TOPIC ONE: READING SKILLS

Definition of Reading:
Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding symbols to arrive at meaning.
Reading is an active process of constructing meanings of words. Reading with a purpose helps
the reader to direct information towards a goal and focuses their attention. Although the reasons
for reading may vary, the primary purpose of reading is to understand the text. Reading is a
thinking process. It allows the reader to use what he or she may already know, also called prior
knowledge. During this processing of information, the reader uses strategies to understand what
they are reading, uses themes to organize ideas, and uses textual clues to find the meanings of
new words.
Reading is the ability to understand words contained in a document and make use of the
knowledge for personal growth and development (Dadzie, 2008). This implies making meaning
out of recorded information either printed or non-printed in the life of an individual. People read
for different reasons and purposes, some of which include for pleasure, leisure, relaxation,
information and for knowledge.
Reading is the identification of the symbols and the association of appropriate meaning with
them. It requires identification and comprehension. Comprehension skills help the learner to
understand the meaning of words in isolation and in context (Palani, 2012). He believes
reading is a process of thinking, evaluating, judging, imagining, reasoning and problem solving.
Reading is an essential tool for knowledge transfer and the habit of reading is an academic
activity that increases skills in reading strategies.
Guthrie, Benneth & McGough, (2007) believe that “reading” is the act of getting
meaning from printed or written words, which is the basis for learning and one of the
most important skills in everyday life. "Reading" is the process of looking at a series of written
symbols and getting meaning from them. When we read, we use our eyes to receive written
symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them into
words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us.

Types of Reading

There are several types/ways/techniques of reading. They are previewing, skimming, scanning,
word for word reading, light reading, intensive/study/critical reading and extensive reading.
a) Previewing
It involves looking over a text to determine its relevance and worth for a specific reading
purpose. It helps the reader to predict in a very short time, what a reading text is all about and to
determine its degree of relevance. You then can decide whether to read the book or not, or
whether to read a part or parts of it and which part.
Previewing a text is done by looking at the following:
i) Front matter: title, forward/preface or introduction, table of contents.
 ii) Back matter: blurbs, index, glossary, bibliography.
iii) The book itself: Headings, subheadings, organizations, language, content, diagrams.

b) Skimming
Used when a reader wants to get the main idea or gist of a text within a very short time. When
skimming, you need to read the topic sentences only. The topic sentence is usually the first in a
paragraph and expresses the main idea.
c) Scanning
It involves searching for particular items of information. You are interested in these items only
and not everything in the text.
d) Word by word reading;
This reading technique is used when one is learning how to read for the first time. You might use
this technique if you decide to learn a new language. Word for word reading means trying to
understand fully one word or phrase at a time.
e) Light reading
In this type of reading there is neither an attempt to digest the material that is read nor is there
any attempt to assess it critically. It is the type of reading most people apply when reading
newspapers and novels. This kind of reading is not recommended for study purposes but you can
use the technique when reading for leisure.
f) Intensive reading
Intensive reading entails content study of what is read in some detail and study of language in
which the material is written. Intensive reading calls for a deep and thorough understanding of
what is written.
g) Extensive Reading
Extensive reading might be said to emphasize the process whereby a student comes to
understand a book without fully grasping every point of it, or even trying to. Extensive reading
usually involves long texts or books with many pages - or just wide reading. The objectives of
extensive reading are: to promote enjoyment of reading, to provide various experiences, and to
provide wide exposure to written English in use.
h) Incremental reading- is a software-assisted reading method designed for long-term
memorization. In the course of reading, important pieces of information are extracted and
converted into flashcards, which are then reviewed by a spaced repetition algorithm.
i) Proofreading- is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors.
j) Rereading- is reading a book more than once.
k) Active Reading- There are times when you just cannot afford to skim through or scan through
the text but need to get an in-depth understanding of what you're reading and hence you need to
make sure you're actively involved with the same. There are four important points that you need
to keep in mind during active reading. These are as follows:
 [i] Underlining/Highlighting:
Identify the most important parts of the text according to your own understanding and
highlight or underline them using a pencil or a marker while you are reading. You can
even use different colors to highlight diverse aspects of the text.
[ii] Make a Note of Key Words:
Jot down the headings as you read and the detail, using one or two keywords for each
point.
[iii] Questions:
Before you start reading, prepare for the same by writing down all the questions you want
the material to answer. This helps you to read accordingly and ensures that you get the
answers to all your questions and don't get distracted while reading.
l) Independent Reading- students read silently by themselves and at their own pace (Taylor,
1993). The selections must be at students' reading level in order for them to comprehend what
they are reading.
(m) Guided Reading-guided reading is conducted with small groups of students who read at the
same level.
(n) Shared Reading -students follow along as the teacher reads a selection aloud (Fisher
&Medvic, 2000).

The Reading Process:

Reading is a process that involves recognizing words, leading to the development of
comprehension. According to research, reading is a process that negotiates the meaning between
the text and its reader. The reading process involves three stages.
The first is the pre-reading stage, which allows the reader to activate background knowledge,
preview the text, and develop a purpose for reading. A strategy for students to utilize during this
stage is to look at the title of the selection and list all the information that comes to mind about
the title.
The second stage occurs during reading, when the reader makes predictions as they read and
then confirms or revises the predictions. For example, double-entry journal enable the reader to
write the text from the reading on one side and their personal reaction on the other side.
The final stage occurs after reading and allows the reader to retell the story, discuss the
elements of a story, answer questions and/or compare it to another text. For example, students
can create summaries, where they take a huge selection and reduce it to its main points for more
concise understanding.
Comprehension is an intentional, active, and interactive process that occurs before, during and
after a person reads a particular piece of writing.
The process of reading has the following characteristics:
❖ It is both a physical and mental activity.
❖ It requires attention and thought.
❖ It involves the participation of the reader emotionally and intellectually.
❖ It involves interpretation of the written (printed) symbols.
How to improve your comprehension during reading:

❖ Begin from what you already know (activating prior knowledge).

❖ Always try to make sense of what you are reading (context).
❖ Ask yourself questions; before, during and after reading.
❖ Predict and think about what will happen next in the text, or how your questions will be
answered.
❖ Read with a purpose. Know why you are reading and what you are reading to find out.
❖ Know that as a good reader you often REREAD parts of, or even, the whole text two or more
times in order to make sense of what you are reading.
Purposes for reading
❖ Reading for pleasure/entertainment
❖ Acquiring knowledge and information: to be informed about the world you live in.
❖ Reading for academic purpose
❖ Reading for instructions or directions
The SQ3R reading method
Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R)
This method facilitates a very deep understanding of the matter that is being read. In fact, the
system aims to facilitate an understanding so clear that the reader should be able to teach
whatever he has learned during the process of reading. Instructors who are preparing to teach
a material without having to refer to notes during the lecture, generally use this reading
method. The process involves five different steps, which are as follows:
[i] Survey- Survey involves getting a quick idea of what the whole writing piece is about. It
is a pre-reading technique that helps you to determine what the text you are going to read is
about and how it is organised. By looking at the title, the illustrations, the table of contents,
the headings and sub-headings and the illustrations in a text, you will familiarize yourself
quickly with the organisation and content of the information material. This helps you to
decide whether the content is relevant to your reading purposes or not.
[ii] Question- is a pre-reading technique that involves coming up with questions to which
your reading should provide answers. These questions helps to keep you alert and focused as
you read. When you use this technique, you define your reading purpose and determine what
you want to remember at the end of your reading task.
[iii] Read- study reading involves more than the use of the eyes. It involves noting down or
highlighting key points, paying attention to the emphasis given by the writer through the use
of underlined words, italicized words and bolded words; marking key vocabulary, and
checking your comprehension as you proceed.
[iv] Recite- at this stage you check on your understanding of what you read by either asking
yourself questions and trying to answer them without making reference to the text, or by
 mentally summarizing in your own words-what you have read. When you find there is an
important detail you cannot remember, re-read the section containing that information.
[v] Review- review involves re-reading the headings, the recall questions and the brief notes
you made during the reading stage to bring back to mind what you have read. It can be done
a day or two days after the reading. For this step to be effective you need to make brief notes
but meaningful notes from the texts you read. This will make your revision before
examination less strenuous.
Bad reading habits:

❖ Trying to understand every word that you read by consulting the dictionary from time to
time. This slows down reading and interferes with concentration.
❖ Vocalization -This slows down reading to a speaking pace and is therefore inefficient.
❖ Retrogression- This means reading forwards and backwards. It hinders comprehension unless
you are doing word by word reading.
❖ Pointing - using a finger, pencil or pen over what is being read or nodding the head.
❖ Poor fluency-This includes rushing past commas instead of pausing.
❖ Not thinking about what the sentence means- Not reading by punctuation interval and
thinking about the relationship of each punctuation interval in the sentence to the next.
❖ Reading too fast.
❖ Being a passive rather than active reader; failing to ask a question and look for an answer as
you read each sentence.
❖ Poor and limited use of dictionary.
❖ Physical discomfort while reading.
❖ Moving your lips as you read- Moving your lips slows you to a fast talking rate.
❖ Reading everything at the same speed-When reading, set your rate according to your
purpose for reading and the difficulty level of the material. Practice adjusting your rate to suit
your material. The more difficult the material, the slower the rate.
❖ Reading one word at a time
Components of Reading:
All students meet and understand class text in different ways, depending on the “files” they have
gathered since birth. A teacher’s awareness of how easy or difficult the text is for each student
makes learning stronger for everyone.
Teachers can use assessments to tell us how well students are reading. Once we have data from
assessments, we can formulate effective instruction.
Reading assessments measure various components of reading. The five main components of
reading are:
1. Phonomic Awareness
Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that make up spoken words and Phonomic Awareness
is defined as the ability to “focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken words.”
Phonomic awareness impacts meaningful reading, and thus it is critical for students to develop
this skill. When a person hears and can understand the three sounds that the word ‘cat’ has,
they’ve demonstrated their understanding.
Some skills involved in phonomic awareness include:
• Identifying specific sounds at the beginning, middle, and end of words. For example,
what is the first sound in the word “Table.”
• Blending sounds. For example joining /s/ and /it/ to form sit.
• Making a new word by adding a phonome to a word. For example, deriving what work is
created when adding /s/ to the word “and.”
2. Phonics
Phonics are a set of rules that specify the relationship between letters and sounds. The English
language has such rules that help predict the sounds in new words. However, it is not always
consistent.
Learning about phonics will help students read and spell easily and accurately. It involves
recognizing letter-sound relationships and then using those relationships to read connected text.
An example of Phonics is learning about the various letter combinations that can be used for the
sound /k/.
3. Fluency
Fluency is the accurate and rapid recognition of words in a text and using phrasing and emphasis
in a way that makes what is read sound like spoken language.
Fluency is important for reading comprehension, because it frees up working memory in the
brain providing an opportunity for students to comprehend what they are reading.
4. Vocabulary
Vocabulary refers to the words that we use in reading, writing, listening and speaking. A good
vocabulary helps ease word recognition, and thus makes reading easier.
5. Comprehension
Comprehension is the final goal of reading. This involves being able to connect what has been
read to what the reader knows, constructing meaning that is reasonable and accurate and then,
contemplating this information until the meaning is understood.

TOPIC TWO: COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Definition of Communication Skills
Different books and experts define communications skills differently but the most basic
definition is that:
❖ Communication skill is the art and technique of communicating by using oral and body
language to persuade him or bring into him the change that you want him to be. Thus,
Communication skills is the ability to use language and express information.
❖ Communication skills is the set of skills that enables a person to convey information so that it
is received and understood. Communication skills refer to the behaviors that serve to convey
information.
❖ Communication skills is the ability an individual displays in consistently to effectively
communicate with clients, colleagues, subordinates, and supervisors in both the professional
and personal world.
What is communication?
❖ Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which
means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended
meaning to another person through the use of mutually understood signs and language.
Communication is the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to
another.
❖ Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic
steps of communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition,
message encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and
finally interpretation of the message by the recipient.
❖ Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another.
When you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be communicating with
your friend.
❖ Communication is the process in which information or ideas are exchanged either between or
among individuals through a system or use of symbols. Communication may also be defined
as giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual
means, so that the material communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned.
❖ It is also viewed as a process through which people share ideas or feelings by sending or
transmitting messages from one person to another with the receiver comprehending the
message then giving an appropriate feedback. Communication is also symbolic in the sense
that we can use gestures, signs, numbers, sounds, and letters and can only be used to
represent the ideas meant to carry.
Communication Models:
The models of communication render an important contribution in facilitating the processes
of communication in an efficient manner. When the individuals acquire information in terms
of models of communication, they are able to acknowledge the ways, which need to be put
into operation to carry out the processes of communication in a well-organized manner. A
 model is referred to the graphic image, which is aimed to make provision of description in
terms of the ways of the working of the variable. It is a strategy, design, illustration or
explanation that is created to represent the structure as well as the working of the articles,
objects, schemes, tasks and concepts. A model of communication makes provision of a useful
way of generating information in terms of graphical checklist in terms of various components

Objectives of Models of Communication:

The primary objective of models of communication is to acquire an understanding of the

communication processes. In addition, it helps in understanding important aspects of
communication. The various objectives of models of communication are:

1. Providing information regarding elements of communication.

2. Conducting research.
3. Providing information in terms of ways to promote success of communication processes.
4. Generating information in terms of factors that would lead to failure of communication
processes.
5. Manageable implementation of communication processes.
6. Showing information flow.
7. Introducing features of communication processes.
8. Presentation of communication processes.
9. Understanding the complexities of communication processes.
10. Measures to bring about improvements in communication processes.
Functions of Models of Communication:
The primary function of models of communication is to enhance the skills and abilities of the
individuals to communicate in an effective manner.
Communication model presents various aspects of communication logically that help the
researchers in acquiring an understanding of the pattern of communication. With the help of the
communication models, the researchers can undertake communication programs and put them
into operation in a well-organized manner
Another function of the communication models is to contribute sufficiently in identifying the
setbacks of the communication processes. Through the models, one can identify the causes of
setbacks of the communication processes.

Characteristics of Communication:
The characteristics of communication include:
❖ Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to
others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending).
❖ Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play.
❖ Communication is a complex a process.
❖ Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which
participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share
meaning.
❖ Communication involves the sharing of information using a code.
❖ Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals
❖ Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled
back.
❖ Communication is a system
❖ Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel,
message, noise, feedback.
❖ Communication can be verbal/ non-verbal or visual.
❖ Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbal
Elements of communication/ Components of communication:
[a] Sender- this is the initiator of the communication process and plays the following roles in the
communication process;
[i] He/she is the source of the information being given to the receiver.
[ii] Initiates the communication process.
[iii] Encodes the information being given to the receiver by choosing appropriate symbols,
words, signs, sounds to convey the information to the intended receiver.
[iv] Evaluate the availability of the medium of communication and settles for the best alternative
to use in sending the information to the intended receiver.
[v] Meets the cost of communication.
[b] Message- this is the idea, feeling, information or an opinion that is transmitted from the
sender to the receiver. It is the physical form which the sender encodes the idea or opinion or
feelings to be able to pass it across to the receiver. Its main role in the communication process is
to bring understanding between the sender and the receiver.
[c] Encoding- It is the process through which the sender expresses his/her ideas or opinions into
words, signs, gestures to convey the message. It is a psychological process where the sender
engages his/her mind to select the appropriate words or signs to convey the message.
[d] Medium/channel- refers to the means through which information is carried or transmitted
from one place to another. Its role in the communication process is to bridge the gap between the
sender of information and the intended receiver.
[e] Receiver- this is the intended target of the information or message, he/she receives the
message or information and gives feedback as expected by the sender. If he/she fails to receive
the information as intended then breakdown occurs. Thus to facilitate decoding of the message or
information it should be encoded correctly in the intended receivers’ mind. The receiver
performs the following roles in the communication process;
[i] Receives the sent information or message.
[ii] Decodes the information or message sent i.e interpreting the message or information
accordingly.
[iii] Responds to the sender by giving an appropriate feedback.
[iv] He/she meets the cost of the feedback medium cost.
How the receiver could enhance the effectiveness of communication:
[i] Listening effectively or pay attention to the message from the communicator.
[ii] Asking questions for clarification where necessary.
[iii] Gives feedback to show that he/she has understood the message.
[iv] Should have positive attitude to the communicator.
[v] Should create a conducive environment that is being friendly, cooperative and having
courtesy to the communicator.
[f] Decoding- the process through which the receiver interprets the message in order to give
meaning and hence an appropriate feedback.
[g] Feedback- is the reaction or response of the receiver to the message or information sender.
Feedback completes the communication process and therefore brings about reversal of roles
where the initial sender becomes the receiver.
Styles of communication:
[i] Assertive communication- assertive communication is the most healthy and positive way of
communication. This is the natural way of expressing inner thoughts. Self-esteem plays a big
role in assertive communication that gives the communicator the confidence to communicate
naturally without manipulating anything. However, assertive communication is not used much in
real life communication.
[ii] Passive communication- this type of communication is largely based on compliance so as to
avoid any sort of confrontation with the other person. A passive communicator talks less,
questions less and does very little.
[iii] Aggressive communication- aggressive communication always involves a great deal of
manipulative techniques to make people do whatever you want. Different tactics are used in
aggressive communication including guilt, intimidation and anger.
Effective Communication:
Effectiveness of any communication process is strongly dictated by the quality of the media used
and the basic principles or rules with which the information is conveyed.
Principles of effective communication:
[a] The principle of clarity- the principle emphasizes that the message sent should give the
clearest meaning whenever possible. If the sender chooses symbols or signs they should
therefore carry the meaning the receiver can interpret simply without difficult. It emphasizes
further that in a communication process, ambiguous words, technical terms which the receiver
cannot understand should be avoided for the communication process to be smooth.
[b] The Principle of preciseness- the sender of information or message should be straight to the
point or the use of words should give the most intended message in the most exact meaning.
[c] The Principle of objectivity- the symbol used should be in the most common and widely
accepted meaning i.e words should have universally accepted meaning and be straight to the
objective of the communication.
[d] The Principle of relevance- the sender’s message should be relevant to the circumstances,
purpose and subject matter of communication and feedback should be given in the most relevant
way.
[e] The Principle of accuracy- the message should be as accurate as possible, more particularly,
when dealing with numbers or statistical information which is given in figures so as to represent
the true picture of the situation on the ground.
[f] The Principle of order or logical representation- the message should be well organised and
presented in order to enable faster communication and understanding of the process. This
principle is very important especially when giving out a public presentation and even in the
teaching and learning processes.
[g] Brevity- the message should be as brief as possible.
[h] Completeness- the message should contain the entire content as intended by the sender.
[i] Goal oriented- for effective communication to take place there should be a clear objective of
the message.
[j] Accuracy- the message should be as exact as possible in its meaning.
Factors to consider when choosing a medium of communication:
❖ The cost of the medium- consider how much the communication will cost in terms of the
results expected.
❖ Availability of the medium.
❖ Resources- consider the equipment and staff available.
❖ Confidentiality as security levels of the medium.
❖ The urgency or speed of the message.
❖ The nature of the message i.e if the message is too detailed then writing it is the best method
but if brief calling will be the best option.
❖ The reliability of the medium.
❖ The audience or the receiver of the message.
Barriers to effective communication:
A barrier in the communication process is any interference in the encoding and the decoding
processes that reduce the clarity of a message. It can be physical, psychological, cultural, or
language retained.
(i) Physical barriers: Examples include loud sounds, distracting sights, unusual behaviour,
physical appearance etc.
(ii) Psychological barriers: Examples include worries, uncertainties or any other attitudinal or
emotional factors.
(iii) Cultural barriers: Examples are cultural differences relating to beliefs and values.
(iv) Language barriers: e.g. mother tongue interference, inadequate vocabulary,
inappropriate register diction, etc.
Specifically, barriers to communication are as follows:
[i] Difference perception- occurs when the sender and receiver looks at the same point from a
totally different points of view bringing about conflict in their perception. Such differences may
be caused by education status, cultural backgrounds, and level of experience.
[ii] Language barrier- when sender and receiver does not speak or understand each other’s
language used in communication.
[iii] Noise- it is any factor that disturbs or interferes with the communication process by reducing
the concentration of the sender and the receiver.
[iv] Defective channels of communication- which leads to communication breakdown.
[v] Age difference – age may create a difference in understanding or interest between the two
parties involved hence affecting the communication. This is because there is lack of shared
common experience, difference in knowledge and levels of awareness.
[vi] Attitude- the sender or receiver‘s attitude towards one another is likely to influence
communication to a higher degree positively or negatively.
[vii] Mistrust or fear- the credibility of the message is to a large extent dictated by the trust that
two parties have to one another. If the sender provides an environment of mistrust or fear any
message will be received with suspicion.
[viii] Improper delegation of the message or information sent to the receiver.
[ix] Information overload.
[x] Distortion of information sent.
[xi] Lack of knowledge on the subject matter.
[xii] Poor listening.
[xiii] Illiteracy.
[xiv] High cost of the media for sending the message or information.
[xv] Geographical barriers.
[xvi] Lack of adequate preparation by the sender.
[xvii] Distractions e.g noise.
[xviii] Unclarified assumptions made by either sender or receiver and are not clear to one of the
parties.
[xix] Poorly expressed messages due to poor choice of words.
[xx] Loss of transmission and poor retention.
[xxi] Selective perception- people perceive what they want to perceive and they hear only what
they want to hear.
[xxii] Mood – poor mood on either the sender or the receiver.
Solution to barriers to communication:
❖ Ensure the environment is noise free.
❖ Use the right channels of communications for effective delivery of messages or information.
❖ Strive for the right attitude on the information or message being sent or received.
❖ Plan before giving out a message or information to ensure that all principles of effective
communication are observed.
❖ Avoid assumptions on the receivers’ side.
❖ Sufficient time for adjustment should be given.
❖ Practice and training should be used as instruments to improve training and reading.
❖ Conciseness should be aimed at but it should not create ambiguity.
Unethical practices in communication:
❖ Providing misleading information.
❖ Spamming- sending unsolicited messages to other people.
❖ Eavesdrop- spying on other people’s information or tapping other people’s phones or
websites.
❖ Spoofing- masquerading to be a genuine person when you are a counterfeit in
communicating the given information.
❖ Use of indecent language i.e using abusive language.
❖ Jamming- loading excessive information hence congesting the system hence delaying the
delivery of the sent message or information.
Forms of Communication:
[a] Visual communication- involves passing of information through signs or images where the
receiver receives the message through the sense of sight. It includes body language, pictures,
gestures, colours, numbers etc. the body language includes facial expression, use of parts of the
body e.g winking or waving to pass across some information. All these body languages indicate
the mood, anxiety levels and the state of emotions of a person.
Advantages of visual communication:
❖ Useful for those with hearing problems.
❖ It is easier to maintain the attention of the audience by capturing the attention using gestures.
❖ Gives a better understanding to an illiterate audience.
❖ Creates interest among the audience through use of gestures.
❖ They help enhance clarity and presentation of the report by reinforcing with chats, figures
and tables.
Disadvantages of visual communication:
❖ Cannot serve those with sight problems.
❖ Chances of misrepresentations are high hence distorting the messages meant to carry.
❖ Does not give illustrations especially those on still boards.
[b] Written communication – it is a form of communication that takes place through written
word, the medium used being letters, journal, memos, notices, minutes.
Advantages of written communication:
❖ Provides a point of future reference.
❖ It is a debate i.e it can accommodate more details unlike oral communication.
❖ It is cheap over long distances.
❖ Provides evidence of communication unlike oral communication.
❖ It allows illustration of messages through use of graphs, charts unlike oral communication.
❖ It can be forwarded to a number of people.
Disadvantages of written communication:
❖ It is time consuming to prepare.
❖ No immediate feedback unlike oral communication.
❖ It is expensive in terms of the materials used.
❖ Not suitable for illiterate individuals.
❖ Not confidential especially if the intended target is illiterate.
❖ It is difficult to make clarifications.
❖ Language problems can make it ineffective.
❖ It is mostly formal hence it lacks the personal touch enjoyed in other forms of
communication.
❖ The message can be misinterpreted by the receiver bringing about communication
breakdown.
❖ Once the information has been dispatched, it is difficult to alter it.
[c] Oral communication – it is a form of communication that takes place through the spoken
word which could either be face to face, telephone meetings, interviews.
Advantages of oral communication:
❖ It is a faster form of communication.
❖ It is accurate as one can explain the message for clarification.
❖ It is cheap over short distances.
❖ It is confidential because the target of the messages can be communicated to directly.
❖ There is immediate feedback.
❖ It incorporates personal attributes that may show the weight of the messages i.e facial
expressions, the tone variations.
Disadvantages of oral communication:
❖ There is no evidence of communication.
❖ It is restrictive i.e it cannot accommodate many details as compared to written
communication.
[d] Audio visual form of communication- this takes place through sound and visual signs of
gestures. The medium commonly used is TV, videos, film, computers.
Advantages of audio visuals communication:
❖ It is faster form of communication.
❖ It is persuasive.
❖ It can be translated into many languages.
❖ Provides evidence of what is being talked about.
❖ Provides room for illustrations and demonstrations.
❖ Can be followed by the deaf and blind people.
Disadvantages of audio visual communication:
❖ Depends of source of power to be to use it.
❖ Prone to signals in some places.
❖ Need to train use to be to use them.
❖ It is expensive for many to afford to purchase.
[e] Non-verbal communication:
This is passing of messages through lectures, body movement and facial expression. It is passing
of messages without talking.
Advantages of non-verbal communication:
❖ You can communicate with someone who cannot hear.
❖ You can communicate in places where you have to avoid talking audibly.
❖ You can communicate without others around you hearing what is being communicated.
❖ You can communicate when a person is too far away from you to hear you (for example, by
gesturing)
❖ Non-verbal communication makes conversation short and brief.
❖ Non-verbal communication saves on time and can be used as a tool to communicate with
people who don't understand your language
Disadvantages of non-verbal communication:
❖ Long conversations using non-verbal communication are usually not possible.
❖ Non-verbal communication varies from culture to culture.
❖ Particulars of messages using non-verbal communication cannot be discussed in detail.
❖ It is not useful as a public tool for communication
❖ It cannot be used everywhere and is less influential than verbal communication.

TOPIC THREE: LISTENING SKILLS

Definitions of listening:
There are many definitions of listening. The following are some examples.
❖ Listening is the active process of receiving hearing stimuli.
❖ Listening is a voluntary process that goes beyond simply reacting to sounds and
includes understanding, analysing, evaluating, and responding.
❖ Listening is an active, deliberate, selective process by which a message is received,
critically interpreted, and acted upon by a purposeful listener.
Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication
process. Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen effectively
messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks down and the sender of the message
can easily become frustrated or irritated.
Listening is not the same as Hearing:
Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it requires
focus. Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of
language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means
being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends
on the degree to which you perceive and understand these messages. Listening is the reception of
sent via sound where the sender and receiver employ oral communication.
We spend a lot of Time Listening:
Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged in some sort of communication, of this an
average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking, 16% reading and 9%
writing. (Adler, R. et al. 2001).

Levels/types of listening:

[i] Intensive listening- this is the highest level of listening which involves devotion of time and
energy by the receiver to the incoming messages.
[ii] Entertainment/ Casual listening- this is listening where the receiver pays the least attention
in the listening process whereby he/she may or may not be interested in the full meaning of the
messages but only in some aspects such as tone, rhythm e.g when listening to music while
reading or walking.
[iii] Reflective/ Emphatic listening- this is a form of listening where the receiver attempts to
share the same feelings and emotions as the sender. It is also referred to as listening for the
feelings. It is employed when the receiver pays more attention to the verbal sounds and all the
non-verbal aspects that make the communication more real. The receiver’s response must be
specifically tailored to the sender’s feelings as he/she gives out the information. It is commonly
used in religious and counselling sessions.
[iv] Appreciative/ Relaxed listening- this is the level of listening where listener pays attention
to the information being passed across and does not give any devotion of time or energy.
[v] Discriminative/ Selective listening- it is a level of listening where the listener selects
important information and gives attention and ignores irrelevant information. The whole process
is characterised by picking relevant information and ignoring irrelevant aspects.
[vi] Critical listening- this is a level of listening where the receiver keenly analyses the
information being passed across with an intention of pointing out the weakness or the strengths
of the information. It is sometimes termed as analytical listening.
[vii] Relationship listening- the purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual
or improve the relationship between people.
[viii] Marginal listening- where the receiver spends only part of the time listening to what the
sender is saying. The receiver’s mind wanders as they listen to the incoming message.
[ix] Dialogue listening- this is listening where questions are asked and interaction is created. It
enhances sharing of ideas.
[x] Evaluation listening- involves making a judgment about the reasonableness of what a
speaker is saying. Once the listener makes an evaluation about an incoming message, he or she
hears very little else of what is said.
[xi] Non-evaluation listening- the listener tries to focus on the incoming message without trying
to simultaneously evaluate it.
[xii] Active listening- involves concentrating on the message so that all elements of the message
are received. The listener listens not only for the content of the message, but also for the
underlying feelings and for non-verbal cues that go with the message. It also requires the receiver
to ask questions for clarification to ensure understanding.
Barriers to effective listening:
You may find that your listening is hampered by both internal and external factors. The
following are some examples of barriers to effective listening and their possible solutions.
❖ Unfamiliarity with the subject under discussion- One way of dealing with this to do. Prior
preparation for the listening activity. In a classroom situation, for example, you can read
ahead of the lecturer so that you are familiar with the material. This will help you to
formulate questions, which you expect the lecturer to answer during the lecture,
Communication researchers have found out that an unprepared listener can recall only 50%
of a 10-minute lecture if tested immediately after.
❖ Prejudices and bias- This may be based on Culture, gender, religion, ethnic background,
etc. Separate the message from the speaker and concentrate only on the message.
❖ Day dreaming and absent-mindedness- Pay attention to the speaker and make an effort of
predicting what to said next or jot down what is being said.
❖ Poor view of the speaker due to obstruction- Position yourself at a vantage point where
you can maintain eye contact with the speaker
❖ Poor sitting position or general discomfort- Assume an upright sitting position that can
enable you to turn freely and even take notes
❖ Self-confidence and self-protectionism- self-confidence is an over trust of one’s
knowledge, ideas, opinions which makes one to see such ideas as dominant over those of
other people. Self-protectionism is fear or tendency to protect ones ideas, knowledge, values
or status from being challenged by other people’s ideas.
❖ Authority difference- this mainly occurs in vertical communication which links two people
of different authority levels. It has the following effects on communication:
➢ Fear- where a very senior person communicates with a junior person.
➢ Superiority complex- if the listener is a very senior person to the speaker the tendency to
pay casual attention will come up.
❖ Noise- it distracts the receiver’s attention to the speaker hence reducing the concentration
level of the listener.
❖ Expectations of communication- once the expectation of what to hear is not fully addressed
by the speaker the receiver or audience may disregard the message hence pay casual
attention.
❖ Attitude- the attitude between the two parties influences the level of listening between the
two parties. Negative attitudes reduce the urgency of listening while a positive attitude
motivates the listener, making the reception of the information more accurate.
❖ Pre-judgement.
❖ Selfishness
❖ Selective listening
❖ Failure to prepare to listen
❖ Poor delivery of the message by the source.

Importance of proper listening skills:

❖ Proper listening improves accuracy and efficiency therefore undertaking of procedure is

always done with minimal wastage of time.
❖ It ensures that the responsibilities are well attended to and in areas where delegation is
embraced then appropriate attention is given to work.
❖ It minimises confusion and conflicts between instructors and the audience.
❖ It provides feedback that is appropriate given that one is able to seek clarifications in areas
not familiar with.
❖ It minimises wastage of resources in communication process.
❖ Helps people to understand what is being said.
❖ Helps people to relate new information to old information.
❖ Helps people to interpret information in your own words thereby enhancing understanding.
❖ Helps people to draw conclusion from information given.

Tips for effective Listening:

❖ Read in advance about the topic to be discussed.

❖ Sit or stand where you will have a good view of the speaker.
❖ Focus your attention on the speaker. Sit upright, avoid fidgeting and resist distractions.
❖ Listen for the main idea and specific details. Ignore irrelevant information.
❖ Make connections between the various points presented.
❖ Take notes as you listen.
❖ Work at listening instead of pretending to listen. Make an effort to understand both the
surface and deep meaning of what is being presented.
❖ Ask appropriate questions when given a chance to do so. Avoid interrupting the speaker
unnecessarily.
❖ Avoid being emotional as you listen. Be open to diverse opinions.
❖ Respond appropriately, including appropriate body language.
❖ Where necessary, repeat the instructions given to ensure that you have understood them.
The listening process:
The listening process involves the following stages:
❖ Hearing- the listener pays attention to the speaker to hear the message.
❖ Interpretation- depends on the listener’s vocabulary, knowledge and experience. If the
listener fails to interpret the words correctly the message is misunderstood.
❖ Evaluation- the listener decides what to do with the received information. The judgement
made at this stage is crucial to the listening process.
❖ Response- may be in words or body language. The response lets the speaker know whether
the listener has got the message and what his or her reaction is.
❖ Remembering- is what one hears as part of listening.

TOPIC FOUR: WRITING SKILLS

What is writing?

Writing is:

➢ A process of putting thought, ideas and concepts into words using continuous prose;
➢ a critical skill for academic or professional success

What are writing Skills?

➢ Ability to put sounds down on graphic form according to the conventional sound-spelling
rules.
➢ Ability to spell English words correctly, including using correct punctuation and
capitalization.
➢ Ability to do writing practice, such as dictation, grammar exercises, constructing
dialogues according to the model, simple translation exercises.
 ➢ Ability to write short compositions, including functional writing skills, such as writing
simple letters, taking notes, writing outlines and summaries.

Summary Writing:

All cases of summary writing involve identifying the main ideas, facts or arguments
found in a given text. The text may be your own or someone else's. E.g. at the end of a
long essay, you may want to summarise your main points as you conclude your
discussion of a given issue.
➢ For you to summarise a text, it is important to understand the text thoroughly. A text may
deal with various issues. Are you interested in all of them? How detailed is your
summary to be? Perhaps you only need to capture the gist of the writer's claim or
argument. Once your purpose is clear, you take the necessary notes.
➢ Check your notes against the information provided in the text until you are satisfied that
you have all the information you require, and nothing that you do not need for the
purpose of your summary.
➢ Then, put the text away and, using your own words, write the summary in essay form.
➢ Unless you have a word limit for the summary, in which case you need to count your
words in order to ensure that you are within the limit, now you only need to look at your
essay critically to check such things as language use (choice of words and sentence
construction), punctuation and the logical flow of ideas.

Non-linear texts:

Non-linear texts include charts, diagrams, graphs, tables, figures etc. In academic writing, data is
frequently presented by means of non-linear texts. In writing essays or term papers, the use of
graphs and charts can make your work more attractive, interesting and informative.
i) Tables
This is one of the most straight ways of presenting information, although not
necessarily the easiest to interpret. The data can be used to make certain conclusions,
comparisons and summaries.
ii) Bar graphs
This is the simplest kind of graph to interpret. It is usually very visual with various
colours or shading to give a quick overall picture to the reader. They are mainly suitable
when comparing and contrasting two or more groups. The bar graphs should be drawn
proportionally and should be accurate.
There can be more than one set of figures represented in one bar graph. In this case, the
key should indicate proper colours used to distinguish sets of information.
iii) Histograms
The term histogram is often incorrectly interchanged with bar graph, but there is some
difference. Histograms are often used to show frequency of occurrence, or to show how
 common something is over a given range. (e.g. time). They are commonly used in the
representation of annual rainfall or temperature for a country or town. Here, the divisions
will be conveniently twelve for the months and will enable the reader to make instant
comparisons, even before studying actual numbers on the axes.
iv) Pie charts
Mainly suitable when showing the difference among various types of things or groups.
The various measures are given either in degrees or percentages.
v) Line graphs
These are suitable when the information given (or being represented) doesn't require
comparison and contrast. The information only shows how particular figures are
represented (particularly if there's fluctuation). However, comparison and contrasts are
possible when there is more than one line graph in one representation. These are
called combination graphs and involve the superimposition of one on another using the
same axis or axes. They save space and also enable the reader to immediately compare
one set of figures with another.
vi) Pyramids
These are very useful when comparing and contrasting two sets of figures; for example,
the male and the female at a given time.
The pyramid has two sets of figures being compared or contrasted, put in the same
diagram e.g. one on the left, the other on the right.

Report Writing:

A report is a summarised account of an event, activity or a project as narrated or presented by the

person behind the research. It is also referred to as the factual representation of ideas as they
exist and can either be oral or written.
A report gives information and aids in controlling the administrative areas, as they measure
performance against activity planned, they also help management in decision making.
Procedure of Report Writing:
The following steps should be followed when preparing a formal report:
[i] Terms of reference
This refers to a topic or subject under investigation. It shows:

 The person or office that has the authority to carry out investigations and write
the report.
 The area of authority which may include the position or occupation or the
office authorising the investigation and also the documents to be used when
undertaking the research.
 Subject matter i.e what is to be covered in the report and the aim of report
writing.
 Time span or period – this shows the time covered or to be taken during
investigation after which report is expected by the authorising officer.
[ii] Collection of data or research undertaking
This involves collection of information from documents, stakeholders,
government agencies, employees, suppliers and all other necessary stakeholders
who could be having some relevant information to the area of you study. The
methods used for data collection include:
 Interviewing
 Observations
 Use of questionnaires
 Carrying out experiments and even retrieving some information from past
records or documents.
[iii] Organising and data interpretation
Having collected the information that you consider sufficient enough, then
reorganise the information, analyse it in a manner that the whole report runs
consistently right from the introduction to the conclusion stage.
During the process of analysis, ensure that important areas are given a lot of
emphasis and if need be supporting illustrative diagrams such as graphs and charts
can be used.
[iv] Drafting the report
Once the data has been analysed and reorganised then it can now be drafted in
report format which has the following contents:
 Title page- shows the subject matter and the author of the report.
 Table of contents – shows the major areas of the report chapter by chapter
indicating their pages.
 The body of the report- this is the detailed part of the report which flows from
the introduction and it is subdivided into topics and sub topics as the way the
information is organised. In the body of the report different information
 collected should be explained with their supportive evidence also indicating
the methods used in collecting the information.
[v] Conclusion
This is the concluding stage of the report which indicates the findings of the
research and recommendations suggested by the researcher. It is an important
part of the report because among the recommendations it could be some of the
possible solutions or measures that can organise needs to undertake so as to
address certain issues at hand.

Speech writing/ public speaking:

This refers to oral delivery of information to a group of receivers or audience which may be
planned or a casual talk.
Steps/stages followed in delivery of formal speech:
➢ Identify the purpose of the speech
The speech must be having some purpose for instance it could be to educate,
to change behavior [guiding and counselling sessions] or to introduce a new
policy into the organisation.
➢ Select the topic of speech
The topic should be brief or short but summarises the whole speech.
➢ Collect and assemble your materials
For a speech to be very informative it should be well researched and
supported with a lot of tangible evidence. The potential sources of this
information could be previous knowledge, from documents such as journals
related to the same field of the speech, interview from colleges and from
internet.
The content must be organised in order of importance, your introduction must
always arouse the interest of the audience and your ending must be exiting to
ensure that the attention of your audience is sustained throughout the speech
also ensure that the main points which are visited during the conclusion are
taken note of.
➢ Delivering the speech
 Start with something interesting to arouse the interest of your audience. Speak
to the eyes of the audience to increase your control over them. Avoid unique
behaviors, watch mannerisms to avoid distracting the attention of the audience
from the subject of the speech.
Involve your audience in the speech delivery through asking questions. Use
volunteer to do demonstrations and also give them short breaks with engaging
activities. The main reason being ensuring that the audience participates and
follow the speech through to the end. Use gestures, facial expressions or tonal
variations to draw attention to the main points.
➢ Timing and feedback
Ensure your speech lasts for approximately the time expected to avoid losing
the attention of the audience. Allow room for questions from the audience and
also their contributions in the speech.
Note that the vocabulary used must be suitable to the audience. Avoid
monotony in the manner of delivery.
Quality of a good speech presenter:
➢ Clarity- must be as clear as possible to leave no doubt about his/her
preparation and mastering of the areas of presentation.
➢ Orderly- the presenter must move in a very logical manner especially if
presentations are several and related, they should be arranged in an orderly
manner to ensure that a close relationship between is given.
➢ Be precise- clearly specify the main points and give reasons why you give
attention to that point, this ensures that the audience is in a position to
draw key points or lessons from the speech itself.
➢ Be brief- ensure the speech is brief but capturing all the areas of interest
and ensure that the attention of the audience is sustained to the time limit
expected.
➢ Audible- a presenter should be loud enough and if not possible given the
number of the audience, public address systems can be employed.
Characteristics of an effective speech:
➢ It is audience oriented- consider their knowledge, education, age-group,
social status, religion, political and economic views and their expected
response.
➢ It is interesting- the speaker makes an effort to induce relevant seniority by
making quotations from respected authorities. The topic should be
introduced in an interesting way to arouse curiosity and desire to know
more about the topic.
➢ It should be brief to capture the concentration of the audience. The speaker
should motivate the audience to maintain their attention.
➢ It should be vivid and concrete and include all the facts. It should be easy
to comprehend and visualise.
➢ It should be in such that the audience is able to grasp the points or facts
instantaneously. The language used should be well understood by the
audience and pronunciation of words correctly to avoid misunderstanding.
➢ It should ensure that it establishes a perfect rapport between the speaker
and the audience.
Techniques used to capture and maintain the attention of your audience
during presentation/speech delivery:
 A promise- begin with a promise that keeps the audience expectant e.g ‘’in
this presentation I will show you how to improve your career.’’
 Drama- open by telling an emotionally story or by describing a serious
problem that involves the audience.
 Eye contact- as you begin command attention by surveying the entire
audience to take in all the listeners.
 Movement- move around. Try to move toward your audience especially at the
beginning and end of your talk.
 Questions- keep listeners active and involved with questions.
 Demonstrations- include a member of the audience in a demonstration.
 Visuals- give your audience something to look at besides yourself. Use a
variety of visual aids in a single session.
 Interviews:
Is an oral exchange of information between two or more persons in a matter of common interest.
How to prepare for an interview:
❖ Carry out some research about the employer.
❖ Prepare your certificates and other material that may be required at the interview the night
before the interview.
❖ List down anticipated questions and their answers.
❖ Ensure you have a good sleep the night before the interview.
❖ Identify appropriate attire for the interview i.e ensure you look decent on the day of the
interview.
❖ Rehearse.
❖ Arrive at the place of the interview early so that you get time to relax as you wait for the
interview.
❖ In case there are other interviewees, chart with them as you wait for your turn. This helps you
to relax.
❖ Ensure that you are well composed on the day of the interview.
❖ As you enter the interview room, remember the prospective employer needs as much as you
need him hence all you need is not to get nervous but to prove that you are the person for the
job.
Sentences:
Sounds are the smallest units in grammar. They combine to make words, words combine to make
phrases, phrases join to make clauses and clauses make sentences. A sentence is the largest unit
in English Grammar.
Types of Sentences:
Sentences can be categorized based on their structure or based on their function. Sentence
category based on structure include:
1. Simple sentences
Made up of one main clause
For example: Mary is going to school.
2. Double sentences
Made up of a main clause and a subordinate clause
For example: Mary is going to while John is staying at home.
3. Multiple sentences
Made up of a main clause and two or more subordinate clauses
For example: Mary is going to while John is staying at home and yet they are both sick.
Sentences can be categorized based on their function to include:
1. Declarative statements
Sentences which state things the way they are. They talk about the state of things which are
usually true.
For Example: The sky is blue.
2. Interrogative Sentences/ questions
These are those statements which are used to ask questions
For example: What color is the sky?
3. Exclamative sentences
They express emotions
For example: Wow! The sky is blue.
4. Imperative sentences/Commands
These are commands
For example: Shut up!
A good writer must be able to use variety of sentences in any piece of essay. Variety gives a
piece of writing a fast pace and makes it interesting to read.
Sentence Pattern
English Language has the following sentence patterns
1. S+V+O
John kicked the ball
S V O
A sentence with a subject, verb and one object.
When a verb is followed by one object then the verb is referred to as a TRANSITIVE VERB.
2. S+V
The baby slept
S V
A sentence which has a subject and a verb
When a verb is not followed by an object then the verb is called INTRASITIVE VERB
3. S+V+O+O
4. S+V+O+O
For example:
Mary gave the children sweets
S V O O
Mary gave sweets to the children
S V O O
When a verb is followed by two objects then the verb is called a DI TRANSITIVE VERB
5. S+V+C
For example
John is King
S V O
A sentence where the verb is followed by a complement. The complement tells us more about
the noun. The verb in such a sentence is called a LINKING VERB
6. S+V+O+A
An adverbial is that part of the sentence which adds extra information to the sentence. If the
adverbial is left out the sentence would still make grammatical sense.
For Example:
John went to the market in the morning.

Writing an essay:

Essay writing is a valuable exercise which supports the development of your writing technique
and helps you to develop your powers of argument and analysis. The general principles
underlying all essay writing are:
❖ collecting and collating relevant information
❖ organising your ideas and presenting your argument in an appropriate structure, form or style
❖ presenting your work with correctly formatted referencing
Understanding Instructions:
Assignment titles contain instructions about how you are expected to deal with the topic.
Sometimes key instructions will appear explicitly, but at times they may well be implicit.
Whatever the case you need to identify the approach required. Below is a list of some ‘key
instructions’ which typically appear in essay questions:
ACCOUNT FOR: Give reasons for, explain.
ANALYSE: Examine and explain why
ASSESS: Decide the importance and give reasons.
COMPARE: Write about (usually) two things which have certain similarities but with some
crucial differences. There may be an element of evaluation here too.
EXAMINE: Look at carefully; and analyse
IN WHAT WAY: Explain how and say why
TO WHAT EXTENT: How far do you agree with..., How true is...
JUSTIFY: Give good reasons for; explain satisfactorily
STATE: Express carefully, fully and clearly
OUTLINE: Give a short description of the main points
DISCUSS: Express your own view on an issue supporting it with evidence from other sources.
This is a very general term used in essay assignments and you need to be careful.

Types of Essays:

An essay is a written composition of moderate length, exploring a particular issue or subject.

There are 4 types of essays in writing namely:
1. Narrative
Narrative writing involves recounting events in an orderly manner. Narratives are mainly fictions
or creative writing. Narratives are mainly used in Literature, history and writing stories. They
may recount:
❖ a series of events; a report
❖ biography or autobiography
❖ historical events
❖ fiction or non-fiction
Narrative writing is imaginative and subjective or factual and objective.
2. Descriptive writing
This is writing that is used to describe a person, a place or a thing or event. There are different
types of descriptive writing e.g.
 ➢ Static description describes something that is still/not moving
➢ Cause and Effect describes how one thing causes the effect of another
Descriptive writing can be either objective or subjective in content. A description of something
contains full factual and quantifiable information about it. Such information may be personal,
touching or sensory impressions and feelings. Descriptive writing is a domain of arts and history.
3. Expository/Explanatory writing
This is advanced description and focuses on explaining, defining and expounding on an idea.
Such writing explains and analyses:
❖ a process
❖ an opinion or point of view
❖ event(s) and phenomena
❖ instructions and directions
4. Argumentative Essays
Argumentative writing is an academic writing which is also called persuasive writing. It is a
rational effort to defend or refute a claim and does not have place for emotions, or anger. Most
academic writing falls under this category.
Argumentative writing is done argumentatively. The writer collects all his/her points and
presents them logically and constructively. The aim of an argumentative writing is to persuade
the audience and convince them to accept the writers’ point of view. Argumentative essays are
expected to be clear and coherent. The writer must be clear about his/her argument.
The process of writing:
1. Planning
Involves gathering ideas and focusing on the topic: Topic selection, gathering ideas, extensive
reading and interpretation. When planning one must ask himself/herself the following questions:
➢ What is the purpose of my writing?
➢ Who is my audience?
➢ What are the special requirements of my writing task?
2. Shaping
Considering how best to organize your ideas on pen and paper. Shaping involves:
➢ Determining the tone
➢ Drafting a thesis statement
 ➢ Outlining ideas
3. Drafting
4. Revising
5. Editing
6. Proof reading

TOPIC FIVE: NOTE TAKING SKILLS

Introduction to note taking skills:

Effective note-taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for university study. Good
note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking. Good note-taking reduces the risk of plagiarism. It
also helps you distinguish where your ideas came from and how you think about those ideas.
Notetaking has been a staple activity of academic life, particularly in lecture courses, for
decades. Despite its widespread use, notetaking has generally been taken for granted by both
instructors and students. However, in the past few years, changes in the landscape of higher
education, such as the proliferation of commercial notetaking services, have led instructors to ask
questions about the efficacy of notetaking in promoting learning and their own role in the
process. These questions reflect instructor concerns not only about notetaking services, but also
the apparent decrease in student notetaking abilities, the introduction of active modes of learning
within lectures, and the ease with which instructors can post their lecture notes online for
campus-based courses or distance learning.
Research on notetaking indicates that taking notes in class and reviewing those notes (either in
class or afterward) have a positive impact on student learning. Not surprisingly, the
preponderance of studies confirms that students recall more lecture material if they record it in
their notes (Bligh, 2000). Students who take notes score higher on both immediate and delayed
tests of recall and synthesis than students who do not take notes (Kiewra et al., 1991). Moreover,
the more students record, the more they remember and the better they perform on exams
(Johnstone & Su, 1994). In summary, notetaking facilitates both recall of factual material and the
synthesis and application of new knowledge, particularly when notes are reviewed prior to
exams.
Note taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way. Note
taking includes the following:
➢ Taking notes in a lecture or a discussion
➢ Taking notes in a lecture and processing/annotating/rewriting these notes
Effective note-taking requires:
➢ recognising the main ideas
➢ identifying what information is relevant to your task
➢ having a system of note taking that works for you
➢ reducing the information to note and diagram format
➢ where possible, putting the information in your own words
➢ recording the source of the information
Note making on the other hand is taking notes from reading in some systematic way.
Studies show that people may forget:
• 50% of a lecture within 24 hours
• 80% in two weeks
• 95% within one month, if they do not take notes.
The five R's of note taking:
1. Recording- Get down the main ideas and facts.
2. Reducing- To reduce is to summarize.
3. Reciting- Review lecture notes as soon after the lecture as possible. But you will also want to
review your notes before an exam and from time to time during the semester to keep them fresh
in your mind. Do so in your own words. That way you will know that you understand.
4. Reflecting- Something that many students don't grasp is that ideas from college courses are
meant to be thought about. It is easy to fall into the trap of reciting ideas by rote. One of the main
purposes of a college education is to help you think. Then too, if you reflect about what you are
learning, you won't be surprised when ideas turn up on examinations in an unexpected form.
5. Reviewing- One of the real secrets of successful studying is being sure when, how, and what
to review. But however you do it, reviewing is essential. Even the accomplished performer--the
pianist or the stage performer knows that a review, no matter how well he or she may know the
material, is essential to a professional performance.
When Not To Take Notes:

❖ When the speaker tells you not to write

❖ When the speaker hands out an outline, notes, or other material and then reads directly from
the handout.
❖ When it is very clear that what is being said is out of topic. For example, a poor presenter
may bring in unrelated issues especially if there is no clear plan or organisation.

Steps towards Effective Note taking:

To take efficient notes that you can use later require that you:
❖ Use full-sized 8 1/2"x11" paper. Do not use a small note tablet. You will be using the margin
space provided by the full-sized paper. In addition, on a single page of full-sized paper you
will often see ideas or groups of related ideas that might not be so easily seen when spread
over several small pages;
❖ Use a ballpoint pen. This is in order to write quickly -- something that can't be done as well
with a pencil or a felt-tip pen. Don't worry about mistakes with a pen that makes marks you
can't erase. Just cross out the mistakes!;
❖ Keep all the notes from each course together in a separate section of a notebook. Use either a
loose leaf binder with separate sections, or a large spiral notebook that has several sections.
The loose leaf binder, however, allows you to insert course handouts and related materials;
❖ Date each day's notes and try to title the notes for each lecture;
❖ Take notes on one side of the page only, leaving space at the top and on the left-hand margin.
Using only one side eliminates the bother, when you are studying, of having to flip pages
over and then flip then back to follow the development of an idea or discussion. Leaving
wide margins gives you space to add to your notes later, should you so desire;
❖ Write legibly. When you prepare for a test you want to spend the time studying -- not trying
to decipher your own handwriting;
❖ To save time when note-taking, abbreviate recurring terms.
❖ Sit where you can easily see and hear the lecturer. Also sit where you can see the board and
any slides or overhead projections that might be shown.
❖ Do not try to write out everything that is said. Think before you write, but don’t get behind.
If you get behind, leave a blank where you are [to be filled in later, if possible], and move
ahead to where your lecturer is right now.
❖ Feel free to record the lectures using a small, inconspicuous recorder. If you plan to do this,
ask lecturers for permission before making recording. If you record, make sure you write
down everything on the board or slides in your notes.
❖ Jot down notes of the main and minor points of the lecture. Often, supporting material can
be filled in later.
❖ Listen carefully for verbal or nonverbal cues that indicate key or essential points.
❖ If you record the lecture, compare your notes of the main and minor points with the
information on the tape, as you listen a second time.
❖ Fill in any details missed the first time through as you listen to the tape, but do not copy
down everything.
❖ Annotate and highlight any key points or essential information.
❖ If you did not record the lecture, compare and discuss your comprehension and notes with
other students.
❖ Review your notes shortly after the lecture to reinforce both your memory and understanding
of the contents.
❖ Once you have your notes reduced to the essence of the lecture, review them several times
before the examination.
How to identify key points during a lecture:
❖ Reviews from the previous lecture- If your lecturer gives a review of the last class at the
beginning of the new lecture, you will likely see that material again on an examination or in
some form of assessment.
❖ It is on the board- Lecturers use chalkboards, whiteboards or PowerPoint slides to highlight
what they think is important in their lectures. If your lecturer wants you to visually see it, you
can bet it is important.
❖ Emphasis- If a lecturer puts emphasis on a concept through voice inflection, spending extra
time on it, or giving examples about it, it is definitely noteworthy.
❖ Repetition- If a lecturer repeats something in class and seems to be looking straight at you,
it is a clue that you should write it down.
❖ Use of Lists and diagrams- A great way to relay information is through lists and diagrams.
If your lecturer uses lists and diagrams to relay certain information, then you should note that
he/she is providing you with helpful ways to remember important information material.
❖ Summarization- If there is time at the end of the lecture, the lecturer may review a few
major points from the lecture. These are likely to be important takeaway thoughts that you
should make note of and remember.
❖ Words such as, "…it is very important, significant" etc
❖ Gestures and facial expressions.
❖ Words that enumerate the main points e.g. first, secondly etc.

Why take lecture notes?

❖ Taking notes aids your comprehension and retention. Researchers found that if important
information was contained in notes, it had a 34% chance of being remembered. Information
not found in notes had only a 5% chance of being remembered.
❖ Lecture notes should represent a concise and complete outline of the most important points
and ideas, especially those considered most important by your professor.
❖ Lecture notes can clarify ideas not fully understood in the text or elaborate on material that
the text mentions only briefly.
❖ Lecture notes provide a gauge for what is important in the textbook. Lecture notes combined
with notes from textbook material are an excellent review for tests.
❖ Note taking is not just something that you do as you sit in a class. To become an effective
note taker, you must use strategies before, during, and after a lecture.
❖ Important points from readings that the professor wants to emphasize are presented in
lectures.
❖ Lectures contain material the professor has gathered from sources other than classroom
materials.
❖ Within 24 hours, you will forget at least half of what was said in the lecture; forgotten
material can be relearned if it is written down.

TOPIC SIX: STUDY SKILLS

Introduction to study skills

To succeed in your studies at the university you must study. Studying is revising the notes you
took during lectures, and reading text books with the aim of understanding better what you are
reading. Studying is the process that one uses to recall, understand, apply, analyse,
synthesize and evaluate information. While studying, one selects information from the content
 that one wants to learn. One should organise this information such that it can be learnt efficiently
and easily. This information should then be committed to memory so that it can be recalled when
it is needed. For better understanding, it is important that you as a student come up with a study
plan that works best for you.
Study Habits are the regular tendencies and practices that one depicts during the process
of gaining information through learning. In simple terms study habits are the habits when one
study. A person with poor study habits will not be able to learn properly. It is generally
believed that a student learns effective study habits in school. So college students are generally
assumed to have effective study habits. But the environment of school and college are very
different and need of effective study habits is even more at college level as compared to
school.

Studying skills

Studying requires certain skills so that it is done effectively. These skills include work planning,
managing time and other resources, taking and making notes, filing, critical thinking and
problem solving, among others.
1. Work Planning
This involves identifying tasks, prioritizing them and allocating the time and other resources
accordingly.
When planning your study schedule, it is important to consider the time available for the work
and the amount to be done. One way of planning for work is to make a study timetable. Other
ways are choosing a suitable study time, choosing which place to study from, choosing best
methods to study and forming a group.
2. A study time table
When drawing the study time-table, the following should be considered:
❖ The number of hours for reading the topics in each course.
❖ Personal-study hours
❖ Discussion hours
❖ Time for breaks, recreation, socialization, religious activities or leisure and meals.
❖ Time for personal work

A good study timetable should have the following features:

❖ It should have all the activities of the day/week
❖ It should have the period and amount of time for each activity.
❖ It should be reasonably flexible to allow unexpected schedules.
❖ There should be breaks
❖ For academic activities, the time table should show individual topics but not the whole
course.
3. Time of study
It is not possible to prescribe the best time to study since it varies from person to person.
Whatever time you study, you should pay attention to the following:
❖ Physical fitness/state of your health
❖ Diet and sleep.
 ❖ Regular breaks.
❖ Variation of activities.
❖ Complexity or demands of the task
4. Place for studies
You should always make an effort to find a convenient place for studying. Apart from pens and
books, you will need a table, a chair, and good lighting at night. Other factors to be considered
include:
❖ A quiet place with enough air and light
❖ A table that is clear of distractions like a newspaper, a radio, etc
❖ Do not sit on a sofa set or a bed. You could easily go to sleep.
❖ If you decide to read in the sitting room, face the wall and not the people.
❖ Avoid sitting near a window since you can see what is happening outside and get distracted.
5. Method of study
For effective studying, you should carry out the following activities:
❖ Read and make study notes.
❖ Take time to reflect on what you have read. Make an effort to recall the information.
❖ You should try to understand and not memorize all that you learn. However, certain
information must be memorised like names, dates and formulae.
❖ Read widely on the same subject.
❖ Draw relationships among content that you read.
❖ Discuss with your fellow students or with your lecturers.
6. Study groups
A study group has the following advantages:
❖ You can gain from the planning skills of one another
❖ You are able to make use of limited resources like textbooks by sharing within the group.
❖ You can learn from one another as well as sort out any queries about the coursework. Ideas
can also be exchanged before writing your assignments.
❖ You can revise faster for examinations since you can cover more work as a group than as an
individual.

Characteristics of an effective study group:

1. The goals of the group are clearly understood.
2. People in the group work well together.
3. There is a feeling of “belonging” to the group.
4. There is a shared sense of responsibility for making the group work.
5. Members of the group are able to communicate openly.
6. People in the group are willing to listen and respect other points of view.
7. The introduction of new ideas helps maintain interest and motivation.
8. Roles and responsibilities within the group are shared and interdependent.
9. Conflicts and differences are confronted and resolved.

Considerations when forming a study group:

• Size. ...
• Roles. ...
• Prior knowledge, previous experiences, and skills. ...
• Motivation. ...
 • Diversity of perspectives. ...
• Students' familiarity with each other. ...
• Personality.
Rules for Study Group Sessions:
❖ Be on time and prepared
❖ Be respectful of others' ideas
❖ Have homework, study guides, sample test questions, etc. completed before session
❖ Have questions about material ready to discuss
❖ Bring class notes and textbooks to study sessions
❖ Determine where, when, and how often the group will meet
❖ Do not meet sporadically—schedule consistent weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly sessions

Perhaps the most serious problem noted in group discussions is that not all students participate.
Lack of participation is caused by:
❖ Shyness
❖ Unwillingness to begin
❖ Unsuitable topic
❖ Lack of similar interests
❖ Lack of group leadership e.g. chairman, secretary.

7. Managing Time and Resources

(a) Managing Time
This involves how best to use the time available for attending lectures, private study, other
activities and relaxation. Managing time is best done by making a study time table, which helps
you distribute time appropriately for all your tasks. The time table should be realistic and easy to
adhere to. The following are tips for managing time:
(i) Plan for every day by making a general schedule on things you must accomplish, and things you will
try to accomplish.
(ii) Concentrate on one task at a time
(iii) Take regular breaks. Take breaks form books and do something unrelated before going back to read.
One study session should be about two hours.
(iv) Quiet and distraction-free environments.
(v) Do not be a perfectionist- Striving for perfection leads to frustration and time wasting. Strive to
produce the best you can achieve.
(vi) Learn to say no- Tactfully but firmly decline to waste time on issues that do not help you to achieve
your goals.
(vii) Do not procrastinate- What you can do today, do not schedule for tomorrow.
(viii) Avoid time wasting- Do not participate in activities that simply waste your time e.g. idle talk and
gossip.
(ix) Delegate- Assign to others duties that they can perform, especially in group work.
(x) Do not be a workaholic- Give yourself time for socialization, and involve yourself in hobbies and
interests. Too much work may be dangerous.
(b) Managing Resources
There are many resources available to a student at the university.
These include:
(i) Books and other Academic Materials
(ii) Lecturers
(iii) Fellow students
(iv) Outsiders-people in the ministry, others
(v) Printed and Electronic Media - Newspapers, Radio, Internet, T.V.
(vi) Money, etc.
These resources can only be beneficial to the student when they are effectively managed.
8. Taking and Making Notes
Owing to the circumstances in which they are usually taken and the purpose for which we need them,
notes are characteristically sketchy and free of such things as too much exemplification or
argumentation. A distinction may be drawn between note-taking and note-making.
Note-taking
This refers to the short summaries made during lectures, seminars or tutorials. In order to take
meaningful notes, you should be aware of the following.
-Notes are a record of the speaker's MAIN IDEAS, not a word record.
-Notes should be written in your own words as much as possible to avoid copying things
you do not understand.
-They should be in point form with clear numbering, using headings and subheadings.
Note-Making
This refers to notes made from written sources. The points above also apply. The important
thing is to be sure you can tell what is really necessary for you to remember later as the main
points of the author whose work you are reading. The points you may need to note as a reader
include:
❖ Important facts of statistical data;
❖ Useful definitions
❖ New technical terms;
❖ Some unsightly comments and
❖ Some particularly interesting arguments for or against some idea in your area of study.

Challenges of note taking:

While taking notes you are required to listen and at the same time write. In the process one
undergoes a lot of challenges. Here are some of the challenges the note taker go through:
❖ Misspelling the words
❖ Not hearing properly maybe because of noise or physical maladies
❖ Poor pronunciation from the teacher
❖ Speed of the lecturer at which he is lecturing
❖ Dozing in class
❖ Misinterpretation of points
❖ Poor attitude towards the lecturer/subject/lecture hall
Types of study plans

It is important to note that there are other study plans that a student can use, but we are choosing
to focus on these because we feel that they are the most applicable to our students. They can all
be used simultaneously by one student.
1. Preview
Preview is reading about the topic you are going to be lectured on before the lecture. You are
often given a course outline beforehand so that it can help you in previewing. Preview gives you
an upper hand because you will be able to follow and understand what the lecturer is talking
about. It enhances your chances of retaining what is taught. Remember knowledge starts from
known to unknown. You can also preview notes from the previous lecture so that you can
understand the link between the previous lecture and the current lecture.
2. Studying with Breaks Studying with Breaks also called spaced study is a very good
technique for studying. It involves studying for a period then taking a short break followed by
another study session. For example, you can study for 2 hours then take a 20minute break
followed by another 1 hour of study. Spaced study is good because if used well the student will
be able to lock what they are studying in their long term memory (LTM) during the breaks. The
breaks act as a reward. Humans thrive when they are rewarded. Your mind will also appreciate
the reward. During the breaks reflect on what you have studied. Do not use the breaks
negatively.
3. Group Study
Studying with a group of your friends can be both a fun and rewarding study method. For
effective studying, it is important that you choose your group members wisely and follow a few
rules.
Study groups should:

➢ Not be the sole method of study and they are not for everyone
➢ Be a form of ‘active learning’ – the strongest kind of learning
➢ Not let one member of the group dominate
➢ Meet no more than 2-3 times a week
➢ Establish responsibilities for each group member
➢ Design rules dealing with respect for each member
 ➢ Provide contact information for group members

Study habits:

Study Habits are the regular tendencies and practices that one depicts during the process
of gaining information through learning. In simple terms study habits are the habits when one
study. A person with poor study habits will not be able to learn properly.

Poor Study Habits:

The various poor study habits of students are:

• It is student’s notion to cover the easiest assignments first and keep the tougher
ones for the last ultimately resulting in insufficient time left to complete
the later assignments.
• Studying around loud noise or in distraction resulting in lower level of
concentration.
• Studying in a cluttered environment.
• Letting your thoughts wander. Studying in a distracted environment allows
wandering of thoughts here and there.
• “A tired mind is a slow mind”. So studying when tired or hungry makes the mind
slow.
• Sometimes students simply copy the assignment and thus not reflecting on
the meaning of the assignment.
• Staying up late to study.
• Students sometimes just cram the material instead of understanding the concepts
thus affecting long term understanding of concepts.

TOPIC SEVEN: LIBRARY SKILLS

Library
A library is an organized collection of books and other literary material kept for
reading, study and consultation. A Library is a collection or group of collections
of books and other materials maintained for reading, study and research,
organized to facilitate access by a specific clientele and staffed by librarians and
other staff, trained to meet the needs of its users.
Library Skills

These are techniques that enable a library user to make efficient use of the library and reap
maximum benefits from it. These skills include appreciating the role of a university library,
distinguishing the library classification system, using catalogues, doing book previews, and
writing bibliographies.
A University student is expected to read study and research in the library. A good student visits
the library often and knows how to access books in the library. A good student must be
information literate. The American Library Association (ALA) presidential Committee on
Information Literacy Final Report (1989) states as follows:

“To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and
have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information”. To realize this
goal, it requires a structuring of the learning process so that students are taught problem solving
techniques for life-long learning.

Types of information resources

Information resources:
These are materials that are used as resources of information for reference, research, study and
recreation.
Information resources are found in form of books, newspapers, computer disks/ tapes, listening
(radio), viewing (TV), and speaking (oral).
Books
UNESCO defines a book as a non-periodical literary publication consisting of 49 or more pages,
covers not included. A collection of leaves of paper or other material, written of printed, fastened
together in some manner with a cover.
In the USA for a publication to be called a book it must consist of 24 or more pages.
Newspapers
These are serial publications usually printed on newsprint and issues daily, semi-weekly or
weekly containing news, editorial opinion, regular columns, letters to the editor, cartoons,
advertisements and other items of current, often local interest to a general readership.
Periodicals
These are publications with distinctive titles containing articles, stories or other short works
usually written by different contributors, issued in soft cover more than once, usually at stated
intervals. Periodicals are published by scholarly societies, University presses, government
agencies, commercial publishing houses, private corporations, trade and professional
associations and other organizations.
Journals
These are periodicals devoted to disseminating current research and commentary on
developments within a specific discipline sub discipline or field of study.
Magazines
These are popular periodicals containing articles on various topics written by different authors.
Abstracts
An abstract is a short statement of essential content of a book, article, speech, report and
dissertation. It gives the main points in the same order as the original work.
Index
An index is a list of terminologies arranged alphabetically in the last pages of a book. It has page
numbers which direct the reader to the specific page of a text on which the desired information
can be found.
Archival Sources
This is an organized collection of noncurrent records of an institution, government, organization
or corporate body. Archival sources are managed and maintained by a librarian with special
training known as an archivist.
Serial Publications
A publication in any format issued in successively numbered or dated parts or issues, appearing
at regular or irregular intervals and intended to be continued indefinitely.
Patents
A patent is an official document issued by the government in response to a formal application
process in which the applicant (usually the inventor) is granted the exclusive right to
manufacture, use, and sell an invention for a specified number of years the document is assigned
a patent number by the patent office for future reference.
Standards
Standards are any criteria established by law, agreement, or custom, according to which values,
quantities, procedure performance, etc are measured or evaluated and to which manufacturers,
practitioners, researchers, etc seek to conform in order to ensure quality and uniformity of
results.
Audio- Visual Materials
This is a term used to describe non print materials such as films, film strips, slides, video
recordings, audio recordings, CD-ROMS, machine readable data files and computer soft-ware.
Online information resources
These are information resources accessed through the internet. In libraries we have the Online
Public Access Catalogue. It consists of bibliographic records in machine readable format. These
records can be accessed from different computers through the library website.
The Internet
This is a network which inter connects computers of all types throughout the world. It enables
users to communicate via email, transfer of data and program files. The internet also enables
users to find information on the World Wide Web and access computer systems such as
catalogues and electronic databases.
 Types of libraries
Libraries are categorized by the purposes they serve. The main types are summarized as follows.
1). Public
They serve the general public at all levels. Their aim is to provide information over the whole range of
human knowledge, promote culture and play a positive part in encouraging an active use of
leisure and recreational time. Examples of public libraries are the Kenya National Library
Services (KNLS) and the Macmillan Library.
2).Academic Libraries
They are found in various institutions of learning but with similar aims. In institutions of higher
learning such as the universities, colleges and polytechnics, their main aim is to support learning,
teaching and research activities
3).National Libraries
Their main function is to ensure that all the publications of a particular country are acquired and
preserved for posterity. The law requires that publishers deposit copies of all materials published
in the country with the national library. National libraries also purchase books published in other
countries.
Examples of national libraries are the British library, Library of Congress and the Kenya
National Library Services. The Kenya National Library Services serves both as a public as well
as national library.
4). Special Libraries
These are libraries that serve specific subject fields. They include libraries in government
ministries, parastatals, research institutes, industrial and commercial concerns and international
bodies. Examples include ICIPE, ILARD, KIE, ICRAF, AMREF, UNESCO and Bankers’
Institute Libraries.
5).Digital Libraries
These are mainly accessed through computers with internet facilities. They store up to date
information of diversified fields. Organized academic institutions provide such facilities but
some charge a fee for the services. For instance at Kenyatta University, such services are
provided at the Kenyatta Virtual University (KVU) and the Cyber Café.

Sections of the library:

1. Lending, General circulation section
Contains books arranged on shelves in a given order. These books may be borrowed or read
within. If borrowed, the borrower must use a borrower’s card and has to keep the book for a
maximum of a specified period of time. He may renew a book after the expiry of a given period
if in case it is not needed by another borrower. These books may also be read within the library
and must be left on reading tables for re-shelving by the library staff. If a borrower wishes to
borrow a book that has been borrowed, he/she should get a reservation from the attendant and
you will be informed as soon as the book is returned to the library. However, if you urgently
need that book, then it can be recalled.
2. Short Loan Section
Contains books in short supply but on high demand. Such books can be given out for a limited
period of time and must be read within the library.
3. Reference Section
This section contains books on general reference or specific references. These are read within the
room and cannot be taken out of the room. Reference books include encyclopedias, dictionaries,
atlases, etc.
4. Periodicals Section
These are of two types:
i) Current/loose periodical section
Contains materials that are published at periodical intervals e.g. daily, weekly, fortnightly,
monthly, and bi-annually. These include newspapers, magazines, journals, abstracts, etc.
ii) Bound periodical section
Contains periodicals that have been bound for the purpose of durability.
5. Africana Section
This section is normally used by lecturers and post-graduate students. It contains rare books,
theses or dissertations.
6. Children’s section
This section stocks books that are relevant to the needs of the children.
7. Acquisition Section
This is where new books, magazines are received, title cards or catalogue cards are also made
here.

Classification of Library information resources:

All information resources in the library are classified and assigned a call number. A call number
is an ordinal number assigned to a book to represent its subject coverage and position on the
book shelf.
The two main classification schemes used in classifying information resources in libraries are the
Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme and the Library of Congress Classification scheme.

Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme [DDC]

History traced to 1876 when 1st edition was published by Melvin Dewey. It is the most common
widely used classification scheme in the world where over 200,000 libraries in 135 countries use
it and has been translated to over 30 languages. DDC scheme has divided knowledge into ten
main classes and it uses only Arabic numerals in giving call numbers to information materials.
This scheme is used is commonly used in public libraries to classify information materials. The
following is the general outline of DDC scheme:
000 -Main class for Computer science, knowledge & general works
100-Main class for Philosophy and psychology
200- Main class for Religion
300 -Main class for Social sciences, sociology & anthropology
400 -Main class for Languages
500 -Main class for Sciences
600 -Main class for Technology
700 -Main class for Arts and recreation
800 -Main class for Literature, rhetoric & criticism
900 -Main class for History and biography
Library of Congress Classification Scheme [LC]
LC uses the letters of alphabets A-Z in classifying information materials except I, O, X, W,
and Y which are empty for future expansion in addition to use of Arabic numeral numbers.
It has 20 main classes and one class for generalities. It is commonly used in classifying
information materials in all academic libraries because it caters for all information
materials and allows for future expansion.
Below is the general outline of LC scheme:
Class A – General Works
Class B – Philosophy, Psychology, Religion
Class C – Auxiliary Sciences of History (General)
Class D – World History (Except American History)
Class E – American History
Class F – Local History of the United States
Class G – Geography, Anthropology, Recreation
Class H – Social Sciences
Class J – Political Science
Class K – Law
Class L – Education
Class M – Music
Class N – Fine Arts
Class P – Language and Literature
Class Q – Science
Class R – Medicine
Class S – Agriculture
Class T – Technology
Class U – Military Science
Class V – Naval Science
Class Z – Bibliography, Library Science
Library Catalogue
A library catalogue is an organized set of records containing bibliographically description
of information resources found within a library. A library catalogue serves four main
functions which are as follows:
[i] Locative function- it enables a user to find an item of which either the author, title or
subject is known.
[ii] Collocative function- it shows the user what items the library has by a given author, on
a given subject and in a given type of document.
[iii] Informative function- it assists the user to make a choice of the item he/she requires in
the library collection without necessarily browsing the shelves.
[iv] Inventory function- it helps the library staff in their administrative work e.g to avoid
duplication of work.
Types of Library Catalogues:
The following are the major types of library catalogues and they are as follows:
[i] Author Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, bibliographic details of information
materials are alphabetically according to the surname of the author. This type informs users
which information materials the library has by a given author and their location. Here the
heading can also be editor, translator, composer or compiler where there is no author.
[ii] Title Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, bibliographic details of information materials
are alphabetically according to the title of the information materials. In this arrangement,
articles in front of the title [a, an, the] are ignored as they do not constitute part of the title.
[iii] Subject Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, lists of information materials are arranged
alphabetically under subject heading.
[iv] Dictionary Catalogue- in this type of catalogue lists of information resources are
arranged in one alphabetical sequence without considering difference in surname of the
author or title of the information materials as these are combined.
[v] Classified Catalogue- in this type of catalogue, information materials are arranged
alphabetically in the order of their classification numbers or call numbers. This
arrangement varies from one library to another depending on the scheme used.
[vi] Union Catalogue- this is a catalogue listing the collections of more than one library.
How to evaluate Library Sources:
In evaluating library sources students need to look at:
[a] The author’s reputation i.e the author is experience and qualification in writing in
whatever he/she is writing in.
[b] Critical reviews in respected journals
[c] The publisher’s reputation for high quality work.
[d] Comments of the editor if available
[e] Aim, scope and methodology of the information material as provided in the preface or
foreword of the information material.
[f] Relevance and comprehensiveness of the work as shown by its list of contents and
subject index.
[g] Authoritativeness of the work by going through the bibliographical references of the
information material if provided.
[h] Blurb of the information material where the publisher makes a comment about the
information material.
Referencing
A reference list contains all the works cited in the text. According to the American
Psychological Association (A.P.A), the author’s last name and the year of publication are
put in brackets within the text. Complete information about each source cited in the text is
then given in an alphabetical reference list at the end of the research and report.
(a) Books
Enter last name of author then comma followed by initials, year in
bracket and full stop. The title is then typed with only the first letter
in capital and the title is underlined or italicized or made bold. The
city of publication is entered, full colon then the publisher ending
with period.
(i) One author
Kerlinger, F. (1978). Foundation of Behavioral Research. Delhi: Surfeit
publications
(ii) More than one author
Fraenkel, J.R. and Wallen, N.E. (1993). How to design and evaluate
research in education (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
(iii) Edited works
Couglin, P. and Ikiara, G. K. (Ed). (1991). Industrialization dilemma.
Nairobi: Heinman Kenya Ltd
(iv) Authors work in an edited volume
McCormick, D. (1999).’’Policies affecting Kenya Industralization:
1994-1999”. In Ngethe, H. and Owino, W. (Ed). Towards indigenizing
the policy debate. Nairobi: Institute of policy analysis and research
(v) Books without a given author or editor
Alphabetize by title alone
Nakuru strategic plan. Action plan for sustainable urban development of
Nakuru town and its environs.(1991). Nakuru: Municipal council of
Nakuru.
(vi) Two or more books of the same author
List in the order of publication. If done in the same year, alphabetize by
title or ‘’a’’ and ‘’b’’ e.g R.O.K 2005 (a) and R.O.K 2005 (b)
(b) Periodicals
Entry for periodicals begins with the surnames and initials of all
authors inserted followed by year of publication in brackets. For
magazines and newspaper articles, the title of the article followed by
the title of the periodical and volume number which is underlined
followed by a comma the page numbers.
(i) Articles in a periodical by one author
Shimitz, H. (1995). Collective efficiency growth path for
small scale industry. The journal for development studies
vol.31no. 4 April 1995, 529-566
(ii) Conference proceedings
Mwamadzingo, M. (1992). Science and technology for sustainable industrial
growth in Africa. The prospects for institutional co-operation. Proceeding of the
 second conference of Eastern Association (ESAEA). Dar-es Salaam, Tanzania.
December 14-16, 1992
(iii) Dissertations
Ng’ang’a, S.I. (2003). The mobility and growth of small furniture
production enterprise: A case of western Kenya. Unpublished master of
philosophy dissertation, Moi University
(iv) Newspaper reports –known author
Kigotho, B. ‘’Political economy of Kenya’’ in the daily nation. Tue. 27 th
April.2004, 20-23

TOPIC EIGHT: EXAMINATIONS TAKING SKILLS

Introduction to Examination Taking Skills
An examination, commonly known as exam, is a set of questions or exercises evaluating
acquired knowledge or skill. It is an assessment intended to measure a student’s
knowledge, skills, aptitude, and creativity among others. Examinations are used as an
evaluative tool evaluating whether learning has taken place.
Examinations test the student’s ability to recall and re use the knowledge learnt to create
something new. An exam is an official evaluation tool used to test knowledge or ability in a
particular subject. In the university, an exam is used to evaluate both teaching and learning.
Examinations are one way of effectively measuring how well you have studied a certain
subject or course. Success or failure in your work is determined almost entirely by your
ability to perform well in examinations. A little anxiety is good because it makes you read
but a lot of anxiety is bad since it can incapacitate you. Examinations have some benefits
for students:
-They are forced to revise previous work
-They cover larger units than they normally do.
-They take wider views and perceive the relationships of the parts of the
whole.
Types of Examination questions:
Generally, question types fall into two categories:
1. Objective- which require students to supply a word or short phrase to answer a question
or complete a statement. Objective exams are easy to take and mark.
They test the students’ ability to recall what was learnt. Examples of objective type
questions include: multiple choice, true-false, matching, filling in the gaps, and outlining or
stating among others. Objective exams at the university are given as sit in CATs.
2. Subjective- These are those exam questions that require thinking and recreating what
was learnt. Subjective exams questions are essay type questions which permit the student
to organize and present an original answer. Examples: short answer essay, extended-
response essay, problem solving, performance test items.
Revising for an exam:
❖ Final success in your examination depends on laying a foundation at the outset. Make it
a habit to do all the assignments, to take good notes and to review your work
consistently. The more familiar you are with the course content, the easier it is to revise
for tests and examinations.
❖ Be aware of what is expected of you by the examiner. You will need to get the course
outlines of your courses. It is important that you cover 100% of the content. Do not go
into an examination room with gaps in your knowledge or understanding.
❖ Look for past examination papers of the past three to four years to see what grounds are
covered and also to find out the following: number of papers that you are expected to
sit for, the number of questions you are expected to answer, how long the paper will be,
the choice of questions to be answered. For example, if they are equally weighted or
not.
❖ Make revision aids from your notes for quick reading.
❖ Review lecture notes, study notes and main ideas emphasized by lecturers.
❖ Make a revision time table bearing in mind the total number of exams, subject length
and difficulty, and your own strengths and weaknesses.
❖ For each subject, make a list of specific topics to be revised e.g. note-taking,
examination skills etc.
❖ Decide on the order of importance of the topics and allocate time appropriately.
❖ Limit each study session to two hours or less; allow for breaks within a revision session
and at the end of each session, before embarking on the next topic. During the break,
reflect on what you have been revising.
❖ Allow for repeats of difficult topics.
❖ Plan to revise different topics in a day for variety.
Interpreting examination questions:
The Skill of interpreting and answering examinations questions is of extreme
importance to a student. One's knowledge, skill or attitude in a particular subject or course
is usually determined by the score or grade one obtains in an examination. It is therefore
necessary that every student is able to:
▪ Read and interpret examination questions more efficiently by
concentrating key terms.
 ▪ Choose the right questions
▪ Organise your answer according to the type of question
▪ Use the time available economically
The following are common direction words and their meanings in examination contexts:
1. Describe- Recount, sketch, or relate something in sequence or story form. Give a
good word picture of the concept.
2. Definition- Give a clear, concise meaning for a term. It generally consists of
identifying a class to which a term belongs and how it differs from other things in that
class.
3. Illustrate- Show by means of a picture, diagram or some other graphic aid. It may
also mean to bring forth specific examples or instances which illustrate a law, rule or
principal
4. Classify/categorise- Place persons or things together in a group because they are
alike or similar. In science there is an order in which all groups follow when it comes to
classifying or categorizing: phylum or division, class, order, family, genus,
species and variety.
5. Compare- To bring both points of similarity and differences, but generally with the
greater emphasis on similarities.
6. Contrast- To particularly stress differences
7. Cause and Effect- The relationship described in this kind of writing refers to the
cause, reason or purpose of an event, situation, action, idea or problem and their effect,
consequence, result or outcome, e.g. heat causes iron to expand; the prices rose as a result
of increased demand.
8. Account- To give an account of means to describe. Brief account indicates, that not
too much detail is required.
To account for means give reason(s) for.
9. Apply (to)-This means to put something to use; show how something can be used in
a particular situation. The 'something' that is to be applied may be a theory, or certain
findings, data results of research, etc.
10. Comment (on)-Give your views on something; say what you think about something.
This word is often used with a quotation or statement: you are expected to give your own
reaction to it (views on it). Do you agree with the statement or not? What are your reasons?
11. Consider- Describe and give your thoughts on.
12. Discuss-It means to examine and talk about an issue from all sides. Every point raised
should be immediately followed with an appropriate and clear exemplification or
demonstration. You may make your own conclusions based the argument advanced
13. Evaluate- Decide the worth of something; judge; decide how good, bad, worthwhile,
relevant, important, etc. something is. It is advisable to back up this type of answer with
evidence (facts, figures, instances, etc) rather than simply with appeals to authority.
14. Explain- To bring out into the open, make clear, analyse, and clarify. It is closely
 related to discussion but implies more of an emphasis on cause-effect relationships or step-
by-step sequences
15. Identify- Put a name to or list something.
16. Indicate- Point out, does not usually giving very much detail.
17. List/enumerate/state- Make a list of a number of things. Usually involves
remembering or finding out a number of things and putting them down one after the other,
but it is often better if you make your list according to same kind of system.
18. Plan- Think out how something is to be done, make or organised etc. You usually
have to show that you can think your way into a problem, foresee difficulties and think of
practical solutions.
19. Report (on)-Describe what one has seen or done. Usually refers to something which
has been experienced directly (personally).
20. Review- Write a report on something. Sometimes it involves both stating what facts
are and also saying what your own opinions are.
21. Specify- Give details of something. Usually involves being specific, ie. Precise,
accurate.
22. Work out- Find a solution to a problem etc.
Preparing for an examination:
a) a) One week before the exam:
Find out about the examination
▪ When and where will be examination be held?
▪ What time does it start and how long does it take?
▪ What areas will it cover?
▪ What forms will the question take? Objective? Short answer?
Essays? Problem solving? Practicals? Or combination?
▪ How many questions should be attempted?
▪ Are some questions compulsory?
b) b) The day before the exam:
▪ Check again the time and place of examination?
▪ Check again your examination number/registration number
▪ Make sure that you have all the materials you need for the
examination
▪ Revise only the top priority areas
▪ Avoid learning new information
▪ Be relaxed and focus your mind on the forthcoming exam.
▪ Go to bed early and wake up in good time to avoid rushing.
c) c) On arrival at the examination venue:
▪ Arrive at the examination venue in good time.
▪ Avoid discussing the forthcoming examinations.
▪ Once in the examination room, arrange all the materials you will
 need on the table.
d) The actual examination:
When you get the question paper, apply the PWRST technique. Preview Question, Re-
read, Select, Think
1. Preview
-Read all the general and specific instructions, and essay questions.
-Skim passages and objective questions
2. Question
-Take note of the sections, in the paper, number of questions per section, any
compulsory questions and the marks allocated for each question.
3. Re-read
Re-read the specific instructions for each section/question. Pay special attention
to key verbs. E.g. circle, underline, compare, define, criticize, write, evaluate etc.
4. 4. Select
Select the questions you feel most confident to answer. Start with the easiest questions;
more progressively to the more difficult ones.
5. 5. Think
Think of how to make the best use of the time allocated. Allocate time proportional to the
marks available per question.
E. Answering objective and short answer questions:
Use the SCORER mnemonic: Schedule, Clue, Omit, Read, Estimate, Review
Schedule
Allocate time for each question proportional to the indicated marks and leave ample time at
the end for revision.
Clue
Use clue words. In true/false tests, certain words indicate give a clue e.g. always, every, all,
invariably, often, seldom, never, sometimes, usually,
Omit
Omit difficult question on first attempt. Each time you omit a question, make minus (-)
mark in the margin against the question. Whenever you attempt a question skipped earlier,
change the minus (-) to a plus (+).
Read
Read each question carefully and do not omit any part. There may be information at the
end that changes the meaning of the entire question.
Estimate
Estimate the answer when you are not sure. Make an intelligent guess.
Review
Review your work to make sure that you have answered all the questions required and
followed the instructions given
Answering essay questions:
Apply the POWER mnemonic: Purpose, Organise, Write, Evaluate, and Revise
Purpose
Establish the purpose and stick to it. Ask yourself-what exactly am I supposed to do
and how best can I achieve that purpose? This is important to avoid irrelevancy.
Organise
Organise your answer before you write it. Make a fairly detailed outline. Make sure
that supporting ideas contribute to the main ideas.
Write
Write the essay. Put your outline before you and refer to it often. Each paragraph
must contain only one idea. Pay special attention to words that indicate relationships e.g. in
addition, furthermore, similarly, as a result, consequently etc. Write as legibly as possible.
Evaluate
Evaluate your work and use of time as you proceed. Keep asking critical questions like:
are there enough facts and examples to support this statement? Is there meaning of this
statement absolutely clear? Am I operating within the time allocated?
Revise
Revise the essay. Proofread your essays carefully to ensure that you have written
what you intended to write.
End of the examination paper:
❖ Check to ensure that you have answered the correct number of questions.
❖ Ensure that all answers and pages are appropriately labeled
❖ Ensure that all the identification details appear on your answer booklet
❖ If you use loose paper, staple the answer sheets together in the order in which you've
answered the questions.
❖ Check through your answers for factual details, spelling, punctuation and grammatical
errors.
❖ Do not discuss the exam after doing it.
Test Taking Strategies:
Examinations are a fact of life in college. But the only time an exam should be a trial is
when you aren't prepared for it, and the best sign that you aren't prepared is when you have
to stay up all night to "cram." Cramming won't do very much for you (except make you so
tired that when you take the exam you won't be able to think clearly enough to answer the
questions you DO know).
Here are some tips to help you develop test taking skills:
Before the test:
1. Start preparing for your exams the first day of class. You can do this by reading your
syllabus carefully to find out when your exams will be, how many there will be, and how
much they are weighed into your grade.
2. Plan reviews as part of your regularly weekly study schedule; consequently, you review
over the whole quarter rather than just at exam time.
3. Reviews are much more than reading and rereading all assignments. You need to read
over your lecture notes and ask yourself questions on the material you don't know well. (If
your notes are relatively complete and well organized, you may find that very little
rereading of the textbook for detail is needed.) You may want to create a study group for
these reviews to reinforce your learning.
4. Review for several short periods rather than one long period. You will find that you
retain information better and get less fatigued.
5. Turn the main points of each topic or heading into questions and check to see if the
answers come to you quickly and correctly. Try to predict examination questions; then
outline your answers.
6. It may seem "old-fashioned", but flashcards may be a helpful way to review in courses
that have many unfamiliar terms. Review the card in random order using only those terms
that you have difficulty remembering.
During the test:
There are also some things to keep in mind when you are taking the test.
1. First, read the directions carefully!! Many points have been lost because students didn't
follow the directions.
2. Note start and end times and divide the time you have with the questions you will be
answering.
3. Remember to preview the test to see how much time you need to allot for each section.
If the test is all multiple choice questions, it is good to know that immediately.
4. Work on the "easiest" parts first. If your strength is essay questions, answer those first to
get the maximum points. Pace yourself to allow time for the more difficult parts.
5. When answering essay questions use the technique of writing a topical paragraph.
Organization, clear thinking, and good writing are important, but so is neatness. Be sure to
make your writing legible. Introduce and conclude each point.
6. Save time at the end of the exam to review your test and make sure you haven't left out
any answers or parts of answers. This is difficult to do under the stress of exams, but it
often keeps you from making needless errors.
7. Use your first instinct. As you read a question, attempt to answer it before reading the
answers listed. After doing so, select from the list that most closely matches your answer.
8. It is recommended to bring a watch. This will help you keep track of time in case the
clock is in a location hard for you to see.
9. Take a few deep breaths when you get stuck. If you come across a question you’re not
sure how to answer in the exam, stop for a moment and take a few deep breathes (in for the
count of 3 and out for the count of 3). If you are not sure how to answer it there and then,
move on to another question. The worst thing you can do is start to panic, because as they
say ‘stress makes you stupid’. You won’t be able to think clearly.
After the test:
If the instructor reviews the exam in class, make sure you attend. Many students choose to
skip class of the day of the review because "nothing is happening" that day. On the
contrary, this is an important class to attend because it helps reinforce the information one
more time in long term memory. Even if you aren't interested in the "learning" aspect of the
class, it is an opportunity to hear what the instructor was looking for in the answers. This
can help you on the next exam.
Keep in mind that there are things you can do before, during, and after exams that will help
you succeed in the class. You may want to read and complete the Test Taking Checklist to
evaluate your development as a test-wise student.

TOPIC NINE: PRESENTATION SKILLS

Introduction to presentation skills
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking
situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A
presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking
engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a video
conference. A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will
often contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive work
of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive
additional funding for a project.
Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging
presentations to a variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the
structure of your presentation, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the
body language you convey. To be an effective presenter, step-by-step preparation and the
method and means of presenting the information should be carefully considered.
Planning your Presentation:
It can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:
a) Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in
giving the presentation, and will begin to determine the content.
b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g;--to inform, persuade, motivate or
change things. What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?
c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and
who they are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be
realistic about this. Find out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will
have about your topic, so that you know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to
have any preconceptions or misconceptions about the subject that you need to address and
put right?
How might your audience use what you have to say?
d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be
available. Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you
decide on type of seating arrangements), and other facilities.
e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.
f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my
message across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How
much time will I need?
g) Structure your talk.
Structuring Your Presentation:
This is one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear
to both you and your audience. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a
flipchart, whiteboard power point, overhead projector or data projector etc. to clarify
important points and aid understanding?
NB: Do not use too many slides/points.
Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline. Different authors advocate
different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has their merits (Hartley and
Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
The structure of a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.
i) Introduction:
Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.
Ways of getting your audience’s attention include;
• asking a rhetorical or intriguing question,
• providing a relevant and interesting fact,
• giving an anecdote (story),
• outlining the valuable information you hope the audience will gain from the presentation,
• telling them why they need to know the information,
• giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.
Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the
subject matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement of your main objective. It
can also be helpful to present the structure to your talk, by explaining briefly how you plan
to proceed with it.
ii)The Main Body:
Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as your
audience needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you
have decided on the key points, organize them into a sequence that makes sense to you.
This sequence may take various forms, including being chronologically based, problem-
solution based, simple-complex based etc. (Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
Explain and build your points using supporting information and evidence.
iii)Conclusion:
There are various ways of concluding a presentation including
• changing the pace,
• using a new visual aid,
• summarizing your main points,
• drawing the conclusion and its importance,
• making recommendations,
• asking for questions,
• getting feedback,
• asking for or recommending particular actions,
• getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action,
• Finally end by thanking the group for their time and attention.
Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a close;
e.g. ‘And now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc.
Try to end on a strong note through the use of tactics detailed above. Research has long
since shown that we tend to remember the opening and closing parts of a presentation over
the detail in the middle.
Presentation Delivery:
DeVito (1990) outlines four main types of delivery:
1. Impromptu: This involves giving a talk with no prior planning, and is often the least
preferred method. Sometimes however, we do not have an opportunity to prepare and are
called on to speak at short notice. Take a few moments to write some key points down on a
card to help give you some structure, and do not panic. Others will be aware that you had
only a short time to prepare.
Also keeping the style relaxed and conversational, so that it seems impromptu (even if this
is not the case) can be a very effective style.
2. Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speech is a “carefully prepared, but delivered
without notes or text.” It is speaking before a group on a topic you are familiar with, using
very few notes. Extemporaneous speeches are presentations that must be given without any
notes or slides and with minimum preparation time, usually less than 30 minutes. This
involves cue cards or slides on which you summarize the main points which you then flesh
out.
3. Memorized: This approach involves learning and repeating a manuscript. This is more
difficult when giving longer presentations in that there is a lot of material to be memorized.
However, a useful tip is to memorize the first few lines to get you started.
4. Reading from a manuscript: This involves speaking from a prepared manuscript.
However, while this can feel the safest option, try to use it as a guide as far as possible
rather than reading it word for word, as your delivery could otherwise sound stilted.
Practice and rehearse in order to remember key points. Ultimately, choose the method, or
combination of methods, that is least stressful for you.
Techniques of presentation Delivery:
Hargie et al (2004, p. 72) outline a number of features of effective deliveries, summarised
as follows:
➢ Use appropriate language and avoid jargon. If the audience does not understand
most of what is being talked about, they will become detached.
➢ Be suitably paced. Inexperienced speakers have a habit of speaking too quickly. On
the other hand, speaking too slowly is a recipe for boredom. Where speed of
delivery may be a particular concern, think about placing an accomplice in the
audience primed to signal when you get too slow or too quick.
➢ Use visual aids without placing them centre stage. Even the best of these are only
aids to assist the speaker.
➢ Make use of sub-summaries, signposts and links. Pause at transitional points in the
flow of ideas to briefly summarize the material covered. Explaining how this
‘chunk’ of information links with what comes next helps to signpost the path
through the presentation and increases its coherence.
➢ Emphasize key points verbally, non-verbally and vocally. Emphasize verbally
through listing key points (e.g. ‘It is vital that you recognise…’), repeating core
elements etc; non-verbally (e.g. Gestures, changes in posture, position); and vocally
(e.g. Altering volume, speed of delivery, tone of voice).
➢ Be verbally fluent. Effective public speakers do not have to be word perfect.
Nevertheless, lots of ‘umms’ ‘ahhhhs’ and other fillers such as ‘you know’ can be
highly distracting.
➢ Be concrete and precise, rather than appearing vague and indefinite.
➢ Be varied, e.g. intersperse talk with graphs, slides or pieces of video that the
audience can look at as a break from listening. If appropriate, encourage some
discussion or ask the audience to work on a brief exercise.
➢ Include carefully chosen examples – as a bridge between what the listener knows
and is familiar with and the new material being introduced.
 ➢ Avoid distractions, e.g. pacing around, playing with a pen or pointer, over use of
certain stock phrases. Gain control of body language.
➢ Seem natural and not contrived. This can take some time and practice.
➢ Rehearse what is going to be said.
Body Language during presentation delivery:
Remember the importance of non-verbal communication!
➢ Behave enthusiastically,
➢ make and maintain eye contact,
➢ smile,
➢ Act ‘as if’ you are confident and relaxed (even if you do not feel it) and make your
introduction without reading from your notes too much.
➢ The manner of speech is also important.
➢ As well as ensuring that your voice can be heard by the furthest member of the
group,
➢ speak clearly and at a conversational,
➢ Appropriate speed.
➢ Varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can communicate enthusiasm
and can create a sense of interest in the listener.
➢ Pause before key points and stress key parts of the sentence by using change in
tone.
Techniques to resolve your anxiety include the following:
1. Accept that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous or anxious to some extent.
2. Prepare well.
3. Be realistic. Are your standards too high? Take off the unnecessary pressure that comes
from negative and unrealistic thoughts by challenging them and seeking the more rational
view. That worst case scenario you imagine is highly improbable, and if a less than positive
outcome does occur, it is unlikely to be the end of the world!
4. Use relaxation exercises such as deep breathing.
5. Behave ‘as if’ you are feeling confident; i.e.
i. Enter the presentation in a very deliberate way,
ii. Rehearse your presentation, but also how you will stand, set out your notes, change your
slides etc,
iii. Use other non-verbal behaviors to appear confident