ne hundred and eighteen different chemical elements are known to us at present. These elements combine to form a large number of compounds. On the basis of their chemical properties, all the compounds can be classified into three grou 1. Acids, 2. Bases, and 3. Salts In this Chapter, we will study all the three types of compounds, acids, bases and salts, in detail. Let ius start with acids and bases. In order to know whether a substance is an acid or a base, we should | first know the meaning of the term ‘acid-base indicator’ or just ‘indicator. This is discussed below. licators for Testing Acids and Bases ‘An indicator is a ‘dye’ that changes colour when it is put into an acid or a base. An indicator gives snt colours in acid and base. Thus, an indicator tells us whether the substance we are testing is ‘acid or a base by change in its colour. In other words, an indicator tells us whether the substance are testing is acidic or basic by change in its colour. The three most common indicators to test for and bases are: Litmus, Methyl orange and Phenolphthalein. ‘The most common indicator used for testing acids and bases in the laboratory is litmus. Litmus can in the form of litmus solution or in the form of litmus paper. It is of two types: Blue litmus d litmus (see Figure 1). (a) Blue litmus paper (b) Red litmus paper turns blue litmus to red. (or alkali) turns red litmus to blue. nt way to find out whether a solution is acidic or basic is to test it with litmus and in colour which takes place. f the given solution turns blue litmus to red, then the given solution will be acidic be an acid). For example, orange juice turns blue litmus to red, so orange juice is is, orange juice contains an acid. 3 Chemistryaline in nature). Or it will be a base (or alk example, sodium hydroxide solution (caustic ls solution) turns red litmus to blue, so sodium. roxide solution is basic in nature (or alkaline in ure). In other words, sodium hydroxide is a base rn alkali). Please note that a water soluble base #8 called an alkali Litmus is a natural indicator (whose neutral Pet nS Purple) t is made into blue litmus and iran for the sake of convenience in detecting pelour change when an acid or baee i added to it. Figure en and phenolphthalein are synthetic a material is acidic or basic. in : i as indicators. The neutral colour ef mei Senge aeelton het ‘Orange’. The colour changes which take place in _isbasic.On the other hand, the so ee ry methyl orange are as follow. side turns blue litmus paper red, so this sollis acidie { Methyl orange indicator gives red colour in acid solution. (ii) Methyl orange indicator gives yellow colour in basic solution. + cee The neutral colour of phenolphthalein is tolourles, The colour changes which take place ig henolphthalein indicator are given below: (i) Phenolphthalein indicator is colourless in acid solution. (ii) Phenolphthalein indicator gives pink colour in basic solution. . (with dropper) on the left side in this dlourless in acid solution but turns wl orange indicator, Methyl orang Picture contains phenolphthalein indicator. Phenolphthalein Pink in basic solution. The bottle on the right side in the above picture Je indicator is red in acid solution but yellow in basic solution, Other acid-base indicator is the ‘universal indicator. We will discuss it later on in this Moment we will describe some of the natural indicators in a little more detail, natural indicator. (Lit ‘soluti Many times we have noticed that a yellow stain o curry onpite cloth (which is due to the presence of turmerte aw ey) tars reddish-brown when soap is scrubbed Incr this is due to the fact that soap solution is basi ote whic h changes the colour of turmeric in the i ey stain to red-brown. ‘This stain turns to yellow jin when the cloth is rinsed with plenty of water, This fr because then the basic Soap gets removed with water (Ahered cabbage extract (obtained from red cabbage «)is also a natural indicator. is red in colour, The ict remains red ii idic solutions but en_on adding to basic solutions. ‘The coloured petals of some flowers (such as Hydrangea, Petunia and ) which change colour in the presence of acids asindicators, For example, the flowers eur at ant are usually blue which turn pink in presence of a base, eesti Figure 4. This is lichen. Litmus indicator is extracted Olfactory Indicators from lichen. an es re ting to the sense of smell’.(Those substances whose smell (or odour) changes in acidic or basic solutions are called olfactory indicators. An olfactory indicator usually works on the principle that when an acid or base is added to it, then its ‘characteristic smell’ cannot be detected. Onion and vanilla extract are olfactory indicators. nion has a characteristic smell. When a basic solution like sodium hydroxide solution is added to a cloth strip treated with onions (or onion extract), then the onion smell cannot be detected. An acidic solution like hydrochloric acid, however, does not destroy the smell of onions. This can be used asa yr acids and bases. Vanilla extract has a characteristic pleasant smell. If a basic solution like sodium hydroxide solution is added to vanilla extract, then we cannot detect the characteristic smell of vanilla extract. An acidic solution like hydrochloric acid, however, does not destroy the smell of vanilla extract. This can be used as a test for acids and bases. Let us solve one problem now. You have been provided with three test-tubes. One of them contains distilled water and the other two contain an acidic solution and a basic solution, respectively. If you are given only red litmus paper, how will you identify the contents of each test-tube? (NCERT Book Question) (i) Put the red litmus paper in all the test-tubes, turn by turn, The solution which turns red litmus to blue will be a basic solution, The blue litmus paper formed here can now be used to test the acidic solution, (if) Put the blue litmus paper (obtained above) in the remaining two test-tubes, one by one. The solution which turns the blue litmus Paper to red the acidic solution. (iit) The solution which has no effect on any litmus paper will hence it will be distilled water.% sth 8 5 due to the Pres Htwe cut a lemon (neemnbu) with a knife and taste it, the lemon appears to have a sour taste swad) (see Figure 5), The sour taste of lemon is due to the presence of an acid in it. The acid in lemon which gives ita sour taste is citric acid, Thus: Acids are those chemical substanc have a sour taste, Acids change the colour of blue litmus to red. Some of the common fruit Faw Mango, raw grapes, lemon, orange, and tamarind (ili), etc, are sour in taste ‘of acids in them. Soured milk (or curd) also contains acid in it. < wid Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water eee acid reacts with sodium carbonate, then sodium chloride, carbon e j 2HCl (aq) — > _2WaCl(aq) + COz(g) + HOM) ochloric acid Sodium chloride Carbon Water dioxide ed in the form of brisk effervescence (the rapid escape of small NaCl (aq) + Sodium chloride Big pad gare: testo evolyater turns mil (a) When carbon dioxide gas is roe ee a formation of & white precipitate of calcium carbonate: Ca(OH), (aq) ‘ oda 8 CaCO\(s) HOC) : * OO) —s Water hydrogs Caleium hydroxide Carton dloxide pean stomac (Lime water) (iit ioa ved *cidlty , i rect {O) excess of carbon dioxide gas i passed through lime water, then eiarte form ri First dissolves due to the formation of a soluble salt calcium hydrogencarbonate, Sola Cre becomes clear again, CalHICO,), ta) a CaCO, (s) 4g CO) (y) + 3,00) oe ve challe Calcium carbonate Carbon dioxide Water ee carbe (White pry (Soluble in water) catbe (Insoluble in water) carb a sulp! | i = ! naie fa (say | a ' 6 Th | Ma) Clear lime water. (6) When carbon dioxide is passed (0) If carbon dioxide is passed for si through lime water, it turns milky 4 longer time, the milkiness disappears fe Figure 12, Action of carbon dioxide gas on lime water, tion between dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate can be performed as follows. 1 @ boiling tube and Put about 0.5 g of sodium carbonate in it. out 2 mL of dil lie hydrochloric acid in the boiling tube (through a thistle funnel as Figure 13), Glass Thistle funnel rve that brisk effervescence of a gas ee {ver ite ' , Cork. through lime water. The lime water Ky (showing that it is carbon dioxide gas), Passing carbon dioxide gas through hay Water for some more time, The lime tude Mes clear again. This shows that the itate of calcium carbonate dissolves cess of carbon dioxide gas, is experiment by using sodium Dt Place of sodium carbonate, Again tocar. Kide gas which will turn lime water ecto of carbon dioxide, the milky lime roursraeenln action of dilute hydrochlone ore BY the rom the problem of carbonate) being Passed thro (lum hydronde nga MUSH lime water “Stee en ingga aT OE FEE Ti te Rec mmue babiing ent terete eronte ties kn lees aww cents wl rs A TA ee vee Yo he aaa teen artis v= Miers silptrerte acid rents vith wae anne pencarhemnaten) te form metal eniphates deere ne water Aneehet POH He be ened is thet Himestome, marhle and dha or tw dame Forsis of the samme chemical compoord vente humn ven Whe ega-shells are made of calcium carbonate. (ak (0m caremate Feacts with dilute brydrochberi: acid to form calcium chheride deetidle and water Stmilarty. calcium carteomate reacte with dilute siptourte cid to Form calcium sulphate, carbon diotide and water A yet another point to be moted is that carbon diode gas does not support So, carbon dioxide gas can extinguish » burning substance Limestone | 4 ian : calcium carbonate Carbon a snide ts formed whert 2 . eee en bed water ond is erepped one a (when an acid reacts with a base, then a salt and water are formed. surface of limestone. This vant test reaction Is # conv for limestone. ‘That & Acid + Base ——» Salt + Water actually, when an acid is treated with a base, the base neutralises the acid and destroys Its acidity. Since an acid and a base neutralise each other's effect, so the reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water is called @ neutralisation reaction. For example: ‘When hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, then a neutralisation reaction takes 0 form sodium chloride and water: NsOH (aq) + HCl (aq) a NaCl (aq) ; H,0 () ‘Sodium bydromde Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride Water (Base) (Acid) (Salt) “This is an example of a neutralisation reaction. In this reaction, sodium hydroxide base and ‘acid neutralise (nullify) each other to form sodium chloride salt which is neither acidic jor basic, it is neutral. "We can carry out the neutralisation reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide laboratory ‘We will use phenolphthalein solution as indicator in this experiment. Please 20 1 solution is a colourless indicator which gives pink colour in basic solution (or r indicator remains colourless in acidic solution as well as in neutral tion reaction now. hydroxide solution in a test-tube (or a conical flask). Add sdicator, The solution will turn pink (showing that it is basic(iv) At this Stage, all the sodium hydroxide base taken in the test-tube has been completely Reutralised by hydrochloric acid added from the dropper. The colour of phenolphthalein indicator changes from pink to colourless because no more sodium hydroxide base is left unreacted in the test-tube, The reaction mixture has become neutral, () Now add a few drops of sodium hydroxide Solution to the above colourless mixture. The mixture becomes pink in colour again. That 's, the phenolphthalein indicator has changed its colour to pink. ‘This has happened because after adding a few drops of sodium hydroxide Solution, the reaction mixture has become basic again. Figure 15. This studentis carrying out the neutral reaction between sodium hydroxide solution hydrochloric acid solution. She has taken s hydroxide solution (containing phenolphthale, indicator) in the conical flask and adding hydrochlog, Ae : acid to it from the burette. The acid will be added, fates nat With metal oxides to form salt and sodium hydroxide solution until the indicator ug water: changes colour : from pink to colourless. Metal oxide + Acid ——» Salt + Water Copper (II) oxide is a metal oxide. Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with copper (II) oxide to fom copper (II) chloride and water: __ CuO (s) + 2HCI(aq) =—> CuCl, (aq) + #H,0()) Cove oxide Hydrochloric acid Copper (Il) chloride Water (Black) een) We can carry out the reaction between copper (II) oxide and dilute hydrochloric acid as follows (i) Take a small amount of copper (II) oxide in a beaker. It is black in colour. ) Add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly while stirring with a glass rod. (iii) We will find that copper (II) oxide has dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid to form a blue- green solution. )) The blue-green colour of the solution is due to the formation of copper (II) chloride salt. meaction between acids and metal oxides to form salt and water is similar to the neutralisation between an acid and a base to form salt and water. Thus, the reaction between acids and metal a kind of neutralisation reaction. It shows the basic nature of metal oxides. ke metal oxides, the metal hydroxides are also basic in nature. The acids also react with metal to form salt and water. The reaction between an acid and a metal hydroxide is also a kind reaction. The antacid called ‘Milk of Magnesia’ which is used to remove indigestion much hydrochloric acid in the stomach) is a metal hydroxide called ‘magnesium hydroxide is basic in nature. It reacts with the excess hydrochloric acid present neutralises it. i __ a 7. Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water8, Acids have corrosive nature ‘The mineral acids cause severe burns on the skin and attack and eat up materials like cloth, wood, metal structures and stonework, eo they are said to be corrosive, For example, if concentrated sulphuric acid falls accidently on skin, clothes or wood, it causes severe burns on the skin, it cuts holes in the clothes, and burns the wood producing black spots on its surface (see Figure 16), All the three common mineral acids, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, are very corrosive in their concentrated form. We should be very careful while using these acids in the Jaboratory. Acids are never stored in metal containers because they gradually corrode and eat up the metal container. Acids are stored in containers made of glass and ceramics because they are not attacked by acids. In addition to concentrated mineral acids, the strong bases (or alkalis) such as sodium hydroxide are also very corrosive, and attack and destroy our skin (see Figure 17). In order to warn people about the dangerous corrosive nature of mineral acids and strong bases, a hazard warning sign is usually printed on their containers. Such a hazard warning sign is shown in Figure 18. We can see such hazard warning signs on the cans of concentrated sulphuric acid and bottles of sodium hydroxide pellets, etc. The hazard warning sign shows that these (a) This is a cotton cloth Figu Figure 17. The strong bases (or strong alkalis) are just as dangerous as strong acids. These burns were caused by sodium hydroxide, (b) Concentrated sulphuric acid has burnt a hole in the cotton doth 16. Acids have corrosive nature. e 18. This is a hazard warning sign for the corrosive nature of concentrated mineral acids and strong bases (or alkalis) which is displayed on their containers. mY studygear chemicals attack living tissue like skin (shown by cut in hand), and wood, etc. The hazard warning sign tells the people to be careful and protect themselves from these dangerous chemicals. Let us solve some problems now. Metal compound A reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce effervescence. The gas evolved extinguishes a burning candle. Write a balanced chen equation for the reaction if one of the compounds formed is (NCERT | ‘The gas that extinguishes a burning candle is carbon dioxide \ by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on a met: hydrogencarbonate) and produces effervesc compounds formed is calcium chloride, itcalcium carbonate (It cannot be caleium hydrogencarbo eat hiyurogencarhanate is found only in solution: itis too wneable to solid). Thus, the metal compound A is calcium carbonate (CaCO,), carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochlorle acid to form calcium chloride, dioxide and water, This can be written a x CO) (g) CaCO; (s) + AHCH(aq) — ——m Cache) : Calcium carbonate Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride Exrbon (en compel 8 LSsmpic Proticm 2, Ra egg-shells to give a gas that turns lime milky. The solution contains: (a) NaCl (b) HCl (©) LiCl (d) KCL (NCEET Soon | SSI tie eng shells are made of calcium carbonate and the gas which turns lime | milky is carbon dioxide, Carbon dioxide gas can be formed by the action, an acid solution on calcium carbonate (or egg shells). So, the solution contajg, HCl (which is hydrochloric acid), : WHAT DO ALL ACIDS HAVE IN COMMON water, nae acids contain hydrogen. ‘The hydrogen present in acids is such that when acid is dissolved jy can Tow fe AEateS Out as positively charged hydrogen ions (H*) and enters the solution as H’(aq) ions. We Cor dante lefine an acid on the basis of hydrogen ions as follows: An acid is a substance which dissociate, solutios an dissolving in water to produce hydrogen ions [H*(aq) ions]. For example, an aqueow, 'n of hydrochloric acid dissociates (or ionises) to form hydrogen ions (alongwith chloride ions): HCl (aq) — H*(aq) + cl (aq) Hydrochlonie acid Bieeaee Chloride ons no Pe en of hydrogen ions [H*(aq) ions] in hydrochloric acid solution which makes it Please note that hydrogen ions do not exist as H* ions in solution, they attach themselves to the Polar water molecules to form hydronium ions, H,0*. That is, eae RTE Ss eercor Hydrogen ion Water Hydronium ion So, hydrogen ions must always be written as either H*(aq) or as hydronium ions, H3O*. Please Mote that H-(aq) and H,O* are just the same because: H*(aq) = H* + H,0. In this class we will be ting hydrogen ions as H*(aq) for the sake of convenience in writing. ‘common thing in all the acids is that they produce hydrogen ions [H*(aq) ions] when dissolved Thus, the acidic behaviour of an acid solution is due to the presence of hydrogen ions in it. In it is the presence of hydrogen ions which gives an acid solution its acidic properties. For example: ;hloric acid (HCl) shows acidic character because it ionises in aqueous solution to form H*(aq) (alongwith chloride ions): HCl (aq) ——> H*(aq) + Cl (aq) acid (HSO,) shows acidic behaviour because it ionises in aqueous solution to give H,SO; (aq) ——> 2H* (aq) + SO," (aq) 10) shows acidic properties because it ionises in aqueous solution to release ( ith nitrate ions): the fact t ment (0 experiment (a Take *« taining ©° ci) Fix (ii) Com (iv) Pour current. in the beak the beaker | tn fact, all ¢ (y) Li ‘The bulb conduct ‘not glowos in aqueous solution (0 (iv) Acetic acid (CHACOOT) dees acidic behaviour beewee Ht ft produce hydragen fons, H"(9q) (slongrenh avetate kone) CHCOON (aq) » CH.COO tq) + I ta hy Thus, the acids like HCL 11,50,, HINO, and CH COOH, ete, show acide character becamse | - dissociate (oF fomise) Yn aqueous solutions to produce hydrogen tons, H1' (aq) fons. The compouts such # plocose (CeH1,)0,) and alcohol (CH,OH) also contain hyurogen but they do net show a5 ee character, The aqueous solutions of glucose and alcohol do not show acidic character because o does mot separate out as hydrogen ions [11° (aq) ions] on dissolving in water, In otfier wor’s the hytrogen containing compounds such as ghicase andl alcohol do not behave as acids because they do not dissociate (or fonise) in water to produce hydrogen ions. From this we cone Jude that though all the acids contain hydrogen, but all the hydrogen containing compounds are not acids. To Show That All the Compounds Containing Hydrogen are Not Acids ‘The fact that all the hydrogen containing compounds are not acids can be shown by the following experiment (er activity), {i) Take solutions of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, glucose and alcohol. All these are hydrogen containing compounds, {#9 Fix two iron nails on a rubber cork and place the cork in a beaker [as shown in Figure 19(a).] (iif) Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6 volt battery through a switch and a bulb. {#) Pour some dilute hydrochloric acid solution (HCI solution) in the beaker and switch on the current. The bulb starts glowing [see Figure 19(a)]. ‘This shows that hydrochloric acid solution taken in the beaker conducts electricity. If we repeat this experiment by taking sulphuric acid solution in the beaker, the bulb glows again. This shows that sulphuric acid solution also conducts electricity. in fact, alll the acid solutions conduct electricity. Battery fe Ele Bub L does not (b) Glucose solution in water does not conduct electricity Figure 19. (CgHy,0, solution) in the beaker and switch on the current. Figure 19(H)|. This shows that glucose solution does not nent by taking alcohol solution in the beaker, the bulb doeshe p, . F : a OF Haq) ions and Cl (aq) ions, a solution of hydrochloric acid cond “ompounds like Fe bulls glow (in the above experiment). On the other hand, the hy due to W © glucose and alcohol do not produce hydrogen ions or some other ions in “ence of ions, glucose solution and alcohol solution do not conduct Win the above experiment). From this experiment we conclude that the hydrogen COMPoun, de & lonise) ‘lute at glucose and ak ohol are not categorised as acids because they do not qi, Se) in water to we Produce hydrogen ions [H*(aq) ions}. Di gen ions aq. acids, ee Water does not conduct electricity because it does not contain any ionic com, » bases of salts) di solved in it, On the other hand, rain water conducts electricity, ‘ain Water, while falling to the earth through the atmosphere, dissolves an from the air and forms carbonic acid (HCO). Carbonic acid provides arbonate ions, CO,” (aq), to rain water, So, due to the presence of c ‘Ons to rain water), the rain water conducts electricity. Please note that "ain other acidic gases such as SO), NO), etc,, present in air to form acids which ting electricity, explained as follow 88S carbon dioxide lons, H*(aq), and « (which Provides j May also dissolve further in conduc Acids Do Not Show Acidic Behaviour In the Absence of Water ‘The acidic behaviour of acids is due to the presence of hydrogen ions, H*(aq) ions, in them, acids produce hydrogen ions only in the presence of water. So, in the absence of water, a sul Will not form hydrogen ions and hence will not show its acidic behaviour, We will now describe epheTiment to show that acids do not show acidic behaviour without water. We will take the e of hydrogen chloride gas for this purpose. Dry hydrogen chloride gas (dry HCl gas) does not hy acidic behaviour but when some water is present, then its acidic behaviour can be observed. Lety describe the experiment now. iJ : () Take about 1 gram solid sodium chloride (NaCl) in a clean and dry boiling tube and od Son, concentrated sulphuric acid to it very carefully [see Figure 20(a)]. Fit a rubber cork with i be aly delivery tube in the mouth of the boiling tube as shown in Figure 20(b). Concentrated sulphuric ag Teacts with sodium chloride to form hydrogen chloride gas. The hydrogen chloride gas starts comin ‘Out of the open end of the glass tube. Glass delivery tube | | Rubber at Moist blue Renn litmus paper 1 litmus paper Peper; held in HCI gas ne ‘ (No change i in colour) | a it V ing HCl gas with (Cl gas with (0) Testing HCl gas Setar! mois (vet) litmus paper es Figure 20. i i i b)]. There is no change a r in hydrogen chloride gas [see Figure 20( ea ioe: Tinta chi hydrogen chloride gas (HCI gas) does not acta ter (there is no water in ‘dry’ litmus paper).[see Figure 20(0)]- Joride gas (HCI 1 litmus paper)- ence of water (iii) We now hold a ‘moist’ (or wet) blue litmus paper in hydrogen chloride gas We will see that the ‘moist’ blue litmus paper turns red. ‘This shows that hydrogen ch 4s) shows acidic behaviour in the presenee uf water (which is present in ‘moist or ‘wel The above experiment shows that HCI gas does not show acidic behaviour in the nies jained as follows: cidic behaviour In has no hydrogen ns and hence put it shows acidic behaviour in the presence of water, ‘This can be expl es i - Hot contain any hydrogen ions in it, so it does not show a ‘ ae vivti ia ‘bt not change the colour of dry blue litmus paper because it fons [H"(a4 in it, However, when HCl gas dissolves in water, it forms hydrogen 10" shows acidic behaviour HCl (g Dissolve in water piniee; My Hi (aq) + Ch (aq) saa), whe rogen chloride gas, HC! (), ist dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid solution. caching nce then produces H(aq) and Cl-(ag) ons. The separation of H' fons from HCI molecules oe separation of H? ions from HCI molecules can occur only fn ee tare water. That is why HCL gas shows acidic behaviour ‘only in the presence of water. The Sees, Sort Hvdiogen i litmus paper red because it dissolves in the water present in wet litmus coh ay inh es ions, H*(aq) ions, which can turn blue litmus paper to red. Please note that the above reaction of dissolving HCI gas fh water can also be written in another way as follows in which hydrogen jons are written in the form of hydronium ions: a Meee ro), © OMe ee CE Hydronium ion Strong Acids An acid which is completely ionised in water and thus produces a large amount of hydrogen ions is called a strong a ‘or example, 7 21.A id (say, rochloric acid is completely ionis: 7 4 Figure 21. A strong act say, hyd completely ionised in water, so it is a strong acid: —pydrochloric acid) has a high HCl (aq) ——> H*(aq) + Cr (aq) electrical conductivity, so the bulb glows brightly. The single arrow pointing towards right in the above equation indicates that hydrochloric acid is completely ionised to form ions. Sulphuric acid (H,SO,) and nitric acid (HNO3) are also strong acids because they are fully ionised in water to produce a large amount of hydrogen ions. Please note that the word ‘strong’ here refers to the degree of ionisation’ and not to the concentration’ of the ‘acid, Due to large amount of hydrogen ions in their solution, strong acids react very rapidly with other substances (such as metals, metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates, etc.). Strong acids also ahigh electrical conductivity because of the high concentration ygen ions in their solution (see Figure 21). Thus, all the strong Figure 22. A weak acid (say, are strong electrolytes. acetic acid) has a low electrical conductivity, so the bulb glows Acids dimly. acid which is partially ionised in water and thus produces a ‘a weak acid. For example, acetic acid is partially ionised i hhydrogen ions, so it is a weak a ,COOH (aq) == CH;COO- (aq) * HY (aq) ie acid ‘Acetate ions Hydrogen ions small amount of hydrogen ions n water to produce only a smallhat acetic jon tells us t The double arrow Pointing towards Fight as well as left in the above ea iphuros acid (H, does not ionise fully to form hydrogen ions. Carbonie acid (H;CO3) a mount of hydrogen are also weak aci onise only partay in water to form a sm ite slowly with ids react quite stow’) Ben ions present in their solutions, weak acids re ). Weak acids have see Figure 22). Thy a solution of an aci [or hydronium iy of mineral acids, Due to a small Substances (such as metals, m electrical conductivity all the weak acids is diluted by mi 10°] per unit y, Decauise of the | are weak electrolyt ‘ing water, ther ‘olume decrea at concentra CE EPCOaS ae es. Please note that when Ci ae " the concentration of hydrogen ions ae ¢s. We will now give some of the important Uses of Mineral Acids in Industry ft hate), paints, dyes, 1. Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilisers (like ammonium ce chemicals, plastics, Synthetic fibres, detergents, explosives and car batteries. Light (a) Fertilisers (6) Plastics (©) Synthetic fibres (d) Detergents (e) Car batteries Some of the products made by using sulphuric acid, aking 2 Nitric acid is used for mi fertilisers (like ammonium nitrate), explosives (like TNT: Tri- Nitro Toluene), dyes and plastics, fOchloric acid is used for removin, d for removing ‘scale’ deposits fro Teather industries, One problem now. QE Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken Ae Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added to test-tube A whil is added to test-tube B. In which test-tube will the 8 oxide film from steel obj m inside the boilers, It is ects (before they are galvanised) also used in dye-stuffs, textile, in test-tubes A and B. sacctic acid (CH,COOH) Bbcur more vigorously iT Book Question) CH;COOH) is a Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid whereas Weak acid. Being a strong acid, the hydrochloni eater amount of hydrogen ions in it du Ously in test-tube A (containing hy lution of hydrogenrin taste re those to blue. Substances like caustic soda, lime (choona) and washing soda are bitte apy to touch (slippery to touch). They are called bases. Thus: Bases which have a bitter taste. All the bases change the colour of red litmus mical opposites of acids. When bases are added to acids, they neutralise (or cids. So, we can also define a base as follows: A base is a chemical substance an acid. All the metal oxides and metal hydroxides are bases. For example, ) is a metal oxide, so it is a base; and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a metal (© a base. Similarly, calcium oxide (or lime) (CaO) and calcium hydroxide are bases. Ammonium hydroxide (NH,OH) is also a base though it is note that metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates are also they neutralise the acids. Thus, sodium carbonate (NayCO3), calcium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO; ) are also bases. ve in water but some bases dissolve in water. Those bases which ical reaction have a special name. They are called alkalis. Thus, Acids, Bases \d Salts io i> ble bases (oF which is soluble in water is cafled an alkali, Some of the common wale! solu (cats jum hydroxide a Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 1 € ey re NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), © alls) anyon hydroxide (NHOM}), and! Magnesium hyuruside [Mg(O1);) The soluble bases (or a in Ammo avore useful thah Insoluble bases because most of the chemical reacttons take place 0° Juble bases. SO. re pus solutions (OF Water solutions), In this class, we will study only the water 5 - alkali. 50. wwe talk of a base in these discussions, it will actually mean a water soluble base OF ehether We call it a base or an alkali, it will mean the same thing. what Do All the Bases Have in Common When a base is dissolved in water, it always produces hydroxide ions (OH ons jance which dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH- ions) in solu foaium hydroxide js a base because it dissolves in water to produce hydroxide jons ( ). Thus: A base isa tion. For example, alongwith sodium ions): NaOH (s) Sodium hydroxide (Base or Alkali) Na‘ (aq) + OH (aq) __ Water "> Sodium ions Hydroxide ions A sodium hydroxide solution shows basic behaviour due to the presence of hydroxide ions (OH jons) in it. similarly, potassium hydroxide is a base which dissolves in water to give hydroxide ions (alongwith potassium ions): KOH (s) aoe Ki(aq) + ~~ OH (aq) It is the presence of hydroxide ions (OH™ ions) in potassium hydroxide solution which imparts it asic properties (or alkaline properties). Magnesium hydroxide is also a base which dissolves in water to some extent to produce hydroxide jons (alongwith magnesium ions): Mg(OH),(s) —Water_, = Mgt*(aq) + = 20H" (aq) Magnesium hydroxide solution shows basic character due to the presence of hydroxide ions (OH™ jons) in it. From the above discussion we conclude that a common property of all the bases (or alkalis) is that they all produce hydroxide ions (OH” ions) when dissolved in water. NaOH, KOH, Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH), and NH,OH are all bases (or alkalis) because they dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH- ions). Please note that when the solution of ‘abase is diluted by mixing more water in it, then the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH” ions) per unit ne decreases. This gives us a dilute solution of the Ikali). Bases are of two types: strong bases bases. These are discussed below. h completely ionises in water and sa large amount of hydroxide ions Figure 24. Sodium hydroxide and potassium is called a strong base (or a strong hydroxide are strong bases whereas ammonium n hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (also called ammonia solution) is a a H) are strong bases (or strong alkalis). Eatr a this is beeat ise cl ately i 4 tons (OH bal hey completely ionise on dissolving in water to produce a large amount of Weak Bases A i of hy aes ee ionised in water and thus produces a small amount hydroxide (NH ot H” ions) is called a weak base (or weak alkali). Ammonium (Mg(OH),] are sOH), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH))] and magnesium hydroxide are weak bases (or weak alkalis). ‘This is because they ionise only partially on dissol solving in water and produce a small amount of hydroxide fons (OH ions). J Properties of Ba: ’ Th © Important properties of water soluble bases (or alkalis) are given below: ‘ 1. Bases have bitter taste 2. Bases feel soapy to touch For example, if we f mple, if weiribiy drop of sodium hydroxide solution between the tips of our fngea, will soon beg: gin to feel soapy (or slippe i i slippery) as if we have applied soap to them. 3. Bases turn red litmus to blue = : 4. B c cr i Wie a electricity in solution (They are electrolytes) en a base is dissolved in water, it split i i of bases conduct electricity. me ae ee > ane react with some metals to form hydrogen gas Vhen a base reacts with a metal, then a metal salt and hydrogen gas are formed. For example, whe ; sodium hydroxide solution is heated with zinc, then sodium zincate and hydrogen gas are formed. s 2NaOH (aq) + Zn(s) Heat, Na,ZnO, (aq) + Hh (g) Sodium hydroxide Zine Sodium zincate Hydrogen (Base) (Salt) Please note that in the salt formed by the reaction between a base and a metal, the metal is presen as a part of the negative ion (or anion). For example, in the sodium zincate salt (Na,ZnO;) formed by the reaction between sodium hydroxide and zinc metal, the zinc metal is present as a part of the Negative ion, zincate ion (ZnO 7>). It is very important to note that all the metals do not react with ‘pases to form salts and hydrogen gas. "We can show the formation of hydrogen gas in the reaction of sodium hydroxide with zinc metal sing the experimental set-up shown in Figure 11 (on page 69). Take a few pieces of zinc granules in a boiling tube, add 5 mL of sodium hydroxide solution and heat the boiling tube on a burner. speat all the remaining steps as described in the experim fe will find that the gas present in soap bubbles burns witl ent given on page 69. fh a ‘pop’ sound showing that it is gen gas. with acids to form salt and water reacts with an acid, then a salt and water are formed, For ith sulphuric acid, then sodium sulphate and water are formed: + H,S0,(aq) ——> _NaSOQ(aq) + 24,00) Sulphuric acid Sodium sulphate Water (Acid) (alt) : ion reaction. We have already discussed the neutralisation reactions Ge at tae deka aT —_— example, when sodiumjution whereas all bases ine then the in acid and jon between ve now know that all the ac We ne the acids produce hydrogen ions (H* ions) in sol ve hydroxide ions ; See siesta Jens {OH ions) in solution. So, when an acid and a base combi i la fea bree Ih borg os + due (0 the combination of hydrogen ions present hy 10 form wi . ai Hi 4 acid and a base in terms of hydrogen nea So, we can write the neutralisation react HP (aq) . Hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as follows H,0 (I) > OHP (aq) N > Water mY studygear iva irallsation, (Prom acid) pt (Prom base) 7, Bases react with non-metal oxides to form salt and water es react will is Bases rea sel non-metal oxides to form salt and water: A Non-metal oxide 4 Base —> Salt + Water Bit dou, calclum hydroxide Now calcum Hydroxide isa base and carbon dioxide isa non-metal oxide. So, calcium hydroxide solution reac carbon dioxide to produce ¢ alcium carbonate and water: Ca(OH), (aq Seka ce) —— COG) + 0) fi Carbon dioxide Calcium carbonate Water (Non: metal oxide) (sal) ‘The reactions of non-metal oxides with bases to form salt and water show that rlon-metal oxides are acidic in nature, ; Uses of Bases Some of the important uses of bases are given below: Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap, paper and a synthetic fibre called ‘rayon. . Calcium hydroxide (called slaked lime) is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, om Magnesium hydroxide is used as an ‘antacid’ to neutralise excess acid in the stomach and cure indigestion. : 4, Sodium carbonate is used as washing soda and for Figure25. Ammonia olutionisa base. ae hard yale ‘Ammonia solution can be used to clean 5, Sodium hydrogencarbonate is used as baking soda in ‘lts2nd sinks cooking food, for making baking powders, as an antacid to cure indigestion and in soda-acid fire extinguishers. ,0) is slightly ionised into hydrogen ions (H*) and hydroxide ions (OH). In pure water, sntrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are equal. Due to this, pure water is neither basic, it is neutral. Now: ds produce hydrogen ions in water. So, when an acid is added to water, then the concentration n ions in water increases. The solution of acid thus formed will have more of hydrogen of hydroxide ions), and it will be acidic in nature. In other words, acidic solutions have irogen ions. Please note that even the acidic solutions contain hydroxide ions which come ‘of water but the concentration of hydroxide ions in acidic solutions is much less n ions. ide ions in water. So, when a base is added to water, then the concentration ‘The solution formed by dissolving a base in water will have more of 7 ahydro, xide ion: solutions h Ss (and less of hyd i ave e: drogen ions), and ic il y them which ebay of hydroxide ions, Please ae i ih mn bu em mie is much les ‘om the iontsati pills a lg dy ss tha isation of water but th cl i Ce From the hi that of hydroxide ions, Sean bale hydrogen i ove discussion wi ‘drogen ions, ssion we conclude that both acidic soluti acid solutions if a Sorenson devised a i rie ei Al aval ‘olution mi ; nas pH sei : es in ey ona solutions could be Hesiegell bf nei pues a waite simple numbers Ter a the hydrogen ion cece ar ag, ntratio; . on his pH scale, Th i _ has a jow of hydrogen ions in it. Tha Soe ee atta a "rl PH value. On the at is, a solution having a high concentration of hy _ ie, t pH value. In the term a hand, a solution having low concentration of hydro, iB iy 5 , letter ‘p’ s i 1 stan For Kyron (Or eens stands for a German word poten which meses bal The strength of gen ion concentration [H']. ; be an acid or i scale has values FORO ETC red is measured on a scale of numbers called the pH scale, The Tules of DH sales . Please note that pH is a pure number, it has no units. According toy 1, Neutral substances have a ; oF basic). So, the pH of ork eS ae 7, Pure water isa neutral substance (it is neither ac = bach having i pL EGGS, wi is 7, A sugar solution and sodium chloride solution ate ay Substance tv Hl el a whenever the pH of a solution is 7, it will be a neutral substan, js Be ihenciphthalein, et no effect on litmus or any other common indicator such as meth (or acidic soluti fe, caidic ae have a pH of less than 7. Whenever a solution has a pH of less tha, ies3), Please ea example, a solution having a pH of 4 will be acidic in nature (@ Beers 1 is much at more acidic a solution is, the lower will be its pH. For exampk b : more acidic than another solution of pH 4. In other words, a solution of much more stronger acid than another acid having pH 4 (see Figure 26). ‘The solutio of 0, 1, 2 and 3 are usually considered to be strong acids. And the solutions having pid considered to be weak acid solutions. It is clear that the acidity of a substance is related ily acidic substances have a very low pH. Infact, lower the pH, the stronger the acid all the solutions having pH less than 7 are acidic in nature and hence they turn blue also turn methyl orange indicator red. Jutions) have a pH of more than 7. | ore than 7, it will be (or it will be a base las ple, a solution having a pH of 11 ey (or it will be a base). Please note () i solution is, the higher will be its 14 will be much more [/ 1} ic sol tion has a pH of m or alkaline solution solution of pH Bolition of pH 10. In other words, a bea much more stronger base than 3s fi re 27), The solutions (,) prdrochloric acid: _(b) Acetic acid ‘Weak acid isually considered lutions having Strong acid Figure 26.In case ofacids, lower the pH stronge" ‘pH 10 (see Figu ally considered the acid. 10 are u! d ra And the s _H, the stronger the base (or alkali). All the substances Kaving pH more than 7 are basic in nature (or alkaline in ature) and hence they turn red litmus to blue. They also turn phenolphthalein indicator pink. ‘The common PH seale having pH values from 0 to 14 is given in Figure 28. At pH 7, a solution is neutral Figure 28). As the pH of solution decreases from 7 to 0, the hydrogen ion concentration in the solution on increasing and hence the strength of acid goes ‘on increasing (see Figure 28). On the other hand, as the 1H of solution increases from 7 to 14, the hydroxide ion concentration in the solution goes on increasing, due fo which the strength of base (or alkali) also goes on increasing (see Figure 28). Neutral (@) Magnesium (b) Sodium hydroxide hydroxide ‘Weak base Strong base Figure 27. Incase of bases higher the pH, the base. ut [These pH values are for acids | -—These pH values are for bases (alkalis) Pires 40 6 7 8 1 e— strong acid —r}e— weak acid — a Increasing acidic nature Increasing H" ion concentration (Decreasing OH” ion concentration) Figure 28. pH scale. pH Values of Some Common tees Err eer iat: a ieee pore neers ce _ or or Weak alkali Strong alkali Increasing basic nature (or Increasing alkaline nature) Tnoreasing OH ion concentration (Decreasing H" ion concentration) The pH values of some of the common substances from our everyday life are given below. n Substances a a Saliva (before meals) Saliva (after meals) Blood Eggs Toothpaste Baking soda solution Washing soda solution Milk of magnesia Household ammonia Dilute sodium hydroxide Concentrated sodium hydroxide stongerUniversal Indicator ‘The common indie They cannot tell us whi ‘ ibstance is an acid ‘ators (like litmus) can tell us whether the Rea acid, «strong bis ether the given substance is @ strong acid, a dy strengths of acid ase. In other words, the common indicators cannot tell us the a acidic but it cannot tap For example, litmus can tell us that sulphuric acid and vinegar are ae ‘We. can,, how sulphuric acid is q Stronger acid (or more acidic) than vinegar il ¢ of indicator called the strength of an acid solution or a base solution by using a speci: ea an idea of how indicator’ (which work by measuring the pH of a solution). Thus, to fin the OA bi substance is, Universal indicator is used. This will become ik irony te A common method of measuring the PH of a solution in the school oa ) which gives indicator. Universal indicator is a mixture of many different indicators ct Tae depeaele colours at different PH values of the entire pH scale. § ince the pH of hows different col drogen ion Concentration, so we can also say that the universal te i solution is added te different concentrations of hydrogen ions in the solution. When an acid Me ig d by universal in Universal indicator, the indicator produces a new colour. The colour pro‘ Gute with the colours 's used to find the pH Value of the acid ot base solution by matching oe oy iven solution PH colour 8 the pH value, we can make out whether ¢] le gi I indicator at van oF a weak base. The colours produced by universal i Tioyy 5 Orange yellow a ish yellow pl | j | Beate 2 Dark purple 3 Orange red 8 Greenish blue 13 Violet > Orange 9 Blue 4 Violet The colours produced by universal indicator Paper below: =. eutral PaPer changes with solutions of different PH values. The makers of universal indicator provi dicator paper t like litmus, ide a pH colour chart to coi (or solution) on adding lution or in the form of scribe how a universal indicator Paper is used to measure the Of the solution to be t ested is put on a strip of universal in a change in colour (where the solution has been put), The colour produced on indicator matched with a colour on the standard PH colour chart (available in the laboratory), We ponding to this colour from the PH colour chart, And knowing the pH Siven solution is a strong acid, » @ Weak acid, a Strong base or a Weak base. Universal indi th will be a stro, ut 4 and it will dicator paper. Th indicator paper tell whether the icator paper, 8 acid. On th, be a weak acid,nt colours produced with different basic solutions (or ne solutions). The weakly basic solutions produce blue ur whereas highly basic solutions give violet colour va universal indicator (see Figure 30), Please note that fa solution turns universal indicator green, then it will tral solution (which is neither acidic nor basic) be a new , . water will produce a green colour with universal j eator. Let us solve some problems now. i You have two solutions A and B The pH of solution A is 6 and pH of solution B is 8, 30.4 solution has tured this unwore (@) Which solution has more _ !ndkator paper violet showing that is 2500 hydrogen ion concentration? ee (b) Which of the solutions is acidic and which one is basic? (NCERT Book Question) (@) We know that the pH of a solution is inversely proportional to its hydrogen ion concentration, This means that the solution having lower pH will have more hydrogen ion concentration, In this case, solution A (having a lower PH of 6) will have more hydrogen ion concentration. (b) Solution A is acidic and solution B is basic. Five solutions A, B, C, D, and E when tested with universal indicator showed PH of 4, 1, 11, 7 and 9, respectively. (a) Which solution is: (i) neutral (ii) strongly alkaline (iii) strongly acidic (iv) weakly acidic, and (v) weakly alkaline? (b) Arrange the pH in the increasing order of hydrogen ion concentration, (NCERT Book Question) (a) (i) neutral: D (pH = 7); (ii) strongly alkaline: C (pH = 11); (iii) strongly acidic: B (pH = 1); (iv) weakly acidic: A (pH = 4); (v) weakly alkaline: E (pH = 9). )) The solution having highest pH (11) will have the minimum hydrogen ion concentration whereas the solution having the least pH (1) will have maximum hydrogen ion concentration. So, the given solutions can be in the increasing order of their hydrogen ion concentrations as : E D oe MMM) (pita) Gil) ie ¥studygear __ Decreasing order of pH Et of digestion; the pH changes in mouth can become nd survival of animals also depends on the proper 3), and some plants make use of acidic and basic all this in somewhat detail. ae a