FORM FOUR PHYSCIS SUMMARY

UPDATED NOTES

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 TOPIC 01: THIN LENSES
1.1: Introduction
A lens is generally a transparent material having at least one curved surface. A lens works by way of
refraction of light. There are two common types of lenses:
1. Converging/convex lens- it is thicker at the middle.

2. Diverging/concave lens- it is thinner at the middle.

1.2: Terms used

a) Centre of curvature, C- it is the centre of the sphere of which the surface of the lens is part. A lens
has two centres of curvature.

C C F F C
C F P F C

b) Radius of curvature, r- it is the radius of the sphere of which the lens is part.
c) Principal axis- a straight line joining the two centres of curvature.
d) Optical centre, P- it is a point on the principal axis midway between the lens surfaces.
e) Principal focus, F- for a converging lens, it is the point along the principal axis at which rays parallel
and close to the principal axis converge after refraction by the lens. For a diverging lens, it is the
point along the principal axis from which rays parallel and close to the principal axis seem to diverge
from after refraction by the lens.
F F

f f

f) Focal length, f- it is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. It is real for a
converging lens and virtual (negative) for a diverging lens.

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g) Focal plane- when parallel rays which are not parallel to the principal axis are incident on a lens, the
rays converge at or appear to diverge from a point which is perpendicular to the principal axis and
passes through the principal focus, F. this plane is called the focal plane.

1.3: Lens ray diagrams

There are three main rays in ray diagrams as shown below:
a. A ray parallel to the principal axis

For a converging lens, the rays converge at F after refraction while for a diverging lens, the rays appear
to diverge from F after refraction.
b. A ray passing through or appearing to pass through F.

In both cases, the refracted rays are parallel to the principal axis.
c. A ray directed to the optical centre of the lens.

In both cases, the rays pass undeviated.

NB: in ray diagrams, the following symbols are used for the two lenses:

Converging lens Diverging lens

Note that in ray diagrams:

1. Real rays, real objects and real images are represented using continuous lines.
2. Virtual rays and virtual images are represented using broken lines.

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 3. To locate an image, there must be at least two rays intersecting, whether real or virtual.
Sometimes, a scale may be used in ray diagrams. If used, then the scale chosen for object and image
distances need not be necessarily equal to that of the object and image heights but the two must be
given on the diagram.
1.4:Image formation by thin lenses

1.4.1:Image formation by a converging lens.

This is summarized by the table below:
Position of Ray diagram Characteristics of image
object
Between F and Image is:
the lens Virtual
I O Upright/erect
Magnified
On same side as the object

At F Image is:
O Real
Inverted
At infinity

Between F and Image is:

C O Real
Inverted
I Magnified
Beyond C
At C Image is:
Real
Inverted
Same size as object
At C

Image is:
Beyond C Real
Inverted
Diminished

At infinity Image is:

Real
Inverted
Diminished
At F

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26.4.2:Image formation by a diverging lens

Generally, a diverging lens forms a virtual, upright and diminished image regardless of the position of
the object.
1.5:The lens formula and magnification
The equation 1/f=1/u + 1/v where f is the focal length of the lens, u is the object distance and v the
image distance, is called the lens formula. The equation takes into account the signs of u, v and f and
holds for both the converging and diverging lens.
The ratio of the image size to the object size is called magnification of the lens. When the
magnification is less than one the image is diminished while when it is more than one, the image is
magnified. When the magnification is one, then the object and image are of the same size.
Magnification can also be obtained from the ratio of image distance to object distance i.e.
Magnification, m= image height/object height = image distance, v/object distance, u

Example 26.1
1. An object is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 12cm.determine the position of the
image and the magnification of the image. Hence state the nature of the image formed when the
object distance is:
a. 16cm (ans: v=48cm,image real and magnified)
b. 8cm (ans: v= -24cm, image is virtual and upright)
2. An object is placed 4cm in front of a diverging lens of focal length 6cm. find the position and
magnification of the image formed. Hence state its nature.
3. An object 10cm high is placed 30cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 20cm. determine
the position and height of the image by:
a. Calculation
b. Scale drawing
1.6:Determination of the focal length of a converging lens.
Method 1: By using the lens formula
Screen

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 Focus clearly the image of a distant object like tree or window on the screen by adjusting the position
of the lens appropriately. Measure the distance between the lens and screen,
f= ………………..cm.
 Now set up the apparatus as shown below:
u v

 Set the object distance, u=65cm. adjust the position of the screen until a sharp image of the object is
observed. Measure the distance, v.
 Reduce the object distance in steps of 10cm and measure the corresponding values of v.
 Record your results and complete the table the table below:
u(cm) 65.0 55.0 45.0 35.0 25.0
V(cm)
1/u(cm-1)
1/v(cm-1)

 Plot a graph of 1/u against 1/v. hence determine the focal length, f of the lens.
Note that from the lens formula, 1/f=1/u + 1/v
Making 1/u the subject of the formula, we have 1/u=-1/v +1/f.
When 1/v=0, 1/u=1/f i.e. y-intercept
And when 1/u=0, 1/v=1/f i.e. x-intercept.
Therefore the graph is a straight line whose slope is -1 and the y-intercept and x-intercept give 1/f. if
the values of the two intercepts are different, then their average is obtained.

1/f
1/u (cm-1)

1/f 1/v (cm-1)

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Method 2: Displacement method

 Estimate the focal length of the lens by focusing a distant object. f=………..cm
 Set up the apparatus as shown above. The distance, S should be equal to or more than 4f.adjust the
position of the lens to a position P1 where a sharp image of the object is obtained on the screen.
Measure and record u and v.
 Keeping S constant, move the lens to another position P2 where another clear but diminished image of
the object is formed on the screen. Measure and record u1 and v1.
 Increase the value of S in steps of 5cm and repeat steps 2 and 3 above. Complete the table below:
S(cm)
U(cm)
V(cm)
U1
V2
d=v-u
(S2-
d2)(cm2)

 Plot a graph of (S2-d2) against S.

 Given that the equation S2= 4fS +d2 satisfies the graph drawn, determine the value of f.
Note that S= u + v …………………………………………(i)
And d=u1-u or d=v - v1
But u1=v and v1=u
Therefore, d= v – u ……………………………………………. (ii)
Adding equations (i) and (ii), we obtain;
S + d = u + v + v – u = 2v
V= (S + d)/2 ………………………………………………… (iii)
Also subtracting equation (ii) from (i), we get;
S – d = u + v – v + u = 2u
u= (S – d)/2 ………………………………………………….. (iv)

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Substituting equations (iii) and (iv) in the lens formula, we get;
1/f= 1/{(S-d)/2} + 1/{(S+d)/2}
1/f=2/(S-d) + 2/(S+d)
1/f=4S/(S2-d2)
(S2-d2) = 4Sf
Hence a graph of (S2-d2) against S is a straight line through the origin and whose slope equal to 4f.
The two positions P1 and P2 are known as conjugate points.

1.7: Other possible graphs from the lens formula

1. From the lens formula; 1/f=1/u +1/v
1/f= (v+u)/uv
uv= (u+v)f
Hence a graph of uv against (u+v) is a straight line through the origin and whose slope equal to the
focal length, f of the lens.
2. Also, from the lens formula; 1/f= 1/u + 1/v
Multiplying through by v, we obtain v/f= v/u + 1
But v/u= m
Therefore, m=v/f – 1
Hence a graph of m against v is a straight line whose slope equal to 1/f and the y-intercept= -1.

Method 3: Plane mirror method

Adjust the position of the object until a sharp image of the cross wire is formed alongside (close to) the
object cross wire as shown in (b) above. The distance between the object and the centre of the lens
gives the focal length f of the lens.
Alternatively, the set up below can be used to determine f:

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Adjust the position of the cork up and down until the pin and its image just coincide i.e. no parallax
between the object pin and its image. The distance between the centre of the lens and the pin gives the
focal length of the lens.
1.8: Power of a lens
It is the measure of the refracting ability of the lens. It is expressed as the reciprocal of the focal length
i.e. power of a lens= 1/focal length
It is measured in dioptre (D).
The shorter the focal length the higher its refracting ability. The power of a converging lens is positive
while that of a diverging lens is negative.
1.9:Applications of lenses
 A simple microscope
It is also known as a magnifying glass. When a converging lens is used such that the object is found
between its principal focus and the lens, it forms a virtual, upright and magnified image. When used
this way it serves as a simple microscope.
 A compound microscope
It consists of two converging lenses, objective lens and eyepiece lens both of short focal lengths. The
lens closer to the object is called the objective lens while that closer to the eye is called the eyepiece
lens. The focal length of the eyepiece lens is longer than that of the objective lens. The object is found
between F and C of the objective lens.

O I
2F0 F0F0 2F0 FeFe

The first image formed by the objective lens is real, inverted and magnified. This image then acts as the
object for the eyepiece lens. The eyepiece lens forms a final image which is greatly magnified.
Assuming the magnification of the objective lens is mo and that of the eyepiece lens is me , then the
total magnification of the compound microscope m= mo* me.

Example 26.2
1. In a compound microscope, the focal length of the objective lens is 2.0cm and that of the eyepiece
lens is 2.2cm and they are placed at a distance of 8.0cm. a real object of size 1.00mm is placed
3.0cm from the objective lens.
a) Use the lens formula in turn for each lens to find the position of the final image formed.
b) Calculate the magnification produced by the arrangement of these lenses and the size of the final
image viewed by the eye.

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 The lens camera
A camera is a device that is used to take photographs. It consists of a converging lens, a light- sensitive
film enclosed in a light-tight box blackened on the inside and a shutter. Light from the object enters the
camera through the shutter which closes automatically after a given length of time. The amount of light
reaching the lens is controlled by the diaphragm (stop). The light reaching the lens is refracted to form
a real, inverted and diminished image on the film. To clearly focus the image, the distance between the
lens and film is adjusted accordingly. The film has some light- sensitive chemicals which change on
exposure to light. This can then be developed and printed to get a photograph.

 The human eye

Pupil
The human eye is a natural optical instrument. It comprises of the following parts:
 Sclerotic layer- encloses the eye. The front part (cornea) is transparent to allow in light. It is the white
part of the eye.
 Aqueous humour- it is a clear fluid/liquid found between the cornea and the lens. This helps to
maintain the shape of the eye.
 Iris- it is responsible for the colour of the eye. It has the pupil in the middle which allows for passage
of light. By changing the size of the pupil, the iris controls the amount of light entering the eye.
 Lens- it is a natural converging lens. With the help of the ciliary muscles, its focal length can be
adjusted for fine focusing.
 Vitreous humour- it is a jelly-like substance and transparent in nature found between the lens and
retina.
 Retina- images are formed here. It has light-sensitive cells.
 Fovea- it is the central part of the retina. This is where the eye has the best details and colour vision.
 Blind spot- has cells which are non-sensitive to light.
 Ciliary muscles- they suspend/support the lens. It is also responsible for controlling the shape of the
lens.
When the muscles relax, the focal length of the lens increases. This enables the eye to focus a distant
object. Contraction of the muscles on the other hand reduces tension in the lens, thus reducing its focal
length. This enables it focus near objects.

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This automatic adjustment of the eye lens to bring to focus on the retina images of both distant and near
objects is referred to as accommodation.
The closest/shortest distance a normal eye can focus clearly is known as its near point while the
farthest distance a normal eye can focus clearly is known as its far point. For a normal eye, the near
point is usually 25cm.
Note that the distance between the retina and the eye lens is always constant.
1.9.1:Eye defects
Despite the adjustments made by the eye, some eyes cannot produce clear images within the normal
range of vision. There are two common eye defects namely myopia (shortsightedness) and
hypermetropia (long-sightedness).
Myopia (shortsightedness)
Having this defect means clear vision for near objects but images of distant objects are formed in front
of the retina. The cause of the defect is the eyeball being too long or shorter focal length. The defect is
corrected by using a diverging lens of appropriate focal length so that the rays reaching the eye lens
appear as if they are coming from a near object.

Defect Correction

Hypermetropia (long-sightedness)
A person who is long-sighted has clear vision of distant objects but cannot see clearly closer objects
clearly. It is caused by the eyeball
being too short or longer focal length so that the image of a closer object is formed behind the retina.
The defect is corrected by using a converging lens of appropriate focal length.

Defect Correction

1.9.2: Similaritiesanddifferences between the eye and lens camera

Similarities
1. Both use converging lenses.
2. In both cases, the amount of light allowed in can be controlled. The eye does it through the iris while
the camera does this through the diaphragm.
3. In both, a real, inverted and diminished image is formed. For the eye, the image is formed on the
retina while for the camera, it is formed on a light-sensitive film.
4. In both cases the inner part is black; for the eye, there is the choroid layer which is black and for the
camera, the inner part is painted black. This is to absorb stray rays.

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Differences
1. The focal length of the eye lens changes while that of the lens camera is constant.
2. The distance between the lens and film in a lens camera can be varied by zooming while the distance
between the eye lens and retina is constant.
3. A camera can take only one photo at a time when the shutter is open while the eye forms constantly
changing pictures.

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 TOPIC 02:
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
2.1: Introduction
This is motion around a curved path in which the speed of the particle is uniform. Although the speed
is the same, velocity of the body keeps varying since there is a constant change in direction. The
velocity of such a body at any instant is always directed along the tangent of the curve such that if the
body breaks away, it moves along the tangent.
Since the velocity is constantly changing, a body undergoing uniform circular motion is always
accelerating.
2.2: Terms used in uniform circular motion
 Angular displacement, Ɵ- is the angle swept at the centre by an arc. It is measured in radian, Ɵc .

S
r

Ɵ=( arc length, S/radius, r) radians

When S= r, then Ɵ= S/S =1 radian.
A radian is therefore the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc length equal to the radius of
the circle.
Note that 2πc= 3600

 Angular velocity, ω- it is the rate of change of angular displacement.

ω = ∆Ɵ/∆t
The SI unit of angular velocity is radian per second (rads-1).
Remember Ɵ= S/r
Therefore, ∆Ɵ= ∆S/r, since r is constant.
Thus ω = ∆Ɵ/∆t = ∆S/r ∆t
But ∆S/ ∆t = velocity, v
Hence ω= v/r
Thus a body in circular motion has both linear and angular velocities.

 Period, T- it is the time taken by a body to make one complete revolution.

Period, T= circumference (2πr)/linear velocity, v.
Therefore T= 2πr/rω since v= rω
And T= 2π/ω

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Recall frequency, f= 1/T
Therefore f= 1/( 2π/ω) =ω/2π
Or simply ω= 2πf
 Angular acceleration, α- it is the rate of change of angular velocity.
α = ω/t
 Centripetal acceleration, a- it is the acceleration of a body undergoing uniform circular motion and is
always directed towards the centre of the circle.
It is given as a= v2/r.
But v= rω
Therefore a= (rω)2/r = r ω2.
 Centripetal force, Fc- it is the force which keeps the body on its circular path. It is expressed as Fc= m
v2/r = ma
Where m- is the mass of the particle
v- is its linear velocity
r- is the radius of the path
a-is the centripetal acceleration
Also, a= r ω2. Thus Fc=m r ω2
Hence, there are three factors affecting the centripetal force. These are:
- Mass of the body
- Radius of the path
- Angular velocity of the body.

Example 2.1
1. A particle moves at an angular velocity of 10π rads-1 along a circular path of radius 20cm. calculate
its linear speed.
v= rω= 0.2*10π = 6.283m/s.
2. A car of mass 100kg moves round a circular track of radius 100m with a linear speed of 20m/s.
calculate:
a) The angular velocity
ω= v/r = 20/100 = 0.2rads-1
b) The centripetal force
Fc= m v2/r =(100*202)/100 = 400N
c) The centripetal acceleration
a= v2/r = 202/100 =4m/s2
3. Calculate the period and frequency of a particle in a circular path moving at an angular velocity of
4π rads-1.
T=2π/ω =2π/4π = 0.5s
f=1/T = 1/0.5 = 2Hz

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2.3: Motion in a horizontal circle

In a horizontal circle, the tension in the string provides the centripetal force and is directed towards the
centre of the circle.
FC=T= m v2/r
For a fixed radius, the tension is constant all round.
Example 2.2
1. A stone of mass 2kg is whirled in a horizontal circle of radius 0.5m. The tension in the string was
found to be 64N. Determine the velocity of the stone in the circle.
V=(r FC/m)1/2 =(0.5*64/2)1/2= 4m/s
2. A stone of mass 0.6kg attached to a string of length 0.5m is whirled in a horizontal circle at a
constant speed. If the maximum tension in the string is 30N before it breaks, calculate:
a) The maximum speed of the stone
V=(r FC/m)1/2 =(0.5*30/0.6)1/2 = 5m/s.
b) The maximum number of revolutions per second it can make
f=ω/2π =v/2πr
= 5/2π*0.5 =1.593Hz.

Assignment 2.1
1. A stone of mass 5kg is whirled at the end of a string 5m long in a horizontal circle. If it is whirled
at 5revolutions per second, calculate:
a) The angular velocity
b) The linear velocity
c) The centripetal acceleration
d) The tension in the string
2. An object of mass 4kg moves round a circle of radius 6m with a constant speed of 12m/s. calculate:
a) Its angular velocity
b) The centripetal force
2.4: Motion in a vertical circle
A
Tmin
D B
Tmax
T=Fc

Mg C

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When a body is whirled in a vertical circle, two forces act on it. These are the weight, mg of the body
and the tension, T on the string. The tension varies depending on the position of the body. It is always
directed towards the centre of the circle.
At the top of the circle, both the weight of the body and the tension are directed to the centre. Hence the
centripetal force equal to the sum of the weight of the body and the tension.

i.e. Fc=Tmin+ mg
Or Tmin=Fc-mg= mv2/r -mg
At the bottom of the circle, the centripetal force is given by the difference between the weight and the
tension; Fc=Tmax-mg
Or Tmax=Fc+mg = mv2/r +mg
At B and D, the tension in the string provides the centripetal force;
T=Fc=mv2/r
Hence tension is maximum at the bottom and least at the top.
When the tension is minimum, a certain minimum speed must be maintained in order to keep the string
taut. Taking minimum tension to be zero, we have;
0=mv2/r –mg (from the equation of minimum tension)
mv2/r =mg
V2=rmg/m = rg
Therefore, v=(rg)1/2
This is the expression for minimum speed that the body must maintain. It is also called the critical speed.

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 TOPIC 03:
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
3.1: Introduction
We have seen that waves can be categorized either electromagnetic or mechanical in nature.
Electromagnetic waves are waves resulting from the interaction of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields. They include visible light, radio waves, x-rays, infra red, ultraviolet, microwaves and gamma
radiations.
When these waves are arranged in a certain pattern e.g in the order of increasing frequency or
wavelength then we get an electromagnetic spectrum.

3.2: The electromagnetic spectrum

Decreasing wavelength
Where R- Radio waves
M- Microwaves
IR- Infra red
V- Visible light
UV- Ultraviolet
X- X-rays
G- Gamma radiation
[Hint: Roast(R) maize (M) is (IR) a very (V) unusual (UV) x-mass(X) gift (G)].

3.3: Properties of electromagnetic waves

The following properties are common to all electromagnetic waves:
 Travel in a vacuum with a speed of 3.0x108m/s.
 Do not require material medium for their propagation.
 Transverse in nature.
 Posses and transfer energy. The amount of energy possessed by an electromagnetic wave of
frequency f is expressed as E= hf, where h is Plank’s constant and is equal to 6.63x10-34Js. The wave
equation c=fλalso apply for electromagnetic waves.
 Carry no charge (not charged) and are not deflected by a magnetic or electric field.
 Undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference and polarization effects.
 Can be emitted, transmitted and absorbed by matter.

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 3.4: Production, detection and applications of electromagnetic radiations
The table below summarizes the production, detection and applications of the various electromagnetic
radiations:
Radiation Production Detection Application

Radio From oscillating Antennae (aerials), In telecommunication- radio broadcast, TV and satellite
waves electrical circuits. diodes, earphones. communication, cellular telephone, radar and navigation
equipments etc.

Microwaves From special vacuum Crystal detectors, Cooking in microwave cookers.

tubes called solid state diodes,
In communication- mobile phones.
magnetrons within antennae.
microwave ovens. In speed cameras.

Infra red From thermal Thermopile, Burglar alarms, in military night vision missiles,
vibration of atoms in bolometer, cooking, heating and drying of grains, in green housing,
very hot bodiese.g the thermometer, in remote controls for TVs and VCD/DVDs, in
sun. photographic film. photography.
Heating effect on the
skin.

Visible Sun, hot objects, The eye, Vision (sight), photography, photosynthesis and optical
light lamps, laser beams. photographic film, fibre. Laser beams used in laser printers, weapon aiming
photocell. systems, CD players.

Ultraviolet The sun, sparks, Photographic film, Detection of forgeries, skin treatment and killing of
mercury vapour photocells, bacteria, spectroscopy and mineral analysis, making of
lamps. fluorescent materials clothes and a source of vitamin D.
e.g quinine sulphate.

X-rays In X-ray tubes Fluorescent screen Radiography (identification of internal body structures
and photographic e.g bones), cancer therapy, crystallography (study of
film. crystal structure), pest and germ control and airport
security ckecks.

Gamma Emitted by Radiation detectors Sterilizing medical equipment and food.

radiation radioactive e.g GM tube.
Killing of cancer cells and other malignant growths.
substances.
Pest control.
Detection of flaws in metals.

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 TOPIC 04:
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
4.1: Introduction
When a conductor moves within a magnetic field at an angle greater than zero, current is produced in
the conductor which can be shown by connecting a galvanometer in series with the conductor. This
method of generating electricity is called electromagnetic induction. It was first discovered by
Michael Faraday about the year 1831.
Electromagnetic induction has been widely used to produce in large scale electrical energy in power
stations.
4.2: Factors affecting the size of the induced electromotive force and Faraday’s law
Light copper wire

SN S N

When the copper wire is moved vertically downwards between the poles of the magnet, the
galvanometer is observed to deflect. However, the direction of deflection changes when the wire is now
moved vertically upwards. When the conductor is kept stationary between the poles of the magnet, no
deflection occurs. Similarly when the wire is placed parallel to the magnetic field, no deflection is
observed.
A deflection of the galvanometer indicates presence of induced electromotive force while absence of
deflection indicates no induced electromotive force.
The deflection is maximum when the angle between the wire and the field is 900, a stronger magnet
is used and when the wire is moved very swiftly (at a high speed).
These factors can be summed up in Faraday’s law which state: the magnitude of the induced emf is
directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage. Magnetic flux linkage
refers to the number of magnetic field lines cut by the conductor per unit area.

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4.3: Lenz’s law
Electromotive induction also occurs when a magnet is moved to and back within a solenoid as shown
below:
IN OUT
S N
S N

a b c d
G G

When the magnet is pushed into the solenoid, the galvanometer is observed to deflect same to when it
is brought out but in opposite directions. However, when the magnet is kept stationary in the solenoid
no deflection occurs.
Specifically, when the north pole of the magnet is brought into the solenoid the galvanometer deflects
towards the left showing that current flows from b to a but deflects towards the right when the magnet
is moved away from the solenoid showing that current flows from c to d.
These observations are summarized in Lenz’s law which state: the induced current flows in such
away to oppose the change causing it. It is based on the principle of conservation of energy i.e the
mechanical energy of the moving magnet is converted to electrical energy in the form of the induced
current.
The direction of the induced current can be predicted by Fleming’s right hand rule: if the thumb, first
and second fingers of the right hand are held mutually at right angles to each other with the First finger
pointing the direction of the Field, thumb pointing the direction of the Motion then the seCond finger
points in the direction of the Current. It is also called the Dynamo rule.
Thumb (motion)

1ST Finger (field)

2ND Finger (induced current)

4.4: Mutual induction
Mutual induction occurs when a varying current in one coil induces current in another close coil. The
first coil in which current flows is called the primary coil while the second coil in which current is
induced is called the secondary coil.
The varying current in the primary coil produces a magnetic field which links with the secondary coil
inducing current in it.

Primary coil G
Secondary coil

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When the switch is closed, current in the primary coil increases from zero to maximum. As a result, the
magnetic flux linking up with turns of the secondary coil also increases from zero to maximum. This
changing magnetic flux induces current in the secondary coil which makes the galvanometer to deflect.
Once the current has reached maximum value, there will be no further increase in the magnetic flux
and the pointer goes back to zero.
When the switch is open, the current falls from maximum to zero within a very short time. This implies
that the magnetic flux of the primary coil takes a very short time to change. The shorter the time the
higher the induced current and thus a larger deflection. Hence more current is induced during switching
off than during switching on.
The magnetic flux of the primary coil linking up with the secondary coil can be varied by:
 Switching the current on and off.
 Varying the current in the primary coil using a rheostat.
 Applying an alternating current.
The direction of the induced current can be predicted applying the Right-hand grip rule and Lenz’s
law simultaneously. When doing so, the primary coil is treated as if it were a bar magnet moving into
the secondary coil during switching on and as a bar magnet moving away from the secondary coil
during switching off.

Thus by Lenz’ law, during switching on the end A attains a South pole and B a North pole while during
switching off the end A attains a North pole and B a South pole such that in each case the effect of the
primary field is being opposed by that of the secondary coil.
The induced emf and current in the secondary coil can be increased by:
 Increasing the number of turns in the secondary coil so that many turns can link up with the
magnetic field of the primary coil.
 Winding both the primary and secondary coils on a soft iron ring or soft iron rod. This will help to
concentrate the magnetic field lines within the secondary coil. Soft iron is also easier to magnetize
and demagnetize.

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4.5: Applications of electromagnetic induction
4.5.1: Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by mutual
induction. It comprise of two coils; the primary and secondary coils. An alternating current is fed into
the primary coil whose magnetic flux links up with the secondary coil inducing current in it. Both the
primary and the secondary coils are wound on a common soft iron core to enhance its effectiveness.

Primary coil Secondary coil

a.c

a) A transformer b) Circuit symbol of a transformer

For any transformer, the ratio of the number of turns of the secondary coil nsto the number of turns of
the primary coil np is called the turn’s ratio;
i.e turn’s ratio= ns/np.
For an ideal transformer (100% efficient);
Power fed into the primary coil (power input)=power generated at the secondary coil (power output).
i.eVpIp= VSIS.
Rearranging the above equation, we obtain:
VS/Vp= IP/IS.
Hence when the voltage is stepped up the current is stepped down.
Therefore, for an ideal transformer:
ns/np =Vs/Vp= IP/IS.
The efficiency of a transformer= {power output/power input}x100.
The equation ns/np =Vs/Vpis referred to as the transformer equation.
There are two types of transformers namely step-down and step up transformer.

a) Step down transformer

In a step-down transformer, there are more turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil (np˃ns.
thus the turn’s ratio is less than one (1).
A step down transformer steps down voltage but steps up current. Hence the input voltage is less than
the output voltage.

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b) Step up transformer
A step up transformer steps up voltage but steps down current. In a step up transformer, there are more
turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil. Thus the turn’s ratio is more than one. The output
voltage is greater than the input voltage.

Example 29.1
1. Calculate the number of turns of the secondary coil of a step down transformer which would enable a
12V bulb to be used with a 240V ac supply if there are 480 turns in the primary coil.
ns/np =Vs/Vp
ns/480 = 12V/240V
ns=(480x12)/240 =24turns
2. What current will flow in the secondary coil when the primary current is 0.5A if the voltage in the
primary coil is 240V and that in the secondary coil is 48V? Assume the energy loss is negligible.
VS/Vp= IP/IS
48V/240V= 0.5A/IS
IS=(0.5x240)/48= 2.5A
3. A student designed a transformer to supply a current of 10A at a potential difference of 60V to an
electric motor from an ac supply of 240V. if the efficiency of the transformer is 80%, calculate:
a) The power supplied to the transformer.
Efficiency=(power output/ power input)x100
80=[(60x10)/power input]x100
Power input= (60x10x100)/80
=750W

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 TOPIC 05: MAINS ELECTRICITY
5.1: Introduction
Mains electricity refers to the electrical power supplied to households. The power is generated at the
power station and then transmitted to the consumers either through overhead transmission lines or
underground cables.
Some of the sources of mains electricity include water in high dams, geothermal, wind, solar energy,
coal and diesel engine generators, nuclear energy and tidal waves.
Note that the choice of the source of mains electricity to use is dependent on its availability and
abundance as well as the implications it has on the environment.
In Kenya, the most utilized source of mains electricity is hydroelectricity. Today, there is also
increased usage of solar energy, geothermal energy, wind energy and coal.
5.2: Electrical power transmission
This is process by which electrical power is relayed from the generation plant to the consumers at their
homes, institutions, schools, industries, factories etc. In Kenya, electrical power is distributed using the
national grid system. The national grid system is a network of cables connecting at a common point all
the power generation plants and then distributed to the consumers. This way it ensures availability of
power even when one of the stations is shut down.
Before power is fed into the national grid system, it is stepped up i.e. voltage is stepped up but current
is stepped down. Most power stations generate between 11kV and 25kV which is stepped up to
between 132kV and 400kV. At the consumer end, a step down transformer is used to step down the
voltage to about 11kV at a substation. However, this value is still large to be used the way it is. The
power is then distributed by cables to another step down transformer which is situated just near the
consumer. This transformer further steps down the voltage to a consumable value of 240V for domestic
use or 415V for factories.
High voltage transmission has the following three benefits:
 Power loss due to resistance of the cables is minimal.
 Thin cables could be used.
 Reduced cost in acquiring cables and poles.
However, high voltage transmission has some limitations. These include:
 High risks of electric shock in case the poles collapse or the cables hang very low.
 High risks of fire outbreak on nearby buildings and vegetation when the cables hang too low or
when the cables touch each other.
 Harmful effects of strong magnetic fields due to the current flowing in the cables.
Electrical power is generated and distributed as alternating current. This is because of the following
reasons:
i.Transformers work on alternating current/voltage only.
ii.It is easier to step up or down.

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 iii.Alternating current is easier to rectify.
Example 30.1
1. Some length of a power line has a resistance of 10Ω and is transmitting 11kV and a current of 1A. If
the voltage is stepped up to 160kV by a transformer, calculate:
a) The initial power loss
Power loss= I2R =12x10
=10W
b) The power loss after step up
VPIP=VSIS
10kVx1A=160kVxIS
IS=(10/160) =0.06875A
Hence, power loss= 0.068752x10
= 0.048W
2. A power station produces 50kW at 240V. The power is transmitted through cables with a resistance
of 0.4Ω. Calculate the percentage power loss during transmission.
Power=VI
50,000W= 240VxI
I=50,000/240 =208.33A
Hence, power loss= 208.332x0.4
=17,360.556W
%power loss= (17360.556/50000)x100 =34.72%

5.3: Domestic wiring

From the step down transformer near the consumer, power is transmitted by two cables; the live and
neutral wire to the consumer’s meter which measures and registers the amount of power consumed.
The live wire is at full potential of 240V while the neutral wire is at zero potential since it has been
earthed at the sub-station. From the meter, electricity enters the fuse box which comprises of the
following:
 Main switch- controls all the live and neutral wires simultaneously. It is normally useful during
repairs.
 Live busbar- it is a brass bar on which all the live wires of all the circuits have been connected. Each
live wire is connected to the live busbar through a fuse.
 Neutral busbar- it is a brass bar to which all neutral wires of all the circuits have been connected.
 Earth terminal- it is used to earth the circuit. This can be done by burying a thick copper wire deep
underground or through a metallic water piping.
A fuse is a thin wire with very low melting point such that if it is overheated it melts and the circuit
gets disconnected. This way it is used to safeguard electrical appliances. Fuses are rated in amperes.
Normally, the fuse rating is slightly above the maximum current requirement of the appliance. All fuses
must be connected along the live wire.

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In domestic wiring, there are three important types of wires commonly used namely live wire, neutral
wire and earth wire.
 Live wire- it transmits alternating current from the source to the appliance or plug. It is normally red
or brown in colour.
 Neutral wire- it is the return wire i.e. it returns the current back to the source completing the circuit.
It is usually at zero potential. It is normally blue or black in colour.
 Earth wire- it earths the circuit. It is normally green or yellow in colour
However, at times the fuse may melt off and thus fail to serve its rightful purpose. Some causes that
can lead to melting off of the fuse include:
i. Short circuiting when bare conductors touch each other.
ii. Overloading the circuit with more appliances than the fuse can accommodate.
iii. Using a fuse of lower rating than the current requirement of the appliance.
iv. Using a faulty fuse whose wire could have been oxidized.

Example 30.2
1. An electric cooker has an oven rated 3kW, a grill rated 2kW and two rings each rated 500W. The
cooker operates from 240V mains. Would a 30A fuse be suitable for the cooker assuming that all the
parts are switched on?
Ioven=3000/240 =12.5A
Igrill=2000/240 =8.33A
2Irings=(2x500)/240 =4.17A
Total cooker current =12.5+8.33+4.17
=25.0A

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 TOPIC 06:
CATHODE RAYS AND CATHODE RAY TUBE
6.1: Introduction
When a metal surface is heated, the electrons gain energy and become excited. At very high
temperatures, the electrons may break off from the force of attraction of the nuclei. When heat is used
to extract electrons from the surface of a metal, it is referred to as thermionic emission.
Cathode rays are streams of fast moving electrons emitted from the surface of a heated cathode inside a
vacuum.
6.2: Production of Cathode Rays.

Fig.1 Cathode Ray Tube

Cathode rays are produced in a cathode ray tube. The cathode is heated by the heater emitting electrons
through thermionic emission. Note that the cathode rays are streams of negatively charged particles
(electrons). Thus once emitted at the cathode, the electrons will be attracted by the anode which is at a
positive potential. Hence the role of the anode is to accelerate the electrons towards the screen. The
anode is connected to an extra high tension (EHT) source.
The tube is evacuated. This is to prevent the electrons from interacting with any particles before
reaching the screen. The screen is coated using a fluorescent material that glows when struck by the
electrons.
6.3: Properties of Cathode Rays
1. They travel in straight lines. When an opaque object is placed along the path of the rays, a sharp
shadow of the object is formed on the screen.
2. They are charged. Hence they are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
3. They posses kinetic energy.
4. They can cause certain substances e.g zinc sulphide screen to glow or fluoresce.
5. They can produce X-rays when they are suddenly stopped by a metal target.
6.4: The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
This is an electrical instrument developed from the cathode ray tube and which can be used to display
and analyze waveforms. It can display both alternating current and direct current waveforms.
Furthermore, it can be used to measure voltages that vary over time.
A cathode ray oscilloscope has three main components:
 The electron gun.
 The deflecting system.
 The display system.

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 Anode Y-plates
Cathode Grid X-plates

Heater

Electron gun Deflecting system Display system

a) The electron gun
It consists of three parts namely the cathode, grid and anode. The cathode emits electrons through
thermionic emission. The grid concentrates the electrons into a tight beam. It is connected to the
negative terminal of the EHT and thus it is at a negative potential. When the negative voltage of the
grid is raised, fewer electrons will move towards the screen and thus the spot will be less bright.
However, when the grid voltage is lowered, more electrons will move towards the screen and thus the
spot will be brighter. In general, the grid controls the rate of flow of electrons to the screen i.e.
intensity.
The anode on the other side is at a positive potential and is used to accelerate the emitted electrons
towards the screen. It also focuses the electrons to a point on the screen.

b) The deflecting system

This system places the electron beam on the screen.it comprise of two pairs of parallel plates namely
the Y-plates and X-plates.
The Y-plates are responsible for the vertical deflection. When the upper plate is at a positive potential
for instance, the beam is deflected upwards while if the lower plate is now at a positive potential, the
beam is deflected downwards. However, when both plates are at a zero potential the beam will pass
undeflected.

Electron beam

The X-plates are responsible for the horizontal deflection of the electron beam.

Electron beam

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There is no deflection when the potential difference across the plates is zero but deflects towards the
plate at a positive potential when connected to a source of voltage as shown on the figure above.
If an alternating voltage is applied simultaneously to both the Y and X-plates, then the spot on the
screen would oscillate up and down and at the same time move across the screen from left to right
tracing a wave on the screen. When the spot reaches the extreme end it flies back to the starting point
and process is repeated.
The speed with which the spot moves on the screen can be adjusted by the time base knob.

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 TOPIC 07: X-RAYS
7.1: Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a metal target. At the time of
their discovery by a German Physicist Ron6tgen, their nature was unknown and hence their name x-
rays. Generally, x-rays are uncharged electromagnetic radiations of short wavelength and high
penetrating ability (power).
X-rays are produced in an x-ray tube:

Current in the filament emits electrons at the cathode by thermionic emission. These electrons are then
attracted towards the anode by the high potential difference that exists between the cathode and anode.
On striking the target, the electrons transfer their kinetic energy to the metal target. About 99.5% of
this energy is converted to heat at the target and only 0.5% of the energy is responsible for the
production of x-ray radiations.
As such, the material of the target must be one that has a high melting point like molybdenum or
tungsten. The anode should also be a good thermal conductor like copper so as to ensure efficient
dissipation of heat.
Further cooling at the anode is enhanced by a circulation of oil around the anode and the presence of
cooling fins. In some tubes, the target is made in such away to rotate so as to change the point of
impact and thus reduce wear and tear.
The target is inclined at an angle to direct the x-rays out of the tube. The glass tube is also evacuated to
prevent interference with the electron beam before reaching the target. The cathode is concave in
shape to focus the emitted electrons to the target. The high potential difference is used to accelerate
the emitted electrons towards the anode.
The x-ray tube is well shielded using lead which absorbs any stray rays thereby protecting the user.

7.2: Properties of X-rays

- Travel in straight lines with the speed of light in air; 3.0x108m/s. When an opaque object like a bone is
placed on the path of x-rays a sharp shadow of the object is formed on the screen.
- They carry no charge. Hence x-rays are not deflected by either magnetic fields or electric fields.
- Ionize air molecules on their paths by knocking off electrons in them.
- They cause certain substances and salts to fluoresce.

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- They cause photographing emulsion, a property used in x-ray photography.
- They cause photoelectric effect when incident on the surface of some metals.
- They can readily penetrate matter. The degree of penetration depends on the density of the material and
the quality of the x-rays.
- They obey the wave equation v=fλ.
- They undergo interference, reflection, refraction and diffraction effects.
7.3: Energy and Quality of x-rays
When an electron of charge e is accelerated by a voltage V applied across the tube, the electron gains an
amount of energy equivalent to eV (electron volts). This energy is converted into kinetic energy of the
electron;
i.eeV=K.E
eV= ½mѵ2, where m- mass of the electron (m=9.11x10-31kg) and ѵ- the velocity of the electron.
Also, according to Plank’s theory, the energy of any electromagnetic radiation x-rays included is given
by;
Energy, E= hf, where h- is Plank’s constant and f- is the frequency of the radiation.
Hence for x-rays; eV=½mѵ2=hf=hѵ/λ.
Generally, most energetic x-rays are those with higher frequency or shorter wavelength while the least
energetic x-rays are those with lower frequency or longer wavelength.
The energy of x-rays depends on the accelerating potential between the cathode and the anode. The higher
the accelerating potential, the higher the energy of the electrons.Since it is the energy of the electrons
that is converted into x-rays, the higher the energy of the electrons the higher the energy of the x-rays.
X-rays produced by high energetic electrons or high accelerating voltage are referred to as hard x-rays.
They are high quality x-rays, have very high frequency and high penetrating power.
X-rays produced from low energy electrons or low accelerating voltage are called soft x-rays. They are
low quality x-rays, have low energy content, low frequency and low penetrating power.

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 TOPIC 08: PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
8.1: Photoelectric emission
We have already seen that when a metal surface is heated to a certain extent, electrons are dislodged.
This is called thermionic emission. Similarly when a metal surface is irradiated using an
electromagnetic radiation of a certain amount of energy, electrons are emitted. This process is called
photoelectric emission or effect. The energy of the radiation is transferred to the electrons in the atoms
of the metal. The electrons gain enough energy and get dislodged from the metal surface. These
electrons are called photoelectrons.
Photoelectric emission can be shown by the following set-ups:
8.1.1: Using a galvanometer
UV Radiation

B
A

When the UV radiation is incident on the metal plate A, electrons are emitted which are then attracted
towards plate B due to its positive potential. This completes the circuit and the galvanometer deflects.
However, when a glass barrier is placed along the path of the UV radiation no deflection will be
observed as the glass cuts off the radiation from reaching the metal plate hence no photoelectrons are
emitted.

8.1.2: Using a clean zinc plate and uncharged electroscope.

UV radiation
Clean zinc plate

When UV radiation is incident on the clean zinc plate, electrons are dislodged from the zinc plate. The
zinc plate thus loses electrons. Some electrons are then attracted from the plate and leaf of the
electroscope towards the zinc plate leaving the electroscope positively charged. Hence the leaf of the
electroscope diverges.

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8.1.3: Using a clean zinc plate and a charged electroscope
UV radiation Clean zinc plate

The UV radiation dislodges electrons from the surface of the zinc plate leaving it with a deficit of
electrons. It then attracts some electrons from the leaf of the electroscope. This in effect discharges the
electroscope and the leaf divergence reduces with time.
However, when a positively charged electroscope is used, the UV radiation dislodges electrons which
are immediately attracted back by the positive charges on the electroscope. Thus the leaf divergence
remains unchanged.

UV radiation Clean zinc plate

8.2: The quantum theory and Einstein’s equation

This theory was advanced by Max Plank. He says that electromagnetic radiations like light are
propagated in small packets of energy called quanta [singular- quantum]. The amount of energy of a
quantum is referred to as a photon.
According to Plank, the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation;
Eαf
Thus, E=hf: where h is Plank’s constant [i.e h=6.63x10-34Js].
Since all electromagnetic radiations obey the equation c=fλ;
E=hc/λ, where c is the velocity of the radiation in a vacuum and λ is the wavelength.
Hence the larger the frequency [the shorter the wavelength] the greater the energy of a radiation.
Note that all the energy of one photon is absorbed by one electron. This implies that the energy of the
radiation must be sufficient to dislodge an electron from the surface of the metal otherwise no electron
would be emitted. Electrons of various metals require different amounts of energy to be emitted.
The minimum energy requirement of any metal to emit an electron is referred to as the workfunction,
w0 of that metal. This implies that the radiation being used must meet a certain minimum frequency
below which no photoemission occurs. This minimum frequency is called the threshold frequency, f0.
Hence workfunction, w0=hf0.

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For any radiation of frequency f which is less than the threshold frequency f0 of the metal surface, the
energy, hf of the radiation will be less than the workfunction, w0 of the metal. Hence no photoemission
takes place. However, when the frequency, f of the radiation is greater than the threshold frequency f0
of the metal, then the amount of energy equilavent to the workfunction of the metal will be used to emit
an electron and the rest of the energy will be converted into kinetic energy of the electron.
i.e energy of the radiation= workfunction + kinetic energy of the electron.
E=w0 + k.e
hf=hf0+½mѵ2, where m- mass of an electron (9.11x10-31kg) and ѵ- the velocity of the electron.
This equation is known as Einstein’s equation of photoelectric emission.
Alternatively, the radiation being used must not exceed a certain maximum wavelength for
photoemission to occur [recall w0=hf0=hc/λ0].this is called threshold wavelength.
The kinetic energy of an electron is sometimes expressed in terms of electron-volt (eV). It is the kinetic
energy gained by an electron when it passes through a potential difference of one volt;
i.e1eV=[ 1Vx(1.602x10-19C)]= 1.602x10-19J.

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 TOPIC 09: RADIOACTIVITY
9.1: Introduction
An atom X of mass number A and atomic number Z can be represented as. If the number of neutrons in
the nucleus is N, then:
A= Z+N.
Some atoms have the same number of protons in the nucleus yet different mass numbers. Such atoms
are referred to as isotopes. Examples of isotopes include carbon- 12 and carbon- 14. The energy
holding the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus is called the binding or nuclear energy.
When the ratio of the number of protons to the number of neutrons in a nucleus is about 1:1, the
nuclide is said to be stable, otherwise it is an unstable. For unstable nucleus, it has to undergo
disintegration a process called radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of the
nucleus of unstable atom to release radiations.
In the
(β) and process(γ)
gamma ofradiations.
radioactivity, therebehavior
Their are three can
radiations which may
be observed whenbethey
emitted passed alpha
arenamely (α), abeta
through magnetic
(β) and gamma (γ) radiations. Their behavior can be observed when they are passed through a magnetic
or electric field.
or electric field.

Alpha
Alpha radiations:
radiations:
 Are positively charged.
 Are massive or heavy and thus have shorter range in air. They are slightly deflected by strong
magnetic or electric field due to their higher mass.
 Cause the highest ionization effect on the particles on their paths compared to beta and gamma
radiations, thereby losing most of their energy.
 Have the least penetrating ability or power compared to the other two radiations. They can be
stooped by a thick sheet of paper.

Beta radiations:
 Are negatively charged.
 Are lighter compared to alpha radiations. Hence they are greatly deflected by strong magnetic or
electric field.
 Have longer range in air.

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 Cause less ionization compared to alpha radiations. Hence they have a higher penetrating ability or
power. They can penetrate a thick sheet of paper but can be stopped by a thin aluminium foil.

Gamma radiations:
 Are massless and do not have charge. Hence they are not deflected by both magnetic and electric
fields.
 Are electromagnetic waves.
 Cause very little ionization. Hence most of their energy is intact. They have the highest penetrating
ability or power of all the three radiations. They can penetrate thick paper and aluminium but is
stopped by thick lead.
9.2: Radioactive decay and the decay equations
The original atom before the decay process is referred to as the parent/mother nuclide and the product
is referred to as the daughter nuclide. A radioactive decay process consists of a parent nuclide, a
daughter nuclide and the emitted radiation(s).
+ Emitted radiation(s)
Where X- the parent nuclide
Y- the daughter nuclide
Note that a particular radioactive decay process must not necessarily emit all the three radiations.
Suppose a radioactive decay process takes the form shown by the equation below:

+ , where X is the parent nuclide, Y is the daughter nuclide and Q is the emitted radiation;
Then, A=m + a andZ=n + b.
Radioactive decay is not dependent on physical factors like pressure, temperature or chemical
composition of the nuclide.
There are three types of radioactive decay:

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 TOPIC 10: ELECTRONICS
10.1: Introduction
This topic is about electronic circuits and their applications. Precisely it looks at the electrical
conductivity of materials. Under this title, materials can be classified into three groups:
 Conductors
 Semiconductors
 Insulators
Conductors are those materials which allow current to flow through them easily. They are mainly
metals like copper.
Materials which do not allow current to flow through them completely are referred to as insulators.
They include plastic, paper, dry wood, rubber etc.
Semiconductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity lies between that of good conductors
and insulators. They include silicon, germanium etc.
According to the energy band theory, when two atoms are brought closer to one another, the energy
levels around the nucleus split into smaller sub-levels called bands. The outer energy level splits more
easily giving many bands compared to the inner levels.

3 3
2
1 2
1

There are two important bands in any material which determine its electrical, optical and magnetic
properties. These are the valence and conduction bands which are separated by a forbidden gap.

10.2: Semiconductors
Semiconductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity lies between that of good conductors
and insulators. They have a smaller forbidden gap. The valence band is almost completely filled with
electrons while the conduction band has almost no electrons.
When the temperature of the semiconductor is raised the electrons gain more energy and are able to
move from the valence band across the forbidden gap to the conduction band. This increases the
electrical conductivity of the semiconductor. Hence conductivity of semiconductors increases with
temperature.
When an electron jumps from the valence band into the conduction band, a hole is left in its place. This
is treated as a positive charge. Another electron in the valence band may jump into the hole formed
creating another hole which may be filled by yet another electron and the process continues.

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The movement of the electrons generates electron current while that of holes constitute hole current.
Thus the net flow of current in semiconductors is due to the flow of electrons and holes.

e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e-
Valence band Hole
Forbidden gap
Conduction band e- e- e-

There are two types of semiconductors as discussed below:

10.2.1: Intrinsic semiconductors

These are pure semiconductors whose electrical conductivity can be enhanced by increasing the
temperature of the semiconductor. They include silicon, germanium etc. They have four electrons in
their outermost energy level. Their electrical conductivity is dependent on the electron-hole pair
movement. The electrons and the holes are referred to as charge carriers. At room temperature,
intrinsic semiconductors are insulators.
10.2.2: Extrinsic semiconductors
These are semiconductors obtained when a small amount of impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor. The process of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor to improve its electrical
conductivity is referred to as doping. Generally an extrinsic semiconductor is an impure
semiconductor.
The impurity can either be a group three element e.g boron, gallium and indium or a group five element
e.g phosphorous, antimony etc.
 Doping using a group three element
When silicon is doped using a group three element like boron, all the three electrons on the outermost
energy level of boron atom participate in bonding with the neighboring atoms while silicon will have
an extra electron. A vacancy will therefore exist due to the missing electron. This is treated as a hole.
This hole is responsible for the electrical conductivity of the doped semiconductor. Hence holes are the
majority charge carriers while electrons are the minority charge carriers. Such an impurity is called an
acceptor impurity because they create a hole which can accept an electron.
An extrinsic semiconductor in which the majority charge carriers are holes is called a p-type
semiconductor. S
i

Boron
S B S
i i
Hole

S
i

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 Doping using a group five element
When a pure semiconductor is doped using a group five element like phosphorous having five
electrons in their outermost energy levels, four of the electrons participate in bonding with the
neighboring atoms while the remaining electron is used for electrical conductivity in the
semiconductor. Hence electrons will be the majority charge carriers while holes will be the minority
charge carriers. The impurity is referred to as a donor impurity since it donates an electron for
electrical conductivity.

S P S

The resultant semiconductor is known as an n-type semiconductor.

Note that both p-type and n-type semiconductors are electrically neutral since the impurities added
have the same number of electrons as there are protons.

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 Page 42 of 42
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes