PH-107

Quantum Physics and Applications

Concept of Wave Packet

Gopal Dixit
gdixit@phy.iitb.ac.in
d wave emitted by a discharging capacitor must the most familiar physical example in which w
ference. Perhaps
arise is the phenomenon
ups. A wave group consists of a superposition of of beats. Beats occur when two sou
hs, with the amplitude and phaseslightly different
com- wavelength (and hence different frequency
Recap
t the waves interfere constructively
of each
bined. The resultant sound wave has a frequency equal to the av
over a small
two combining waves and an amplitude that fluctuates, or “bea
his region the combination of waves produces a
hes zero rapidly as a result of destructive inter-
amiliarIf physical
we add examplewaves
in whichwith a continuous distribution
wave groups m
of
v0
f beats. Beats occur when two sound waves of (a) x
h (andwavelengths,
hence differentwe get a are
frequency) truecom- wave packet, that is finite
wave has a frequency equal to the average of the
over that
n amplitude a limited range
fluctuates, in space.
or “beats,” at a rate
vg = vo

m
v0
x

(b)

Figure 5.17 Representing a particle with matter waves: (a) particle o

Group velocity
vg = vo and Phase
speedvelocity
v 0; (b) superposition of many matter waves with a spread of wav
tered on !0 " h/mv 0 correctly represents a particle.
d! !
vg = and vp =
dk k
Recall from previous lecture

m0
Mass m = p1 (v 2 /c2 )
= m0

Momentum p = mv = m0 v

Energy of an object with thisq

momentum is
E= p2 c2 + m20 c4 = m0 c2

We know, Momentum
d! ! h 2⇡h
vg = and vp = p= = = ~k
dk k 2⇡
Phase velocity Wavelength
! 2⇡⌫ h h
vp = = = ⌫ = =
k 2⇡/ p mv

E mc2
Frequency ⌫ = =
h h
2
c
vp = =) vp c since v ⌧ c
v

This implies that the de Broglie wave associated with the particle would
leave the particle behind. This is against the wave concept of the
particle. v 6= vp
 2 mc 2 h h
E = h⌫ = mc =) ⌫ = = =
h p mv

2 2⇡ 2⇡mv 2⇡ m0 v
2⇡ m0 c
! = 2⇡⌫ = k= = =
h h h
1
=p
1 v 2 /c2
d! d!/dv
vg = =
dk dk/dv
d! 2⇡m0 v dk 2⇡m0
= =
dv h(1 v 2 /c2 )3/2 dv h(1 v 2 /c2 )3/2
vg = v
de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels
with the same velocity as that of the body!
hes zero rapidly as a result of destructive inter-
amiliar physical example in which wave groups m
v0
beats. Beats occur when two sound waves of (a) x
h (and hence different frequency) are com-
wave has a frequency equal to the average of the
de Broglie
amplitude wave group
that fluctuates, associated
or “beats,” at a rate with a moving body travels
with the same velocity as the body! vg = vo

m
v0
x

(b)

In general,
vg = vo many waves
Figurehaving a continuous
5.17 Representing distribution
a particle with matter waves: (a)ofparticle of
speed v ; (b) superposition of many matter waves with a spread of wav
0
tered on !0 " h/mv 0 correctly represents a particle.
wavelengths must be added to form a packet that is finite
over a limited range and really zero everywhere else. In this
case,
✓ ◆
d! d!
vg Learning,
Copyright 2005 Thomson = Inc.=) vg Reserved.
All Rights =
dk dk k0

article with where the derivative

matter waves: ismass
(a) particle of to be evaluated
m and at the central k0.
Relationship between vg and vp

d!
vg = 
dk d dvp
! vg = (kvp ) = vp + k
vp = dk dk k0
k
2⇡
We know, k =

dvp dvp /d dvp dvp
k =k = =) vg = vp
dk dk/d d d 0
 
dvp dvp dvp
vg = vp + k = vp If = 0 =) vg = vp
dk k0 d 0
dk

! dvp
Since vp = , if = 0 =) ! = kvg =) ! = kv
k dk
 dv p dv p If dv p / dk 0
g v p k
Non-dispersive
v
medium: p
dk k d vg vp
0 0

dvp
=
Sincedkv p 0; v = v
/ k , if
g p dv p / dk 0 kv g kv
Non-dispersive medium:
All component waves have the same speed!
All component waves have the
dv p / dk 0 vg vp same speed!
Example, light in a medium with a constant refractive index (n)
Example, light in a medium with a constant refractive index (n)
kc
!(k) =
(k ) kc /nn
d d!
/ dk= c c=/ nv v
dk n
 Dispersive medium
dv p dv p Dispersive medium:
vg vp k vp dv p / dk 0
dk k0
d
vg vp
0

Dispersive occurs when phase velocity depends on k (or )

Normal dispersion Anomalous dispersion

dv p / d 0 vg vp dv p / d 0 vg vp

(Blue arrow (Envelope), Red arrow (individual wave)

Periodic Function
Revisiting theproblem
Revisiting the problemofofconstructing
constructingthe
thewave
wavepackets
packets
Consider periodic functions f (x) = f (x + 2L)

Periodic but not sinusoidal waves (functions)

Periodic but
Periodic but not
notsinusoidal
sinusoidalwaves
waves(functions)
(functions)
Fourier Series

Any given periodic function, y = f(x), can be written as a

superposition of sinusoidal (sine and cosine) functions.

Mathematically, if f(x) = f(x+2L), i.e., period = 2L, then f(x) can be

written as
1 h
X ⇣ n⇡ ⌘ ⇣ n⇡ ⌘i
f (x) = a0 + an cos x + bn sin x
n=1
L L

Note that we are superposing sinusoidal waves of different

wavenumber (wavelengths) and amplitudes.
Fourier Coefficients
1 h
X ⇣ n⇡ ⌘ ⇣ n⇡ ⌘i
f (x) = a0 + an cos x + bn sin x
n=1
L L
Z L
1
a0 = f (x)dx
2L L

Z L ⇣ n⇡ ⌘
1
an = f (x) cos x dx n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
L L L

Z L ⇣ n⇡ ⌘
1
bn = f (x) sin x dx n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
L L L

You can verify this

Fourier Coefficients

K h
X ⇣ n⇡ ⌘ ⇣ n⇡ ⌘i
f (x) = an cos x + bn sin x
n=1
L L
Z L
1
a0 = f (x)dx = 0
2L L
Fourier Coefficients

r u m
e c t
S p
u d e
pl i t
Am
Non-Periodic Functions
Can we express them as superposition of sinusoidal waves ?

Note that this will solve our problem. A wave packet is localized
in space and not a periodic function (like those shown below).

It is same as imagining a periodic function with L ! 1

Fourier Integral
It is same as imagining a periodic function with L ! 1

It can be shown that in this limit

1 h
X ⇣ n⇡ ⌘ ⇣ n⇡ ⌘i
f (x) = a0 + an cos x + bn sin x
n=1
L L
1
X
= a0 + [an cos kn x + bn sin kn x]
n=1

should be replaced by an integral.

Fourier Integral
1
X
f (x) = [an cos kn x + bn sin kn x]
n=0

should be replaced by an integral.

Z 1
f (x) = [A(k) cos(kx) + B(k) sin(kx)] dk
0

We notice that now we are considering a continuous

distribution of wave-numbers for the constituent sinusoidal
waves.
Fourier Integral
Amplitudes of Fourier integral is given as
Z 1
1
A(k) = f (x) cos(kx)dx
⇡ 1
Z 1
1
B(k) = f (x) sin(kx)dx
⇡ 1

In the complex form, the Fourier integral can be written as

Recall:
cos(kx) = [eikx + e ikx ]/2 and sin(kx) = [eikx e ikx
]/2i
Z 1
1 ikx
f (x) = p g(k)e dk
2⇡ 1
Z 1
1 ikx
g(k) = p f (x)e dx
2⇡ 1
Back to Wave-Packet

Now it is easy to see how the wavepacket is constructed

The high frequency constituent plane waves

Z 1
1 ikx
f (x) = p g(k)e dk
2⇡ 1

Amplitude of the
The wave packet
constituent waves
Example Fourier integral: An example
Fourier integral: An example
Let Let
us define
us define
" #" =
# 1=∀1 #∀' − − ⁄∆#
#'∆# 2⁄≤2#≤≤##≤' + + ⁄∆#
#'∆# 2 ⁄2
= 0= 0 Otherwise
Otherwise

" #
" #
1 1

#' −#∆#− ∆#
# #' +#∆#+ ∆#
' ' #' '
2 2 2 2
Example
How do we calculate f(x)?
Z 1
1 ikx
f (x) = p g(k)e dk
2⇡ 1

Z k0 + k
1 2
ikx
=p e dk
2⇡ k0 2
k

!
k
k sin( 2 x) ik0 x
=p k
e
2⇡ 2 x
Example
How does the plot of Re(f(x)) look?
!
k
k sin( 2 x)
Re(f (x)) = p k 5.5
cos(k0 x)
2⇡ 2 x THE HEISENBERG UNCERTAINT

f (x )

∆k sin ∆k
––
2π (
————
–– x
2 )
∆k
–– x
2

– 2π 2π
–– ––
∆k ∆k

cos (k0x)

4⇡
Figure 5.24 (Example 5.7) The real part of the wave packet formed by the
Spatialdistribution
uniform amplitude extent shown
of wave packet
in Figure 5.23. x=
k
 Fourier integral: An example
Example
What happens if we increase ∆" ?
What happens if we increase k?
∆"
∆" sin k 2 ! )
k sin( 2 x) cos " , )
p 2$
% ∆" cos(k 0 x) ∆"
2⇡ k
2 2x ) k
%
2$ p

- )
f (x)
2⇡
Recommended Readings

Wave Groups and Dispersion, section 5.3.

Fourier Integral, section 5.4.