methods are discussed in Chapter 7, a brief look at return is presented here.

As you can see, the final println( ) statement is not executed. As soon as return
is executed, control passes back to the caller.
Type Conversion and Casting
If you have previous programming experience, then you already know that it is fairly common to
assign a value of one type to a variable of another type. If the two types are compatible, then
Java will perform the conversion automatically. For example, it is always possible to assign an
int value to a long variable. However, not all types are compatible, and thus, not all type
conversions are implicitly allowed.

Java’s Automatic Conversions

When one type of data is assigned to another type of variable, an automatic type
conversion will take place if the following two conditions are met:
■ The two types are compatible.
■ The destination type is larger than the sou

When these two conditions are met, a widening conversion takes place. For example, the
int type is always large enough to hold all valid byte values, so no explicit cast statement is
required.

It has this general form:

(target-type) value

Here, target-type specifies the desired type to convert the specified value to. For
example, the following fragment casts an int to a byte. If the integer’s valu than the range of a byte, it will be
reduced modulo (the remainder of an integer
division by the) byte’s range.

int a;
byte b;
// ...
b = (byte) a;

A different type of conversion will occur when a floating-point value is assigned to an integer
type: truncation. As you know, integers do not have fractional components.Thus, when a
floating-point value is assigned to an integer type, the fractional component is lost. For example,
if the value 1.23 is assigned to an integer, the resulting value will simply be 1. The 0.23 will have
been truncated. Of course, if the size of the whole number component is too large to fit into the
target integer type, then that value will be
The following program demonstrates some type conversions that require casts:

// Demonstrate casts.

class Conversion {
public static void main(String args[]) {
byte b;
int i = 257;
double d = 323.142;
System.out.println("\nConversion of int to
byte."); b = (byte) i;
System.out.println("i and b " + i + " " + b);
System.out.println("\nConversion of double to
int."); i = (int) d;
System.out.println("d and i " + d + " " + i);
System.out.println("\nConversion of double to
byte."); b = (byte) d;
System.out.println("d and b " + d + " " + b);
}
}
This program generates the following output:

Conversion of int to byte.

i and b 257 1
Conversion of double to int.
d and i 323.142 323
Conversion of double to byte.
d and b 323.142 67

SIMPLE JAVA PROGRAM

/*
This is a simple Java program.
Call this file "Example.java".
*/
class Example {
// Your program begins with a call to main().
public static void main(String args[]) {
System.out.println("This is a simple Java program.");
}
}
Access Control
As you know, encapsulation links data with the code that manipulates it. However,
encapsulation provides another important attribute: access control.

How a member can be accessed is determined by the access specifier that modifies its
declaration. Java supplies a rich set of access specifiers. Some aspects of access control are
related mostly to inheritance or packages. (A package is, essentially, a grouping of classes.)
These parts of Java’s access control mechanism examining access control as it applies to a
single class. Once you understand the fundamentals of access control, the rest willpublic,
privatebe, andeasyprotected. . Java’s
Java also defines a
default access level. protected applies only when inheritance is involved. The other
access specifiers are described next.

Let’s beginpublicbyand privatedefining.Whenamember of a class is modified by the

public specifier, then that member can be accessed by any other code. When a member of a class
is specified as private, then that member can only be accessed byother members of its class.
Now you can understand why main( ) has always been preceded by the public specifier. It is
called by code that is outside the program—that is, by the Java run-time system. When no access
specifier is used, then by default the member of a class is public within its own package, but
cannot be accessed outside of its package.
this Keyword

Sometimes a method will need to refer to the object that invoked it. To allow this, Java
defines the this keyword. this can be used inside any method to refer to the current object. That
is, this is always a reference to the object on which the method was invoked. You can use this
anywhere a reference to an object of the cur what this refers to, consider the following version of Box( ):

// A redundant use of this.

Box(double w, double h, double d)
{ this.width = w;
this.height = h;
this.depth = d;
}
This version of Box( ) operates exactly like the earlier version. The use of this is redundant, but
perfectly correct. Inside Box( ), this will always refer to the invoking object. While
it is redundant in this case, this is useful in other contexts, one of which is explained in
the next section.

Instance Variable Hiding

As you know, it is illegal in Java to declare two local variables with the same name inside
the same or enclosing scopes. Interestingly, you can have local variables,
including formal parameters to methods, which instance variables. However, when a local variable has the same
name as an instance
variable, the local variable hides the instance variable.

// Use this to resolve name-space collisions.

Box(double width, double height, double depth) {
this.width = width;
this.height = height;
this.depth = depth;
}
A word of caution: The use of this in such a context can sometimes be confusing,
and some programmers are careful not to use local variables and formal
parameter names that hide instance variables.

Garbage Collection

Since objects are dynamically allocated by using the new operator, you might be
wondering how such objects are destroyed and their memory released for later
reallocation. In some languages, such as C++, dynamically allocated objects must
be manually released by use of a delete operator. Java takes a different approach; it
handles deallocation for you automatically. The technique that accomplishes this is
Called garbage collection. It works like this: when no references to an object exist, that object is
assumed to be no longer needed, and the memory occupied by the object can be reclaimed.
Furthermore, different Java run-time implementations will take varying approaches to garbage
collection, but for the most part, you should not have to think about it while writing your
programs.
Overloading methods and constructors

Overloading Methods

In Java it is possible to define two or more methods within the same class that share the
same name, as long as their parameter declarations are different. When this is the case, the
methods are said to be overloaded, and the process is referred to as
method overloading. Method overloading is one of the ways that Java implements
polymorphism.

// Demonstrate method
overloading. class OverloadDemo {
void test() {
System.out.println("No parameters");
}
// Overload test for one integer
parameter. void test(int a) {
System.out.println("a: " + a);
}
// Overload test for two integer parameters.
void test(int a, int b) { System.out.println("a
and b: " + a + " " + b);
}
// overload test for a double
parameter double test(double a) {
System.out.println("double a: " + a);
return a*a;
}
}
class Overload {
public static void main(String args[]) {
OverloadDemo ob = new
OverloadDemo(); double result;
// call all versions of test()
ob.test();
ob.test(10);
ob.test(10, 20);
result = ob.test(123.25);
System.out.println("Result of ob.test(123.25): " + result);
}
}
This program generates the following
output: No parameters
a: 10
a and b: 10 20
double a: 123.25
Result of ob.test(123.25): 15190.5625
As you can see, test( ) is overloaded four times.
Overloading Constructor

In addition to overloading normal methods, you can also overload constructor

methods. In fact, for most real-world classes that you create, overloaded constructors
will be the norm, not the exception. To Boxunderstandclass why developed in the preceding chapter. Following
is the latest version of Box:
class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
// This is the constructor for Box.
Box(double w, double h, double d)
{ width = w;
height = h;
depth = d;
}
// compute and return volume
double volume() {
return width * height * depth;
}
}

Argument/Parameter passing
In general, there are two ways that a computer language can pass an argument to a
subroutine. The first way is call-by-value. This method copies the value of an argument into the
formal parameter of the subroutine. Therefore, changes made to the parameter of the subroutine
have no effect on the argument. The second way an argument can be passed is call-by-reference.
In this method, a reference to an argument (not the value of the argument) is passed to the
parameter. Inside the subroutine, this reference is used to access the actual argument specified in
the call. This means that changes made to the parameter will affect the argument used to call the
subroutine. As you will see, Java uses both approaches, depending upon what is passed.
For example, consider the following
program: // Simple types are passed by value.
class Test {
void meth(int i, int j)
{ i *= 2;
j /= 2;
}
}
class CallByValue {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Test ob = new Test();
int a = 15, b = 20;
System.out.println("a and b before call: "
+ a + " " + b);
ob.meth(a, b);
System.out.println("a and b after call: " +
a + " " + b);
}
}
The output from this program is shown here: a and b before call: 15 20
a and b after call: 15 20
Recursion

Java supports recursion. Recursion is the process of defining something in terms of itself.
As it relates to Java programming, recursion is the attribute that allows a method to call itself. A
method that calls itself is said to be recursive.The classic example of recursion is the
computation of the factorial of a number. The factorial of a number N is the product of all the
whole numbers between 1 and N.
// A simple example of
recursion(factorial). class Factorial {
// this is a recursive function
int fact(int n) {
int result;
if(n==1) return 1;
result = fact(n-1) * n;
return result;
}
}

class Recursion {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Factorial f = new Factorial();
System.out.println("Factorial of 3 is " + f.fact(3));
System.out.println("Factorial of 4 is " + f.fact(4));
System.out.println("Factorial of 5 is " + f.fact(5));
}
}
The output from this program is shown here:
Factorial of 3 is 6
Factorial of 4 is 24
Factorial of 5 is 120

String class

Although the String class will be examined in depth in Part II of this book, a short
exploration of it is warranted now, because we will be using strings in some of the example
programs shown toward the end of Part I. String is probably the most commonly used class in
Java’s class library. The obviousareaveryimportantreasonpartof for programming.

The first thing to understand about strings is that every string you create is actually an object of
type String. Even string constants are actually String objects. For example, in the statement

System.out.println("This is a String, too");

the string ―ThisStringisconstant. Fortunately,String,JavahandlestooǁString isconstants

in the same way that other computer language worry about this.

The second thing to understand about strings is that objects of type String are immutable; once a
String object is created, its contents cannot be altered. While this may seem like a serious
restriction, it is not, for two reasons:
■ If you need to change a string, youthe can modifications.
■ Java definesString ,calledpeerStringBufferclass,whichallowsofstrings to be altered, so
all of the normal string manipulations are still available in Java.
(StringBuffer is described in Part II of this book.)
Strings can be constructed a variety of ways. The easiest is to use a statement like this:
String myString = "this is a test";
Once you have created a String object, you can use it anywhere that a string is allowed. For
example, this statement displays myString:
System.out.println(myString);
Java defines one operator for String objects: +. It is used to concatenate two strings.
For example, this statement

String myString = "I" + " like " + "Java.";

results in myString containing ―I like Java.ǁ

The following program demonstrates the preceding concepts:

// Demonstrating Strings.
class StringDemo {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String strOb1 = "First String";
String strOb2 = "Second String";
String strOb3 = strOb1 + " and " + strOb2;
System.out.println(strOb1);
System.out.println(strOb2);
System.out.println(strOb3);
}
}
The output produced by this program is shown here:
First String
Second String
First String and Second String

The String class contains several methods that you can use. Here are a few. You can
test two strings for equality by using equals( ). You can obtain the length of a string by
calling the length( ) method. You can obtain the character at a specified index within a
string by calling charAt( ). The general forms of these three methods are shown here:
boolean equals(String object)
int length( )
char charAt(int index)

Here is a program that demonstrates these methods:

// Demonstrating some String methods.
class StringDemo2 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String strOb1 = "First String";
String strOb2 = "Second
String"; String strOb3 = strOb1;
System.out.println("Length of strOb1: "
+ strOb1.length());
System.out.println("Char at index 3 in strOb1: "
+ strOb1.charAt(3));
if(strOb1.equals(strOb2))
System.out.println("strOb1 == strOb2");
else
System.out.println("strOb1 != strOb2");
if(strOb1.equals(strOb3))
System.out.println("strOb1 == strOb3");
else
System.out.println("strOb1 != strOb3");
}
}

This program generates the following output:

Length of strOb1: 12
Char at index 3 in strOb1: s
strOb1 != strOb2
strOb1 == strOb3
Of course, you can have arrays of strings, just like you can have arrays of any
other type of object. For example:
// Demonstrate String
arrays. class StringDemo3 {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String str[] = { "one", "two", "three" };
for(int i=0; i<str.length; i++)
System.out.println("str[" + i + "]: "
+ str[i]);
}
}

Here is the output from this

program: str[0]: one
str[1]: two
str[2]: three

As you will see in the following section, string arrays play an important part
in many Java programs.