Material removal processes

Theory of Metal Machining

Report by : Alaa Elsherbiny Nussiar

1
Company
Logotype
 Chapter summary

1) Material removal process:

It is a removing process in which an initial work piece is shaped into desired geometry.

2) Material removal processes:

Q1. What are the three basic categories of material removal processes?
1- conventional processes: drilling, milling, turning, others.
2- abrasive processes: grinding, others.
3- nonconventional processes: mechanical energy , electromechanical energy , chemical
energy, thermal energy machining.

3) Machining: is done through material removal in the form of a chip exposing a new
cylindrical surface.
4) Machining technology:
Depends on chip formation through relative motion between the tool and work that
consists of Primary motion (cutting speed) and secondary motion (feed). In addition
to relative motion tool geometry together they form the desired shape of the work.
5) Types of machining operations:
Q4. Name the three most common machining processes.
1- turning:
Material removal from a rotating work piece (cutting speed) using single edge
cutting tool moving parallel to work axis of rotation (feed) to form new cylindrical
surface.
2- drilling:
The drill bit is fed in direction parallel to its axis of rotation.
3- milling:
The mill cutter rotates while the work piece is fed in direction perpendicular to the
tool axis and has two types face milling and peripheral milling.

6) Cutting tool types:

Q5. What are the two basic categories of cutting tools in machining ? Give two examples of
machining operations that use each of the tooling types.
1- single point tool: used in turning
2- multiple edge cutting tool: used in milling and drilling.

7) Cutting fluid:
Used for cooling and lubrication to reduce excessive heat during cutting and
chosen based operation conditions and work and tool materials.

2
Company
Logotype
 8) Machining operations classification based on purpose of operation:
Q7. Explain the difference between roughing and finishing operations in machining.

Operation roughing cuts finishing cuts

purpose remove as large material amount as reach the final dimensions and
possible as rapidly as possible. geometry and accuracy and surface
finish.
Operational Done on starting work piece Done as subsequent operation
sequence
Depth of Large smaller
cut and
feed
Cutting slower faster
speed

9) Cutting conditions:
Q6. What are the parameters of a machining operation that
are included within the scope of cutting conditions?
1- Cutting speed (v): mm/s or in/s
2- Feed (f): (mm) or (in) and in turning (mm/rev)
3- Depth of cut (d): (mm)

10) Machine tool:

Q8. What is a machine tool?
Any power-driven machine used in machinery operations.
For turning its lathe.
For drilling its drill press.
For milling its mill machine.

11) Orthogonal cutting:

Q9. What is an orthogonal cutting operation?
• Model used to facilitate analysis in which the cutting edge
is perpendicular on the cutting speed during cutting.
Q10. Why is the orthogonal cutting model useful in the
analysis of metal machining?
• It simplifies the analysis by neglecting the complexities and
yet provides good representation of cutting mechanics in
(2D) instead of (3D) actual model.
12) Chip Formation
Chip is formed through forcing the sharp tool edge into the material, causing shear deformation
along a shear plane which forces the chip to separate from the bulk of material.

3
Company
Logotype
 13) Elements of Orthogonal Cutting:

1- Rack Angle: Directs the flow of the chip formed.

2- Clearance Angle: The angle between the tool flank and the new surface.
14) Thickness Ratio:

to: Thickness of chip prior to cutting.

tc : Thickness of chip after cutting.

• Relation with Shear Plane Angle:

15) Shear Strain:

Found by representing chip deformation as a series of parallel plates sliding against one another.
16) Actual Chip Formation Notes:
1- Shear deformation occurs within a shear zone, not a plane.
2- The chip is deformed after cutting due to friction with the rack face.
3- There are four types of chips formed depending on the type of material to be machined and
cutting conditions.
17) Types of chips formed:
Q11. Name and briefly describe the four types of chips that occur in metal cutting.

Chip Machined Cutting Depth of Surface Notes figure

formed materials speed cut finish
&
feed
discontinuous Brittle low large Irregular -
materials texture
(rough)

Continuous Ductile high Small smooth -

Continuous Ductile Low - - Rough The portions

of work
with built up edge medium due to (BUE) adhere
(BUE)
attached to rack face
and leave with
(BUE) portions of it
which reduces
tool life.

4
Company
Logotype
 Serrated Difficult to high - - It may occur
regular
(semi-continuous) machine materials at
materials very high
speed.
ex: It has saw
(titanium) tooth
appearance.

18) Forces acting on chips formed:

Q12. Identify the four forces that act up on the
chip in the orthogonal metal cutting model but
cannot be measured directly in an operation.
• Forces Applied on the Chip by Tool
1. Friction Force (F): Resists the flow of the chip on
the rack face.
2. Normal Force (N): Acts perpendicular to the
friction force.
• Friction Coefficient:

• Friction Angle (β):

Q14. What is the relationship between the coefficient of friction and the friction angle in the
orthogonal cutting model?
The angle between the resultant force (R) and (N).

• Forces Applied by the Workpiece on the Chip:

1.Shear Force (Fs): Causes shear deformation along the shear plane.
2.Normal Force (Fn): Perpendicular to the shear force.

• Shear Stress Along Shear Plane:

• (τ) represents the stress required to cut through the material, so it must equal or exceed the material
strength (τ = S).
19) Measurable Cutting Forces:
Q13. Identify the two forces that can be measured in the orthogonal metal cutting model.
The four components (F,N,Fs,Fn) cannot be measured directly. Instead, a dynamometer is used to
measure two other components acting on the tool:
1. Cutting Force (Fc): Acts in the direction of cutting speed.
2. Thrust Force (Ft): Acts perpendicular to the cutting force.
• Their resultant is denoted as (R′′).

5
Company
Logotype
 • The four components can be calculated using these measurable forces through specific relations:

Simplified Force analysis to find relationships between F, N, Fs, Fn, Fc, and Ft. Force diagram showing geometric
relationships between F, N, Fs, Fn,
Fc, and Ft.

• when (α = 0): F = Ft & N = Fc which make them the direct output of the dynamometer.
20) Chip Formation
Chip is formed through forcing the shape tool edge into the material causing shear deformation
along a shear plane which forces the chip to separate from the bulk of the material.
• Merchant Equation
Shear Plane Angle: Directs the flow of the chip on the rack face.
Merchant Equation:
Relates the shear plane angle to the rack angle (α\alphaα) and friction angle (β\betaβ).
Important Notes on Equation:
Q15. Describe in words what the Merchant equation tells us.
❖ To increase the shear plane angle:
1) Increase rack angle (α) by using proper tool geometry.
2) Reduce friction angle (β) by using lubricant to reduce friction forces.
❖ Increasing the shear plane angle reduces shear area, which reduces shear forces, leading to
reduced power required for cutting and lower cutting temperature.
21) Comparison of Turning and Orthogonal Cutting Models:

Turning Orthogonal Model

Feed (f) Thickness prior to cutting (to)
Depth of cut (d) Width (w)
Cutting speed (v) Cutting speed (v)
Cutting force (Fc) Cutting force (Fc)
Feed force (Ft) Thrust force (Ft)

6
Company
Logotype
 Q16. How is the power required in a cutting operation related to the cutting force?
• Power Required for Machining
Pc=Fc⋅v
• Horsepower:
HPc=Fc⋅v (ft-lb/min)/33,000
• Mechanical Efficiency of Machine Tool:
E=Pc/Pg , typically around 90%.
Q17. What is the specific energy in metal machining?
• Unit Power (Specific Energy):
U=Pu=Pc/Rmr
Used to compare materials in terms of energy required to remove a unit volume of material.

22) Table (21.2) assumptions:

1. Cutting tool is sharp.
2. to=25 mm.
• For worn tools, values from the table are multiplied by a factor depending on the degree of
dullness:
❖ For nearly worn-out tools (roughing cuts): f=1.1.
❖ For nearly worn-out tools (finishing cuts): f=1.25.
Q18. What does the term size effect mean in metal cutting?
• Reduction in (to) increases energy required to remove a unit volume of material (UUU); this is
called the size effect.
U=Pc/v⋅to⋅w

23) Cutting Temperature:

• Heat Dissipation in Machining:
❖ (98%) of the total energy consumed in machining is dissipated as heat, raising the tool-chip
interface temperature to over 600°C.
❖ The remaining (2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip.
• Effects of High Temperature:
1. Reduction in tool life.
2. Hot chips that pose hazards to the operator.
3. Inaccurate dimensions of the work part due to thermal expansion.
• Equation for Increase in Tool-Chip Interface Temperature:

7
Company
Logotype
 • Temperature Measurement:
Q19. What is a tool–chip thermocouple?
Tool-Chip Thermocouple:
❖ Uses the tool and chip as a thermocouple junction since they are made of different metals.
❖ Measures voltage at their interface using a potentiometer and converts it into temperature using
calibration equations.
❖ Researchers use this to study the relationship between cutting temperature and cutting
conditions.
• General Relation Between Temperature and Cutting Speed:

8
Company
Logotype