Govt Boys High School Aarath

Chapter 2
Control and co-ordination
Q: What is control and co-ordination?
It is the working together of the various organs in a systematic manner so as to produce a proper
reaction to the stimulus. In animals, control and coordination of body functions is enabled by nervous
system and endocrine system. The nervous system and endocrine system collectively form the
neuroendocrine system.

Q: Why there is a need of control and co-ordination system in an organism?

The various physiological process in an organism are closely linked and dependent on each other. The
linking together of body activities is called co-ordination. Without co-ordination, the activities of
body would be thrown into choas and disorder. Thus, there is a need for a system of control and co-
ordination to ensure the integrity of the organism.

Q: Draw the structure of a neuron and explain its function?

Neuron is the structural and functional unit of nervous system. It is the longest sized body cell found
in humans and is over 100 cm.
Structure: A neuron consists of three parts.
1. Cyton: It is also called cell body or soma. It can be oval,
spherical or star shaped and has abundant granular cytoplasm
called neuroplasm. It also contain a large, spherical nucleus,
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, neurofibrils, neurotubules and a
number of small sized special granules called Nissl's granules.
2. Dendrons: These are several short, tapering, branched
protoplasmic processes stretching out from the cell body of
neuron. Each Dendron at its upper end further divides into
branches which are known as dendrites to increase surface area
for receiving stimulus. Their neuroplasm contains both
neurofibrils and Nissl's granules. They receive information and
conduct nerve impulses toward cyton.
3. Axon: The longest fibre of cyton is called axon. It is thick,
single, cylindrical and unbranched nerve fibre. The terminal
end of axon is highly branched and these branches are called
terminal arborization, each with a swelling or knob like Structure of Neuron (Nerve Cell)
structures called synaptic knobs. These contain
neurotransmitters like acetylcholine. The cell membrane of the axon is called axolemma and
it's cytoplasm is called axoplasm. It lacks Nissl's granules. A single sheath lies over axon
made of Schwann cells is called neurilemma. An additional insulating sheath of myelin can
also be present between neurilemma and axon. At intervals, myelinated nerve fibre possess
unmyelinated areas called nodes of Ranvier.
Functions:
1. The function of the neurons is to conduct information from one part of the body to another.
2. Dendrites acquire the information.
3. Axon conducts information as an electric impulse.
4. Terminal arborization pass the information as chemical stimulus at synapse for onward
transmission.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 1

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

Q: What is Synapse? What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

The close proximity or junction between terminal arborization of
one neuron and dendrites of another neuron is called as synapse.
The two neurons never join with each other completely so, there
is a gap between two neurons called synaptic cleft. As the
electric impulse reaches the synaptic knobs of axon of one
neuron, they release chemicals called neurotransmitters like
acetylcholine. These chemicals cross the gap and are received by
dendrites of another neuron and start a similar electric impulse
there.

Q. Give the outline classification of human nervous system?

Human nervous system is formed of three parts

Human nervous system

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

2. 4.
Spinal Nerves Cranial nerves
(Between spinal cord and body (Between brain and body
parts) parts)
Brain Spinal cord
(Upper broader and lies in (Lower, long, narrow and 6.
head) extends from neck to trunck) Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous system
system 7.
Q Describe the structure and functions of the brain?

Position: Human brain is a soft, whitish, large and slightly flattened structure present in the cranial
cavity of cranium (skull). It has about 100 billion neurons. Brain is the main coordinating center of the
body. Brain is covered by three membranes called meninges. The space between these membranes
contains a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. The meninges protect the brain from mechanical injuries
and fluid protects brain from mechanical shocks.

Structure and Function: Brain is formed of three parts: Fore brain, mid brain and hind brain.

1. Fore brain (prosencephalon): It forms anterior greater part of the brain and is the main thinking
part of the brain. It consists of three parts:
a) Olfactory lobes: These are one pair, small sized and club-shaped. Each olfactory lobe is
differentiated into anterior swollen olfactory bulb and posterior olfactory stalk. These control
the sense of smell.
b) Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the brain and forms about 80% of the weight of brain. It is
divided into two cerebral hemispheres by a median or cerebral fissure. The surface of these
cerebral hemispheres is greatly folded to form ridges and grooves called gyri and sulci
respectively. Each hemisphere has a cavity called lateral ventricle. Each cerebral hemisphere
is divided into four lobes by deep fissures which include:
• Frontal lobe: controls speech (Broca’s area) and voluntary and involuntary movements.
• Parietal lobe: controls general sensation like pain, touch, temperature etc.
• Temporal lobe: controls hearing, smell and taste.
• Occipital lobe: controls sight.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 2

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

c) Diencephalon: It is completely covered by cerebrum and it's roof is called epithalamus, sides
are called thalami and it's floor is called hypothalamus. Diencephalon has a narrow cavity
called third ventricle. Hypothalamus has a pea shaped pituitary gland attached to it by
infundibulum. Hypothalamus has control centers for hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, body
temperature, sweating and emotions. It also secretes neurohormones which regulate the
secretions of anterior lobe of pituitary.

2. Mid brain (mesencephalon): It is formed of two parts: optic lobes and cerebral peduncles.
a) Optic lobes: These are a pair of large sized lobes (superior and inferior colliculi) on each side
and are known as Corpora bigemina. Corpora bigemina of both sides are togetherly called as
Corpora quadrigemina. These control visual and auditory reflexes.
b) Cerebral peduncles: These are a pair of bands of nerve fibres (crura cerebri) which
coordinate hind brain with fore brain.

3. Hind brain (Rhombencephalon): It is formed of

three parts:
a) Cerebellum: It is a large sized lobe present
below the occipital lobes of cerebrum. It
controls equilibrium and posture of the body and
coordinates the voluntary movements.
b) Pons varolii: It is a thick band of transverse
nerve fibres. It controls some aspects of
respiration.
c) Medulla oblongata: It is the posterior most part of the brain which lies below cerebellum and
continues with the spinal cord. It controls: 1. rate of heart beat, 2. breathing movements, 3.
regulate blood pressure, 4. swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting.

Q. Give the structure and function of spinal cord?

Spinal cord is a long, soft, whitish and cylindrical continuation of

medulla oblongata. It lies in the cavity of vertebral column. It is also
covered by three meninges like those of brain. It extends from the lower
end of medulla oblongata to first lumber vertebra, and then becomes non
nervous and thread like called filum-terminale.
Functions:
1. Spinal cord conducts sensory and motor impulses to and from the
brain.
2. It acts as a centre for the reflex action and reduces the overloading
of brain.

Q. Write a note on peripheral nervous system?

The network of nerves which arise from central nervous system and spread in whole body is
called peripheral nervous system. On the basis of their origin, nerves are of two types:
• Cranial nerves: These nerves extend between the brain and parts of head (except 10th cranial
nerves which extends even up to the abdomen). Human beings have 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.
• Spinal nerves: These nerves extend between the spinal cord and the body parts. Human
beings have 31 pairs of spinal nerves and are mixed in nature.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 3

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

Q. Write a note on autonomic nervous system?

The part of nervous system of vertebrates which regulates involuntary actions of visceral organs is
called as autonomic nervous system. It is also called as visceral nervous system. It is self governed
and auto-functioning. It is formed of two parts: sympathetic nervous system and para-sympathetic
nervous system. Both of these supply nerves to same visceral organs like heart, gut, lungs, kidneys,
urinary ducts, blood vessels etc and interact to maintain homeostasis. But these are antagonistic
(opposite in action) to each other towards the functioning of visceral organs.

Q. What is reflex action? What happens in reflex action?

A reflex action may be defined as a sudden spontaneous, automatic, involuntary mechanical response
to a stimulus without the will of an organism. It was discovered by Marshall Hall in 1833. The reflex
actions are usually controlled by spinal cord and are called as
spinal reflexes. E.g. withdrawal of hand when touched by a hot
object.
In reflex action, when a receptor receives stimulus it triggers an
impulse in sensory neuron which transmits the message to the
spinal cord. Here, the impulse is passed on to relay neuron and
then to motor neuron which passes the impulse to muscle in our
arm. The muscle then contracts and pulls hand away from hot
plate. The path travelled by an impulse in a reflex action is
called the reflex arc.

Q. What are advantages or significance of reflex action?

Reflex action has following significance:
1. Reflex actions enable the body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli so that chances of
damage to body are minimised.
2. These prevent overloading of brain, so prevent its fatigue.

Q. What is the role of brain in reflex action?

Usually reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord but the message of reflex action taken also goes
on to reach the brain. For example; when we lift a hot plate, heat as well as pain act as stimulus. It is
the brain which has all the thinking centres and brain thinks about pain not spinal cord.

Q. How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other?
Reflex actions: These are sudden, automatic, involuntary mechanical response to a stimulus without
the conscious involvement of the brain. They are controlled by spinal cord. They occur towards
emergency situations. For example; withdrawing of hand on touching a hot object.
Involuntary actions: These are muscular movements which are not under will but are controlled
by the brain. They doesn't occur towards emergency situations. For example: beating of heart.

Q. What is the difference between a reflex actions and walking?

Reflex action Walking
1. It is a sudden, automatic mechanical response to a 1. It is movement of legs and is under the
stimulus, without the will of an individual. will of an individual.
2. It is controlled by spinal cord. 2. It is controlled by Cerebellum of brain.
3. It cannot be changed. 3. It can be changed.
4. It is inherited and present in individual since birth. 4. It acquired through learning.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 4

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

Q. Which signals will get disturbed in case of spinal cord injury?

Spinal cord controls reflex actions and also carries signals to brain through spinal nerves
from many body parts and from brain to different muscles of the body. So, in case of injury to
spinal cord, the signals of reflex actions and other signals will be disrupted and the body will not
be able to give quick response and other involuntary response to harmful stimuli. This will
increase the chances of damage to the body by such stimuli.

Q. What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situations where receptors do not
work properly: What problems are likely to arise?
Receptors or sense organs are groups of highly specialized cells which receive the stimuli.
Each receptor is specialized to receive a specific stimulus and change it into appropriate nerve
impulse.
When receptors fail to function properly, the body functions will be disturbed and may be
fatal.

Q. How does the nervous tissue cause actions?

Nervous tissue is associated with receiving the nerve impulses from receptors through
sensory neurons, interprets these information and sends impulses to muscles or glands
through mortor neuron. When motor neuron carrying nerve impulses comes in contact with a
muscle fibers, it releases neurotransmitter called acetylcholine at it endings. Acetylcholine
causes stimulation of sarcolemma (covering of muscle fibers) and is conducted to sarcoplasmic
reticulum of muscle fibers and bring changes in it. These changes in the muscle fibers bring about the
movement.

Q. How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense sticks)?

The chemicals present in the smoke of agarbatti enter the nasal chambers along with the
inspired air. These chemicals stimulate the olfactory receptors present in the olfactory
epithelium of nasal chambers. The olfactory receptors initiate the nerve impulses which are
carried to olfactory lobes of fore-brain by olfactory nerve. Olfactory lobes interpret the nerve impulses
and detect smell.

Q. How does chemical co-ordination takes place in animals?

In animals, chemical co-ordination is brought about by secretions of ductless or
endocrine glands called hormones or chemical messengers. A specific endocrine gland when
stimulated secretes one or more specific hormones which are generally released in the blood
and have specific action on some specific target organ.

Q. What is a gland? What are it's types?

A cell, a tissue or an organization which secrets certain useful chemical compounds required for
particular functions is called a gland. Types of glands:
i) Endocrine glands: These glands lack ducts and pass their secretions into surrounding
blood for transport to target site. They are also called ductless glands. Their secretions are
known as hormones. E.g pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands etc.
ii) Exocrine glands: These glands have ducts and discharge their secretions in their ducts on
the body surface or on some specific part inside the body. E.g salivary glands, gastric
glands, liver etc.
iii) Heterocrine glands: These glands consist of both exocrine tissue and endocrine tissue.
The exocrine tissue sends it secretions by way of a duct and the endocrine tissue
discharges it's secretion into the blood. E.g pancreas, gonads (testes and ovaries) etc.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 5

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

Q. What are hormones? Give their properties?

Hormones are organic compounds secreted by ductless endocrine glands that regulate the
biological processes in the living organisms.
Properties or characteristics:
1. Hormones are secreted by living endocrine cells so are biological in origin.
2. They are released in the blood.
3. They can be peptides, proteins, amines or steroids.
4. They have low molecular weight and are slow in action.
5. They are specific in function and are used up in their action.

Q. Describe the function of hormones secreted by various endocrine glands?

Inside the human body, there are a number of endocrine glands which differ from one
another not only in their location and structure but also differ in the hormones secreted and
their functions. These endocrine glands are as:

1. Hypothalamus: It is situated at the base of the brain and is composed of nervous tissue.
The neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus secrete several neurohormones called Releasing
Hormones (RH) and Inhibiting Hormones or Factors. These neurohormones are carried to the
pituitary gland to stimulate or inhibit the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.
2. Pituitary gland ( Hypophysis): It is present below hypothalamus. It is small, pea shaped gland
and consist of three lobes which release separate hormones.
a) Anterior lobe of pituitary: The hormones produced by anterior lobe of pituitary are as
follows.
i. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): It stimulates growth of thyroid gland and
increase production of thyroid hormones.
ii. Growth hormone (GH) or Somatotrophic hormone (STH): It stimulates growth and
development of all tissues by increasing protein synthesis, cell division, growth of
bones and metabolic rate. Deficiency of GH causes Dwarfism and its excess secretion
from childhood causes Gigantism and Acromegaly after adolescence.
iii. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): It stimulates sperm formation in the male and
growth of ovarian follicles in the female.
iv. Luteinising Hormone (LH): It stimulates ovulation, formation of corpus luteum and
secretion of estrogen and progesterone from corpus luteum. In males it is called
Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICTH). It stimulates endocrine cells of testes to
secrete male hormone called testosterone.
v. Prolactin hormone (PH) or Luteotrophic hormone (LTH): It stimulates the growth of
milk glands during pregnancy and formation of milk in them after childbirth.
vi. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): It stimulates the adrenal cortex to to grow
and secrete it's hormones.
b) Intermediate lobe of pituitary: It secretes a single hormone namely Melanocyte
Stimulating Hormone (MSH). The hormone stimulate the synthesis of black pigment
melanin in the skin, hair and it's dispersal.
c) Posterior lobe of pituitary: It stores and releases two hormones.
i. Oxytocin: It stimulates contraction of smooth muscles of uterus so help in child birth
and contraction of smooth muscles of mammary glands so helps in lactation. On the
basis of its role, oxytocin is called 'birth hormone' and 'milk ejecting hormone'.
ii. Vasopressin or Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): It controls water balance in body fluids
i.e osmoregulation. It also regulates blood pressure by contraction of smooth muscles

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 6

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

of arterioles. Deficiency of ADH reduces reabsorption of water and increases urine

output, causing excessive thirst. This disorder is called diabetes insipidus. No glucose
is lost in the urine of such a patient.
3. Thyroid gland: It is largest endocrine gland. It is bilobed and situated in the neck region. The
thyroid gland secretes three hormones.
i. Thyroxine (T4) and Tri-iodothyronine (T3): Both these hormones are iodinated forms
of the amino acid tyrosine. They control carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism
through BMR. They promote growth of body tissues and development of mental
faculties and sexual growth of baby.
ii. Calcitonin: It regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. It
lowers calcium in blood by increasing calcium deposition in bones.
4. Parathyroid gland: They are four in number, two embedded in each lobe of thyroid gland.
They are oval shaped and yellow coloured. They secrete parathormone (PTH). It is also called
Collip's hormone. Parathormone increases blood calcium levels by separation of calcium from
bones.
5. Adrenal glands: These are a pair of yellow coloured small sized and conical in shape
situated on upper side of each kidney. Each adrenal gland has two distinct portions. Outer
adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. Both of these parts secrete different hormones, which
are as;:
Adrenal cortex: It secretes three groups of steroid hormones.
i. Mineralocorticoids (e.g. Aldosterone): They regulate sodium-potassium balance in the
body so helps in water balance and regulation of osmotic pressure of body fluids.
ii. Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol): They regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats. They also have anti-inflamatory and anti-allergic effects..
iii. Sex corticoids (Androgens): They stimulate the development of secondary sexual
characters both in males and females.
Adrenal medulla: It secretes two hormones.
i. Adrenaline or Epinephrine: when adrenaline is secreted into the blood, it prepares our
body for action. It increases the rate of heart beat and breathing, blood pressure, basal
metabolic rate and allows more glucose to go into the blood to give a lot of energy
quickly to prepare body to face emergency situations like fight, flight or fright. So,
adrenaline is also called emergency hormone.
ii. Nor-adrenaline or nor-epinephrine; It increases systolic and diastolic pressure and
control normal blood circulation.
6. Pancreas: It is an elongated, yellowish heterocrine gland situated just below the stomach in the
loop of duodenum. It secretes two hormones;
i. Insulin: It decreases blood glucose levels by converting it into glycogen. Deficiency of
insulin in body causes a disease known as diabetes mellitus. In this disease, the patient
excretes glucose in urine, feels excessive thirst and urination.
ii. Glucagon: It increases blood glucose levels by converting glycogen into glucose.
7. Testes: There is a pair of oval and pinkish testes in males. They are extra-abdominal and lie in
scrotum between the legs. They secrete male sex hormone called testosterone. It stimulates
spermatogenesis and control development of male secondary sexual characters.
8. Ovaries: There is a pair of ovaries which lie in the abdomen in females. They secrete three
female sex hormones which are as:
i. Estrogen: It is secreted by Graafin follicles of ovary. It stimulates the formation of ova
(oogenesis) in the ovary. It stimulates the development of secondary sexual characters

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 7

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

such as enlargement of breasts during puberty broadening of pelvis, growth of pubic and
axillary hair and onset of menstrual cycle.
ii. Progesterone: It is secreted by the corpus luteum. It stops ovulation and stimulates
implantation, placentation and development of foetus so maintains pregnancy. It also
stimulates thickening of uterine epithelium during menstrual cycle.
iii. Relaxin: It is produced by the corpus luteum at the end of the gestation period. It widens
the pelvis and help in easy child birth.
9. Pineal gland: It is very small, reddish-grey gland lying between the two cerebral hemispheres of
the brain. It secretes melatonin hormone. It regulates circadian rhythms and working of gonads.
10. Thymus gland: It is soft, pinkish, bilobed structure situated near the heart. It is a prominent
gland in the young child but gradually atrophies in the adult. It secretes thymosin hormone which
stimulates the development and differentiation of lymphocytes so increases resistance to infection.
Q. Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
Insulin hormone is produced by the pancreas and it helps in controlling the blood sugar level. It
stores extra glucose of blood in the liver and body muscles by converting it into glycogen. This
controls blood sugar level. Diabetes is a disease in which the level of sugar in the blood is too
high because of hyposecretion of insulin. So, in order to regulate blood sugar level diabetic
patients are treated by giving injections of insulin.
Q. Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxine hormone from thyroid gland. Thyroxine
regulates the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and controls the physical, mental and sexual growth of
the body. Deficiency of this hormone results in the enlargement of thyroid gland also known as
goitre. It's deficiency also leads to abnormal physical and mental growth. This iodine is provided
to the body by iodised salt. So, use of iodised salt is advisable.
Q. Compare and contrast nervous and chemical mechanisms for control and co-ordination
in animals?
Nervous system Endocrine system
1. It is made of neurons. 1. It is made of secretary cells or glands.
2. The action of nervous system is divrse. 2. The action of endocrine system is limited.
3. Messages are transmitted in the form of 3. Messages are transmitted in the form of
electrical impulses. chemicals called hormones.
4. Messages are transmitted along nerve 4. Messages are transmitted through blood
fibre. stream.
5. The information is transmitted very 5. The information is transmitted slowly.
quickly.
6. Their effect is short lived. 6. Their effect is long lasting.

Q. How does chemical co-ordination occurs in plants?

Plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles. They respond to stimuli by showing movements.
The control and co-ordination of growth, development and response to the environment in plants is by
a special class of chemical substances known as plant hormones or phytohormones. These hormones
are produced in one part of the plant body and are translocated to other needy parts. These hormones
include auxins, gibberllins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene.

Q. What are plant hormones? Give their functions?

The chemical substances secreted by plants which diffuse all around the other cells and control and
coordinate the activities of plants by controlling one or the other aspects of plant growth

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 8

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

are called plant hormones. They are also known as plant growth hormones or plant growth regulators.
There are five major types of plant hormones which are;
1. Auxins: (Discovered by Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin) Auxins were the first plant
hormones identified. They are manufactured in shoot tips and root tips. Indole-3-Acetic acid
(IAA) is a natural auxin while Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) and 2,4-D are synthetic auxins.
Functions:
i. These promote cell enlargement and cell differentiation in plants.
ii. These also promote stem and fruit growth.
iii. These stimulate the formation of new roots and callus formation.
iv. These are responsible for apical dominance
v. IAA plays an important role in inhibiting the leaf and fruit fall.
vi. These induce parthenocarpy i.e formation of seedless fruits.
2. Gibberellins: These are produced in the growing tips. They were discovered by Kurosawa in a
fungal pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi. Common Gibberellin is Gibberellic acid (GA3).
Functions:
i. These promote cell divisions and cell elongation.
ii. They induce bolting (i.e induce growth of internode).
iii. These promote elongation of stem.
iv. They help in breaking of seed dormancy.
v. These also induce parthenocarpy i.e formation of seedless fruits.
3. Cytokinins: Cytokinins were discovered by Skoog and Miller. Zeitin is natural cytokinin found
in coconut water. Kinetin is a synthetic cytokinin.
Functions:
i. These promote cell division in plants.
ii. They delay ageing, so called anti-ageing hormone.
iii. These play vital role in the morphogenesis in plants.
iv. They promote opening of stomata.
v. These help in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds.
4. Ethylene: It is a gaseous hormone and is produced in all living tissues of plants. It moves
through diffusion. Ethylene was discovered by H.H Cousins (1910) from ripened oranges which
promote ripening of stored unripened bananas.
Functions:
i. It induces ripening of fruits.
ii. It enhances the respiration rate and root hair formation.
iii. It helps in breaking the dormancy in buds and seeds.
iv. It induces epinasty i.e bending of leaves.
v. Ethylene stimulates abscission of various plant parts.
5. Abscisic acid: It was discovered by F. T. Addicott. Abscisic acids are thought to be
formed in leaves and then transported to apices through phloem. These act as growth inhibitor.
Functions:
i. It promotes the dormancy in buds and seeds and thus inhibits growth.
ii. It promotes closing of stomata during stress conditions. So it is aolso known as stress
hormone
iii. It promotes abscission (falling of leaves) and senescence (growing old) in plants.
iv. It increases tolerance and seed development.

Q. Describe various movements in plants?

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 9

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

When plants are subjected to some external stimuli, they show movements of individual parts or
organs. These movements are usually growth movements caused by the help of plant hormones. The
movements in plants are of two types:
i. Tropic movements or Tropisms: A growth movement of a plant part in response to an external
stimulus in which the direction of stimulus determines the direction of response is called
tropism or tropic movements. Thus, tropism is a directional movement and caused by growth. If
the movement of a plant part is towards the stimulus, it is called positive tropism and if the
movement of plant part is away from the stimulus, then it is called negative tropism.
ii. Nastic movements or Nasties: The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus
in which the direction of response is not determined by the direction of stimulus is called nastic
movement. These reveal immediate response to stimulus but do not involve growth.
Q. What are various types of tropic movements?
There are five types of tropic movements in response to different stimuli.
i. Phototropism: The movement of a plant part in response to light stimulus is called
phototropism. If a plant part moves towards light, it is called positive phototropism and if it
moves away from light, then it is called negative phototropism. For example: The stem or shoot
shows positive phototropism while as roots show negative phototropism.
ii. Geotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to gravity is called geotropism. If a plant
part moves in the direction of gravity, it is called positive geotropism and if it moves against the
direction of gravity, then it is called negative geotropism. For example; Roots show positive
geotropism while as stem shows negative geotropism.
iii. Hydrotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to water is called hydrotropism. If a
plant part moves towards water, it is called positive hydrotropism and if it moves away from
water, then it is called negative hydrotropism. For example; Roots show positive hydrotropism.
iv. Chemotropism: The movement of plant part in response to a chemical stimulus is called
chemotropism. If a plant part shows movement towards the chemical it is called positive
chemotropism and if it shows movement away from the chemical, then it is called negative
chemotropism. For example; Growth of pollen tube towards ovule is positive chemotropism.
v. Thigmotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to the touch of an object is called
thigmotropism. If a plant part moves in the direction of touch it is called positive thigmotropism
and if it moves against the direction of touch, then it is called negative thigmotropism. For
example; Growth of tendril towards any support.

Q. What are different types of nastic movements?

Depending upon the type of stimulus following are the types of nastic movements.
1. Seismonastic movements or thigmonasty: The non-directional movement of a plant part in
response to touch of an object is called thigmonasty. These movements are very quick.
For example; the folding up of the leaves of Touch-me-not plant (Mimosa pudica) on
touching it.
2. Nyctinastic movements: The movements involving the diurnal variation in the position of
flowers and leaves of many plants in day and night are called nyctinastic or sleep movements.
It is further divided into two types:
i. Photonastic movements: If the diurnal variations in the position of plant parts
(flowers or leaves) are caused by light stimulus. Such non-directional movements are
called photonastic movements. For example; A dandelion flower opens up in the
morning in bright light but closes in the evening when light fades.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 10

 Govt Boys High School Aarath

ii. Thermonastic movements: If the diurnal variations in the position of plant parts
(flowers or leaves) are caused by the change in temperature of surrounding. Such
non-directional movements are called thermoonastic movements.

Q. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?

Tendrils are sensitive to touch. When they come in contact with any support, the auxins
present in its tips moves to that side which is away from the support. Due to auxins the side
away from the support grows faster than the side which is in contact with the support and
makes the tendril to curve or bend towards the support and wind around it.

Q. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism?

Take a big glass trough filled with dry soil. Put a clay
pot filled with water to one side. Now
plant a seedling inside the soil to other side. As water
is not available in dry soil, the roots growth will bend
towards clay pot filled with water. This bending of
root show the movement as a response towards water
i.e. shows hydrotropism.

Q. How does phototropism occur in plants?

Phototropism is the growth movement in response to unidirectional stimulus of light. The
stem shows positive phototropism, as it bends towards light. When growing plants receive
light, plant hormones, auxin formed at shoot tip, helps the cells to elongate. In case light
comes from one direction, auxins move towards shady side. Thus plant bends towards light.
Q. How is movement of leaves of a sensitive plant different from the movement of shoot towards
light?
Movement of leaves of sensitive plant (Mimosa Movement of shoot towards light
pudica)
1. It is a nastic movement and is called 1. It is a tropic movement and is called
as thigmonasty. as phototropism
2. It occurs in response to touch or contact 2. It occurs in response to light stimuli
stimuli.
3. It occurs by the sudden loss of water from the 3. It is caused by the unequal growth on
pulvini at the base of leaves the two sides of shoot.
4. It occurs quickly. 4. It occurs slowly.
5. This movement is growth independent. 5. This movement is growth dependent.

Q. What is the difference between in the manner in which movement in the sensitive plant and
movement in our legs takes place?

Movement in leaf of sensitive plant Movement in our legs

1. The folding and drooping of leaf of a sensitive 1. Movement in our legs is an example of
plant occurs in response to touch stimulus. voluntary actions.
2. It occurs due to changes in the amount of water 2. It occurs due to contraction and relaxation of
in the cells of leaf. muscle proteins.
3. No nervous or muscular tissue is involved as 3. Muscle cells bring about movements by
these are absent. changing their shape.
4. It occurs in a fixed direction and manner and 4. It can take place in the desired direction and
can't be changed. can be changed.

BILAL SIR NOTES /// CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION Page 11

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE 3

Q. What is Reproduction? Why do organisms reproduce?
Ans: The process of producing young ones by an organism to multiply its number and maintain
its race is called reproduction. It involves the transmission of genetic material from parental
generation to next generation.
Reproduction involve following features:
a) Replication of D.N.A which is the molecular basis of reproduction.
b) Cell division, only mitosis or meiosis.
c) Formation of reproductive bodies or units.
Organisms reproduce because reproduction is the only method by which continuity of life is
maintained on the earth. The purpose of reproduction is aimed at increasing population and
survival of a particular species. In other words it provides group immortality by replacing the old
with the new ones. This leads to stability of population of species.
Q. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction? OR Why is DNA copying an
essential part of the process of reproduction?
Ans: DNA copying in parent cell creates blue prints of body design and allows organisms to pass
on their body features to off springs. It maintains the body design features in different generation
of the species. DNA copying also produces variations due to linkage and crossing over. Such
variations are useful for the survival of species overtime.
Q. Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for the individual?
Ans: A species comprises a large number of individuals. Each individual may have specific type
of variations of different nature. Individually these variations may not be of much benefit to a
particular organism but when species faces a drastically altered condition, some of its members
may survive because of possessing such variations which are capable to face the new situation.
In this way, a variation save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its survival for a
long time.
Q. What are the types of reproduction?
Ans: There are two types of reproduction: Asexual and sexual reproduction.
A. Asexual reproduction or apomixis: Asexual reproduction is defined as the production of off
springs without involving the formation and fusion of gametes. The process involves only a
single parent. It involves production of off springs rapidly and occurs with the help of
repeated mitotic divisions only. The off springs produced are genetically similar to parents,
so has little evolutionary significance. It mostly occurs in lower organisms like bacteria,
protozoa, spirogyra, hydra etc.
B. Sexual reproduction or amphimixis: The production of off springs by the fusion of male
gamete from male parent with female gamete from female parent to form a diploid zygote is
called sexual reproduction. The act of fusion of gametes is called as fertilization. It is slow in
process and involves both mitosis and meiosis. The off springs are produced with variations,
so it has high evolutionary significance. It occurs in flowering plants and animals.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 1

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Q. What are the different types of asexual reproduction?
Ans: Different types of asexual reproduction are:-
1) Fission: Fission is that type of asexual reproduction in which a fully grown unicellular
organism divides into two or more than two daughter cells. This is the most common method
of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms like protozoans (amoeba, Euglena and
paramecium) and blue green algae.
Depending upon the number of individuals formed from a single parent, the fission can be of
two types:-
Binary fission Multiple fission
1) In binary fission two nearly equal 1) In multiple fission many daughter cells are
sized daughter cells are produced produced simultaneously from a single parent.
from a single parent.
2) It occurs under favourable conditions. 2) It occurs both under favourable and
unfavourable conditions.
3) Nucleus of the parent cell divides 3) Nucleus of the parent cell undergoes repeated
only once to form two nuclei. divisions to form a number of daughter nuclei.
4) Cytoplasm divides after nuclear 4) Cytoplasm does not divide after each nuclear
division. division.
5) No part of parent body is left unused 5) A part of the body (cytoplasm) is left unused
e.g., amoeba e.g., plasmodium

2) Budding: In this method of asexual reproduction, a small out growth, called the bud appears
on any part of the body of an organism. The nucleus of the parent cell undergoes division to form
two daughter nuclei. One of the nuclei then passes into the bud. The bud grows gradually and
then breaks off from the parent and becomes a new individual. It occurs in yeast, some
protozoans and certain lower animals e.g., Hydra, Scypha, Syllis etc. Under unfavourable
conditions, internal budding also takes place e.g., Spongilla.
3) Fragmentation: In this type of asexual reproduction the body of an organism breaks into two
or more fragments either naturally or by some external agency. Each fragment then gradually
develops into a new and complete organism. e.g., spirogyra, sponges, sea-anemones etc.
4) Regeneration: It is the phenomenon which brings about repair of the damaged cells/tissues or
redevelopment of broken body part or reconstruction of the whole body from a small body
fragment. Regeneration is found in almost all the animal groups but degree of regeneration varies
in them. When an organism breaks into many parts or fragments, each part grows into new and
complete organism. So regeneration helps in multiplication of organisms, hence it is regarded as
a type of asexual reproduction. It occurs in protozoans, sponges, coelenterates (hydra), flatworms
(planaria) etc.
5) Spore formation or Sporulation: Spore is a simple single or several celled structure that
detaches from parent and give rise directly or indirectly to a new individual. Spores are usually
produced in sporangium. Reproduction by formation of spore is a common method of asexual
reproduction in some bacteria and most fungi e.g., Rhizopus. The spores produced in sporangium
are released into air when mature by bursting of sporangia wall. The spores settle and develop
into new organism when they get proper moisture and food.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 2

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Q. What is vegetative propagation? What are the different methods of Vegetative
Propagation?
Ans: Vegetative propagation: It is the production of new plants from any vegetative part other
than seeds like root, stem, and leaves. The plants produced by this process possess exactly the
same characteristics as that of the parent plant. Vegetative propagation occurs by natural as well
as by artificial methods and is very common in seedless plants.
A) Natural methods: In this method, vegetative parts of plants having adventitious buds get
detached naturally from plants and when come in contact with soil, grow into new plants.
Some common natural methods of vegetative propagation are as:
1) By roots: The roots of some plants develop adventitious buds on them which can grow
into leafy shoots. E.g. Sweet potato, dahlia, guava, shisham, poplars etc.
2) By stem: The underground modified stems such as rhizomes (e.g. ginger, turmeric, potato
etc), corms (e.g. Banana, Colocasia etc) bulbs (e.g. garlic, onion etc) bear adventitious
buds which grow into new independent plants.
3) By leaves: Some plants produce adventitious buds on their leaves. When the leaf falls on
moist soil, these buds develop into small plants resulting in vegetative propagation. E.g.
Bryophyllum, Begonia, Streptocarpus, Kalanchoe etc.
B) Artificial methods: These methods are man-made and developed by plant growers and
horticulturists for commercial production of crops. Some common artificial methods are:
1. Grafting: In this method parts of two different plants are joined in such a way that they
grow as one plant. The rooted plant in which grafting is performed is called the stock.
The portion of other plant (bud, branch, etc.) that is grafted on the stock is called scion.
The joint is covered with grafting wax to avoid evaporation of water and infection. The
roots of the stock give water and minerals to the scion and the leaves of the scion supply
organic food to the root system of the stock. The grafted plant bears flowers and fruits
identical to the fruits of the tree from which the scion was taken. Grafting is successful
only if it is practiced between closely related plants.
2. Cutting: In this method, a piece of suitable length of stem (20-30 cm long) bearing a few
nodes and internodes is taken from the mother plant. This cutting is then placed slightly
vertically in moist soil. After sometime, roots emerge from nodes of the basal portion of
the cutting and the buds found on the cutting give rise to the shoot resulting in the
formation of a new plant. The plants of rose, sugarcane, grape, banana, orange etc. are
commonly grown by this method.
3. Layering: This method is commonly practiced in ornamental plants such a jasmine, rose
etc. In this method one or more shoots of a plant are bent close to the ground and covered
with moist soil. Sooner or later, the underground portion of the branches develops roots
and produces plantlets. These plant-lets are cut off from the parent plant and grown as
new individuals.
Q. What is micro-propagation or tissue culture in plants?
Ans: It is the latest technique of artificial vegetative propagation used in plants. It is based on
tissue and cell culture technique. In this technique a cell, tissue or organ of the plant is separated
and transferred under aseptic conditions to a container containing necessary nutrients and
hormones. The cells of vegetative tissue divide repeatedly forming a mass of similar cells called
callus. Small pieces of the callus can be detached and put in another medium separately where
differentiation of cells takes place to form a small platelet. The later is transferred to nursery and
it develops into a complete plant e.g. Dahlia, gladiolus, chrysanthemum etc.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 3

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Q. What is the significance of vegetative propagation?
The significance of vegetative propagation is given as under:
i. It is a quicker method.
ii. It is easier and cheaper method of propagation.
iii. It is the only method of reproduction and perpetuation in plants which do not
produce viable seeds.
iv. Characters of the parent plants are preserved.
v. Pathogen free plantlets can be obtained by this method.
vi. It is less expensive method of multiplying plants which have poor seed viability
or prolonged seed dormancy.
Q. Write a note on Sexual Reproduction in Plants?
Ans: Sexual reproduction involves fusion of two sex gametes to form a new individual. In plants
flowers are wholly responsible for sexual reproduction. Flowers are involves in development of
pollen, development of ovules, pollination, fertilization, development of embryo and endosperm
and finally the formation of fruit and seed.
FLOWER
The flower is a reproductive part of a plant which develops from floral bud. The flower may be
unisexual or bisexual. The stalk of flower is called pedicel. Swollen flat tip of pedicel forms the
thalamus. Thalamus- containing four sets of floral parts arranged symmetrically. These are sepals
(calyx), petals (corolla), stamens (androecium) and carpel (gynoecium). Androecium is
composed of many stamens, which are the male reproductive parts. Each stamen consists of two
anthers at the tips, which carry pollen grains. Pollen
grains are microscopic structures, each of which
produces two sperm cells. Gynoecium consists of many
carpels or pistils which are the female reproductive parts
of the flower. The pistil is broader at the base and taper
at the top. The lower broader portion is called the ovary
that contains ovules. The ovules contain eggs. The upper
portion of the pistil is called the style, which has sticky
disk like structure on its tip called the stigma.
POLLINATION
Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains
from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same or
another flower of the same species. Self-pollination or Autogamy involves the transference of
pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower while cross-pollination or
allogamy involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of the flower to the stigma of the
another flowers of the same species. It takes place by the various agencies such as wind, water,
insects, birds, animals and man.
FERTILIZATION
After pollination the pollen grains give rise to the pollen tube containing the two male gametes.
One male gamete passes through the pollen tube and reaches the egg in ovule. It fuses with the
egg and forms the zygote. This process of fusion of male and female gametes is called
fertilization. It is also known as syngamy. The zygote divides mitotically to form embryo.
After fertilization (i.e. post fertilization), the sepals, petals, stamens, style and stigma fall off. The
zygote forms the seed and ovary becomes the fruit. The seed contains a potential plant or
embryo.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 4

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Q. Describe the sexual reproduction in animals.
Ans: In animals sexual reproduction is found in unicellular as well as in multi-cellular organisms
and is performed by various methods. In unicellular organisms such as, the monocysts
(protozoan) two cells which take part in sexual reproduction are morphologically similar
(Isogametes). While in plasmodium (malaria parasite) they are dissimilar in appearance. In
multi-cellular animals (man), the male produces small, motile and active gametes called sperm
and the female produces a non-motile, large and inactive gamete called ovum (heterogamy). The
fusion of male gamete with female gamete is called fertilization. In some multi-cellular
organisms, fertilization is external while in some others, internal fertilization takes place. As a
result of fertilization, a diploid cell called zygote is formed. The latter finally gives rise to a new
individual.
Q. Define the following terms: Puberty, Menarche, Menopause, Ovulation, Graffian
Follicle?
Ans. Puberty: Puberty is the age of human male and females at which the reproductive organs
become functional, gonads start producing gametes and sex hormones and the boys and girls
become sexually mature. It is attained between the age of 13 – 14 years in males and between
10-12 years in females. In males puberty is triggered by the secretion of the hormone-
testosterone from testes. In females, it is triggered by the production of hormone- estrogen from
the ovaries.
Menarche: The first menstruation in the life of a girl is called menarche.
Menopause: The period after the age of 45-59 when ovulation and menstruation is stopped in
females is called menopause.
Ovulation: The release of an ovum (or egg) from an ovary is called ovulation.
Graffian Follicle: These are the fluid filled spherical cavities in which the eggs develop in the
ovaries of the mammals.
Q. Describe the female reproductive system in humans?
Ans: The female reproductive system in humans consists of the following organs:-
(i) A pair of ovaries (ii) Fallopian tubes (iii) Uterus (iv) Vagina.
I. Ovaries: There are two almond shaped ovaries in human female which act as primary
sex organs. They are located in the pelvic region on either side of the uterus. Each
ovary contain large number of immature primary follicles. After puberty, every month a
primary follicle transforms into a mature follicle called Graaffian follicle. Each
Graaffian follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells.
Function:- The ovaries have two functions:-
1. To secrete female sex hormones, (Estrogen and Progesterone)
2. To form the female gametes, ova.
II. Fallopian tubes (oviducts): The fallopian tubes are two narrow muscular tubes
extending from just close to the ovary to uterus. The end close to the ovary is funnel
shaped and bears finger like projection, known as fimbriae to receive the egg released
from ovary.
Function:
1. The released ovum from ovary is picked up by the fimbriae and pushed ahead into
the fallopian tube. The fallopian tube conducts the ovum to the uterus.
2. Fertilization takes place inside the fallopian tube and is therefore also known as
fertilization canal..
III. Uterus: The human uterus (womb) is a hollow, highly muscular, thick walled pear

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 5

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
shaped structure. It is connected on either side with fallopian tubes. Its internal lining is
highly glandular and vascular and is called endometrium. Its lower and narrow partis
called cervix which opens into the vagina.
Functions:
1. It is the seat of implantation, placentation and foetal development.
2. Menstruation and labour are also performed by its layers.
IV. Vagina: This is a muscular tube about 7-10 cm long which extends from cervix of
uterus and finally opens outside by vaginal aperture.
Functions:
1. It receives the penis (sperms) during coitus or copulation.
2. It transports un-fertilized ova and menstrual products to the exterior.
3. It is through vagina the child enters into the world and is also called “birth canal”.
V. Female reproductive glands:
1. Bartholin's glands: These are one pair, small sized glands present on the sides of
vagina and secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina during copulation.
2. Mammary Gland: These are one pair of rounded structures present on ventral
thoracic wall. Each has erectile nipple at the centre which has number of openings
of milk ducts. Size of these glands increases under the stimulation of female sex
hormones called estrogens, at puberty.
Q. What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty? Or What are the secondary
sexual characters in human females?
1. Beginning of ovulation from the ovaries and menstrual cycle.
2. Enlargement of breasts due to deposition of fat.
3. Growth of pubic hair and extra hair in armpits.
4. Hair on beard, moustache and chest are lacking.
5. Broadening of pelvis.
6. Increase in the subcutaneous fat, particularly in the thighs, shoulders and face.
Q. Describe male reproductive system in human beings.
Ans: The male reproductive system in humans consists of the following organs:-
(i). A pair of testes (ii). Epididymis (iii). Vas deferens (iv). Seminal vesicles (v). Prostate glands
(vi). Cowper’s gland (vii). Urethra
1. Testes: There are two oval shaped testes in human males which act as primary sex organs.
They are suspended in thin pouches of skin called scrotum or scrotal sacs so are extra-
abdominal in position. Internally the testes contain a mass of coiled tube, the
seminiferous tubules, each of which has sperm-producing germ cells. Between the
seminiferous tubules in the testis, there are group of endocrine interstitial cells also called
leydig cells.
Functions:
i. To produce sperms.
ii. To produce male sex hormone called testosterone.
2. Epididymis: It is an elongated and flattened structure present on the lateral side of the
testis.
Functions: It is involved in storage, nutrition and functional maturation of sperms.
3. Vas deferens (sperm duct): It is a long, narrow and tubular structure which starts from
epididymis, enters the abdomen, passes over the urinary bladder and joins the duct of
seminal vesicles to form an ejaculatory duct.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 6

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Functions: The muscular action of the wall (peristalsis) of the vas-deferens is mainly
responsible for the further movement of sperms.
4. Urethra: It is a long, narrow and tubular structure. It is formed by joining of ejaculatory
duct and a duct from urinary bladder so carries both sperms and urine. It is commonly
called urinogenital canal. It passes through penis and opens at its tip.
Function: It helps in passing out urine as well as semen.
5. Penis: It is a cylindrical, erectile and copulatory organ of male. Its tip is very sensitive
and is called as glans.
Function: It helps in transfer of semen from male to female.
6. Male reproductive glands: in man there are three types of reproductive glands:
a) Seminal vesicles: These are a pair of sacculated glands present between the rectum
and urinary bladder. It's duct combine with Vas-deferens to form ejaculatory duct.
b) Prostate gland: It is single, large sized and, lobulated gland present just below the
urinary bladder. It secretes a thin alkaline fluid, the prostatic fluid.
c) Cowper’s gland: These are a pair of white, pea-seed sized glands present at the
base of penis.
Function: Secretion of male reproductive gland and sperms collectively form semen or
seminal fluid. It is alkaline (pH 7.5) and neutralizes the acidity of urine. The secretions
from the glands activate sperms and provide nutrition to the sperms.
Q, What changes are seen in human males at the time of puberty? Or What are the
secondary sexual characters in human males?
Secondary sexual characters in human males:-
1. The germ cells of seminiferous tubules of testis start producing sperms.
2. Enlargement of penis and scrotum.
3. Broadening of the shoulders and increased muscles development.
4. Enlargement of larynx and thickening of vocal cords producing deeping of the voice.
5. Growth of pubic hair and extra hair on the face, chest and in the armpits.
6. Changes in the behaviour associated with courtship and mating.
Q. Why does menstruation occur? OR What happens when the egg is not fertilized?
Ans:- When the egg is not fertilized, progesterone secretion decreases and uterine tissues fail to
maintain and start rupturing which results in menstruation. Menstruation is the process of flow of
blood and degenerated unfertilized egg through the female genital tract after every 28 days.
Menstruation begins at puberty (12-13years) and lasts up-to 45-50 years of age, when
reproductive capacity is arrested (menopause).
Q. Describe menstrual cycle?
Ans: - Menstrual cycle involves various changes which are controlled by hormones and are as:-
Stage1 Menstrual phase: This phase starts at 27th day of the cycle. On this day level of estrogen
and progesterone decreases in blood due to which uterus lining breaks down. As the uterus lining
is thick, soft and rich in blood, so breaking of uterus lining produce blood which along with
degenerated egg come out through vagina. The bleeding continues for 3 to 4 days.
Stage2 Follicular phase or proliferative phase: After 4 days, the level of estrogen starts to
increase in blood of female which is secreted by ovary under influence of FSH. During this
phase new lining of uterus starts to appear, which becomes thick and glandular. This phase
continues for 8 days.
Stage3 Ovulatory phase: On 13th day, ovulation occurs under the influence of FSH and LH. The
egg is released into fallopian tube and is ideal period for pregnancy.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 7

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Stage4 Secreatory or luteal phase: During this phase, the level of estrogen and progesterone
increases in blood. The lining of uterus becomes thick, highly glandular and vascular. The
purpose is to prepare uterus for implantation of fertilized egg. If egg gets fertilized by sperm,
then pregnancy takes place and menstruation stops for nine months. If however, egg is not
fertilized the lining of uterus breaks down and bleeding occurs again. So, menstruation cycle
continues.
Q. What is fertilization? Give its types and mention its significance.
Ans The fusion of male gamete with a female gamete to form zygote is called as fertilization.
Fertilization can be internal or external.
Internal fertilization takes place inside the body of an organism e.g human beings
External fertilization takes place outside the body of an organism e.g frog.
The significance of fertilization are:
1. It provides stimulus for the egg to complete its maturation.
2. It makes the egg more active metabolically.
3. It determines the sex of young one.
4. It restores the diploid number.
5. It combines the character of parents.
Q. Define post fertilization changes in human egg?
Ans. Immediately after fertilization, the embryonic development begins in the fallopian tube, the
stage marks the beginning of pregnancy. The post fertilization changes involves the following
steps:
I. Cleavage or Blastulation: As the zygote moves from the fallopian tube down towards the
uterus, it starts dividing by successive nuclear and cell divisions known as cleavage resulting
in the formation of a small multicellular ball of cells which is called as blastocyst or blastula.
This process is called as blastulation.
II. Implantation: The blastocyst gets embedded into the thickened inner wall of uterus. The
close attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall is called implantation. It takes place
about 7 days after fertilization. It is controlled by estrogen and progesterone hormones.
Implantation is followed by a number of developmental changes in the blastula. First organs
to develop are neural tube and spinal cord. These organs begin to develop in third week.
III. Placenta: The intimate connection between the foetal and maternal tissue is called Placenta.
It is formed in the fourth week. The placenta helps in the exchange of materials between the
mother’s blood and the blood of foetus. Thus the placenta serves as the nutritive, respiratory
and excretory organ of the foetus.
IV. Gastrulation and organogenesis : The blastocyst then changes into gastrula by the process
gastrulation. The gastrula consists of three primary germ layers and a cavity called
archenteron. Each germ layer give rise to specific organs of the organism by the process
called organogenesis.
V. Gestation: The complete development of foetus from the initial stages of conception till the
birth of the young one is called gestation. It is also termed as pregnancy. Gestation is
completed in about 280 days or 40 weeks in humans, 15 days in rat and 652-670 days in
elephant.
VI. Parturition: Parturition (child birth) is the act of expelling the fully formed young one from
the mother’s uterus at the end of gestation. Hormone oxytocin and relaxin help in parturition.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 8

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Q.What are the different methods of contraception? OR Methods to control fertilization/
birth control?
Ans. The methods or devices of birth control which deliberately prevent fertilization are referred
to as contraception. These methods are as follows:
1. Barrier method
a) Condoms: These are thin, strong rubber sheaths used by man to cover the erect penis. It is
simple but effective and widely used contraceptive that has no side effect.
b) Femidon: It is not a common contraceptive method. A femidon is a thin rubber or
polyurethane tube which fits inside vagina. It is used by female just before starting coital
activities.
c) Diaphragm: It is flexible rubber/ plastic cover that is fitted over the cervix in the female’s
vagina. It checks the entry of sperms into the uterus.
2. Chemical methods
a) Oral pills are also used to check ovulation. These are mainly hormonal preparations and
contain estrogen and progesterone. These prevent development of egg and ovulation by
inhibiting secretion of FSH. The oral pills act on hypothalamus, pituitary and the ovaries. They
are called oral contraceptives (OCS).
b) Vaginal pills are drug preparations which contain spermicidal chemicals. They are used before
copulation by women. These chemicals adhere to the mucous membrane and immobilize and kill
the sperms.
3. Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
These are contraceptive devices made of copper plastic or stainless steel. A copper-T is inserted
into uterus by a practicing doctor or a skilled nurse and left in place. It prevents implantation in
the uterus.
4. Natural method
These method includes abstinence, rhythm method (ovoid copulation around the time of
ovulation) and coitus interrupts (with drawal of penis before ejaculation).
5. Surgical method
Surgical method are permanent and safe. These methods include:
a) Vasectomy: This a small surgical operation performed in males. It involves removal of a small
portion of the sperm duct (or vas deferens) by surgical operation. The two cut ends are then
ligated (tied) with threads. This prevent the sperms from coming out.
b) Tubectomy: This is a surgical operation performed in females. It involves removal of a small
portion of the fallopian tubes by surgical operation. The cuts are then ligated with threads. It
prevents the egg (ovum) to enter the fallopian tube.
Q. What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?
i. To prevent pregnancy which may adversely affect the health, if the female is not fully
mature for it.
ii. To keep a check on population explosion by birth control measures so as to prevent the rapid
utilization of the natural resources.
iii. To improve their standard of life.
Q. How will an organism benefit if it reproduces through spores?
Ans. The benefits of reproduction through spores are as follows;
i. It is a simpler and faster mode of reproduction.
ii. Spores being small and light get easily dispersed through wind, water and animals. Thus,
dispersal of organism becomes easier.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 9

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
iii. Spores bear thick resistant covering to enable them to survive even in unfavourable
conditions.
Q. Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to new
individuals through regeneration?
Ans. Certain specialized cells found in simple organisms have the potential of giving rise to new
individuals, when they get detached from the parent body. This process is called regeneration.
Complex organisms lack such specialized cells, so when a mass of cells in complex organisms
gets detached, it fails to grow into a new individual.
Q. Why is vegetative propagation practiced for growing certain types of plants?
Ans. Vegetative propagation is practiced for growing certain types of plants for the following
reasons:
i. To preserve characters of the plants through successive generations.
ii. Seedless plants can be grown through vegetative reproduction.
iii. Through cutting and grafting methods flowers and fruits can be grown in a shorter time.
iv. It is a cheaper, easier and more rapid method of plant propagation.
Q. How is the process of pollination differ from fertilization?
Ans. Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
stigma of the same flower or another, whereas fertilization is a post pollination phase during
which fusion of male and female gametes occurs to form zygote.
Q. How are the modes of reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular organisms?
Ans. In unicellular organisms asexual mode of reproduction like fission, fragmentation and
sporulation are the main source of producing new organisms, however some forms exhibit
primitive type of sexual reproduction like conjugation in Paramecium and formation of
isogametes in Polystomella. In multicellular organism the primary source of reproduction is
through sexual means, although in relatively simpler multicellular forms reproduction can also
occurs by budding, regeneration, spore formation and vegetative propagation.
Q. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
Ans. During the process of sexual reproduction gametes are formed which involve DNA
copying, crossing over and fusion of gametes from biparental sources. Error in DNA copying and
crossing over produces different forms of variations in different individuals. Then the gametes of
two individuals with different types of variations combine, they create a new combination of
variants. Such variations not only enhance the survival chances for a species but also play an
important role in evolution. During asexual reproduction variations are not produced or even if
they appear they are very slow, thus are of no use in evolution and survival of species.
Q. Define reproductive health?
The reproductive life of humans begins at puberty and continues throughout the life in males and
up to menopause in females. Like physical, mental and social fitness, human beings need fitness
of reproductive life. This is called reproductive health. It includes such aspects that ensure a
responsible, safe and satisfying reproductive life.
Some aspects of reproductive health are as follows:
i. Marriage and child bearing during more mature stages of life are important for reproductive
health of society.
ii. Secondary school education which is lagging behind in many parts must be enhanced.
iii. Complications during pregnancy and child birth and unsafe abortion are the causes of death
of women.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 10

 10th Biology/How Do Organisms Reproduce 2020
Q. What do you mean by sexually transmitted diseases? Name some common STD’s?
The infectious and communicable diseases which are spread from an infected to a healthy person
by sexual contact are called S.T.D’s (Sexually transmitted diseases). The common among them
are:-
i) Gonorrhea: It is caused by bacterium (Nisseria gonorrhea). The victim feels burning
sensation and pain during urination. It causes inflammation of mucus membranes of
primogenital tract, throat, eyes. The disease is easily curable by antibiotics.
ii) Syphilis: It is caused by a bacterium (Troponema pallidum). The disease is the chronic
illness which affects mucus membrane of genitals, rectum and oral regions and causes
lesion. It is also easily cured by antibiotics.
iii) AIDS: Is caused by a virus known as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It is a fast
spreading incurable disease which weakness the body’s immune system. It is transmitted
only by the contact of infected cells containing blood of patient with the blood of healthy
person. It spreads by use of contaminated needles to inject drug or vaccine, use of
contaminated razors for shaving, transfusion of infected blood or blood products and sex
relations with the infected partner etc.

GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 11

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020

HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 4

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS
Genetics: (Gk. Genesis=descend) The branch of biology which deals with the study of heredity
and variation is known as genetics. The term ‘Genetics’ was coined by W. Bateson in 1906.
Heredity: The process of transmission of characters from parents to the offspring i.e. from one
generation to the next generations is called heredity or inheritance.
Variations: The differences shown by the individuals of a species and also by the offsprings of
same parents are referred to as variations.
Character: It is distinct well defined morphological or physiological feature of an Individual,
e.g., height.
Trait: It is a distinguishable expression of a character, e.g., tall or dwarfness (for the character of
height).
Gene: It is a unit of inheritance which determines a biological character of an organism.
Chemically, gene is a segment of DNA and forms the part of a chromosome.
Gene locus: It is t he portion or region on chromosomes representing a single gene. The alleles
of a gene are present on the same gene locus on the homologous chromosomes.
Alleles or Allelomorphs: Alleles are the alternative forms of the same gene. Each character is
controlled by a pair of genes. For example, pure tall or pure dwarf plants have same alleles i.e.
TT and tt, while hybrid plants have different alleles i.e. Tt.
Chromosomes: These are thread like structures present in the nucleus, composed of chromatin
material. (DNA-RNA protein complex)
Phenotype: It is observable characteristic of an individual, e.g., tall, dwarf.
Genotype: The genetic constitution of an organism.
Homozygous: The organism in which both the genes of a character are identical i.e. have same
alleles is said to be homozygous. e.g., TT, tt.
Heterozygous/Hybrid: The organism in which both the genes of a character are unlike i.e. have
dissimilar alleles in which one is dominant and one is recessive allele
Dominant gene: The gene which expresses itself in a heterozygous organism is called dominant
gene.
Recessive gene: The gene which is unable to express its effect in the presence of the dominant
gene is called recessive factor.
F1 Generation: (First Filial Generation):- It is the generation of hybrids produced from a cross
between genetically different individuals called parents.
F2 Generation: F2 or second filial generation is the generation of individuals which develops as
a result of inbreeding amongst individuals of F1 generation.
Monohybrid cross: A breeding experiment dealing with a single character is called a
monohybrid cross.
Dihybrid cross: A breeding experiment dealing with two characters at the same time is called
dihybrid cross.

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 1

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020

Q1 Explain, how variations accumulate during reproduction?

Characters are passed from one generation to another but next generation shows variations from
the previous one. The extent of variation depends on the type of reproduction.
i) Organisms reproducing asexually have minor differences between them, which may
appear due to small inaccuracies while DNA replication or copying.
ii) Organisms showing sexual reproduction show more variations. Though off springs
resemble their parents but their resemblance is never complete. Variations in different
organisms may be advantageous or disadvantageous. Therefore chances of survival of
these variations are not same. Selection of variations by environmental factors forms the
basis of evolution.
Q2. Why did Mendel choose Pea plant for his study?
Mendel choose garden pea (Pisum sativum) as plant material for his study because of following
reasons:
1. Normally the pea plant is self-fertilizing because petals enclose the reproductive organs
till fertilization.
2. The pea plant was easy to cultivate and from one generation to next took only a single
growing season.
3. Peas had many sharply defined inherited characteristics such as colour and shape of
seeds.
4. Cross pollination could be achieved easily because flowers are adequate in size and easy
to handle.
5. Flowers are bisexual with each flower having both the male and the female parts.
6. A pea plant produces a large number of seeds in one generation.
Q3. Explain in brief the procedure adopted by Mendel during his experimentations.
Mendel selected seven visible characters, each with two contrasting traits. They were given
symbols, dominant with capital alphabet symbol (e.g. tallness T) while the recessive is given
small alphabet symbol (e.g. dwarfness t). All the plants of parent (P) generation were genetically
pure (pure line). Mendel performed reciprocal crosses between plants having alternate traits of a
character e.g. tall and dwarf. For this he removed anthers (Emasculation) from 50% of the
flowers of each type and used them as female parents. Pollens from the other trait were collected
and dusted over the stigma of these flowers. The pollinated flowers were covered with paper
bags and allowed to form pods with seeds. The seeds of the cross were collected and sown next
year. The plants were hybrid in nature. They constituted the first filial generation or F1
generation.
Q4. State the principles (laws) of inheritance given by Mendel.
Ans Following are the principles of inheritance given by Mendel:
1. Principle of dominance: According to law of dominance, only one member of
contrasting pair of genes express itself while other remain hidden. The gene that
expresses itself is called dominant while the other which is unable to express itself in
presence of dominant gene is termed as recessive.
Example: When homozygous (pure line) tall pea plants are crossed with homozygous
dwarf plant, the plants that appeared in F1 generation are tall, although they have received
a factor from dwarf plant. However, this recessive hidden character reappeared,
unchanged in F2 generation.
Importance of law of dominance:- The phenomenon of dominance has a practical

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 2

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
importance as many harmful characters are recessive and remain hidden by normal
dominant characters in hybrids. In human beings diabetes and hemophilia are recessive
characters.
2. Principle of segregation or (Law of Purity of gametes):- This law is also known as
Mendel’s second law of inheritance. It states that when a pair of allele is brought together
in a hybrid, the members of the allelic pair remain together without mixing and separate
or segregate from each other at the time of gamete formation by hybrid.
3. Principle (Law) of Independent Assortment: According to law of independent
assortment, the factors (genes) of different traits are independent of each other in their
distribution into gametes and into the progeny. In other words, if we consider the
inheritance of two or more genes at a time, their distribution in the gametes and in the
progeny of subsequent generations is independent of each other.
Q5. What is the importance of Mendelism?
Ans Following are points which illustrate the importance of Mendelism:
1. Improvement of plants: Hybridization is used for obtaining improved varieties of plants.
This process results in combinations of desirable characters of two or more species or
varieties. In other words, desirable characters of one species are transferred to the other.
2. Improvement of animals: Mendelism has enabled the animal breeders to improve the
races of domestic animals. Hybridization through artificial insemination has proved
highly successful in improving the quality of milk, egg and other animal products.
3. Improvement of human race: Laws of heredity postulated by Mendel are equally
applicable to mankind.
4. Disputed parentage: Study of inheritance of the blood group can solve the disputed
parentage of a child.
5. Genetic counselling: With the knowledge of Mendelism, genetic counsellor can predict
the possibility of hereditary defect in next generations.
Q6. How do traits get expressed? Or How do genes control the traits or characteristics?
Ans. Inheritance of traits are controlled by genes. A gene is the section of DNA on a
chromosome. A gene carries information for a particular type of protein to be synthesized. The
protein may be an enzyme which controls appearance of a particular character.
For example: Inheritance of tallness in plants. A plant has gene for the trait “tallness”. This gene
will give instructions to the plant cells to make a lot of plant growth hormone. The gene codes
for formation of a protein which controls the production of growth hormone. Thus due to
formation of excess growth hormone, the plant will become tall.
On the other hand, if the plant has the gene for dwarfness, then less growth hormone will be
produced due to which plant will become dwarf. In this way genes control the traits or
characteristics.
Q7. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or recessive?
Ans. Mendel showed that when two true-breeding plants of contrasting traits for the same
character are crossed the progeny exhibits only one of the traits. He demonstrated this using the
monohybrid cross. Monohybrid cross is a cross between two plants in order to study the
inheritance of a single character.

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 3

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
For example, Mendel selected true breeding tall (TT) and
dwarf (tt) pea plants. Then, he crossed these two plants. The
seeds formed after fertilization were grown and these plants
that were formed represent the first filial or F1 generation. All
the F1 plants obtained were tall. Then, Mendel self-pollinated
the F1 plants and observed that all plants obtained in the F2
generation were not tall. Instead, one-fourth of the F2 plants
were short. From this experiment, Mendel concluded that the
F1 tall plants were not true breeding. They were carrying traits
of both short height and tall height. They appeared tall only
because the tall trait is dominant over the dwarf trait.
Q8. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits are
inherited independently?
Ans. Mendel’s dihybrid cross demonstrate independent assortment of genes. A dihybrid cross is
a cross between two plants with alternate traits for two
characters. For example, Mendel crossed pea plants having
round green seeds (RRyy) with pea plants having wrinkled
yellow seeds (rrYY). Since the F1 plants are formed after
crossing pea plants having green round seeds and pea plants
having yellow wrinkled seeds, F1 generation will have the
dominant trait for both these characters in them (Law of
Dominance). In pea, yellow seed colour and round seeds are
dominant characters, Therefore, the F1 plants will have yellow
round seeds. Then this F1 progeny was self-pollinated and the
F2 progeny was found to have yellow round seeds, green round
seeds, yellow wrinkled seeds, and green wrinkled seeds in the
ratio of 9:3:3:1.
Independent inheritance of two different traits: The appearance
of two new variants (different from the parental types) in the F2 generation showed that the
genes for the two characters are assorted independently. In the above cross, more than two
factors are involved, and these are independently inherited.
Q 9. How is sex determined in human beings?
Ans. The process, by which the sex of a person is
determined as it begins life, is called sex determination.
Sex chromosomes determine the sex in human beings. In
males there are 44+XY chromosomes, whereas, in
females there are 44+XX chromosomes. 44 represent
autosomes and X and Y chromosomes determine the sex
in human beings. The sex chromosomes separate at
meiosis just as the other chromosomes. Thus, two types
of sperms are formed in males. One type (50%) will be having X chromosome, the other type

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 4

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
(50%) will be having Y chromosome. In females, gametes (ova) are of one type and contain X
chromosome. Thus, females are homogametic.
The sex is established at the time of fertilization. If male gamete having Y chromosome
undergoes fusion with female gamete having X-chromosome, the zygote will have XY
chromosome and this gives rise to a male child. If male gamete having X-chromosome
undergoes fusion with female gamete having X chromosome, the zygote will have XX
chromosome and this gives rise to a female child.
Q10. What is Evolution?
Ans. The word evolution has been derived from the Latin word “evolvere” which means to
unroll or unfold. It can be defined as the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the
primitive organisms over millions of years in which new species are produced. The changes
occur due to accumulation of variations. Variations develop during reproduction due to errors in
DNA copying or mutations, chance separation of chromosomes during gametogenesis, crossing
over and chance pairing of chromosomes.
Q11. What is Natural selection?
Ans. Natural selection is the process of evolution of a species whereby characteristics which help
an organism to survive and reproduce are passed on to their offspring and those characteristics
which do not help are not passed on. The process of sexual reproduction results in the formation
of few green beetles instead of red beetles. These green beetles were able to pass the colour on to
its progeny. So that progeny beetles are green. These green beetles cannot be seen by crows. So,
they are not eaten. As a result, with passage of time, there will be more number of green beetles
than red beetles. In this case, natural selection is directing evolution in the beetle population.
The natural selection is exerted by the crows. The more crows there are, the more red beetles
would be eaten, and the more would be the population of green beetles.
Q12. What is genetic drift?
Ans. It refers to the elimination of certain genes in a small population either due to inbreeding
causing permanent fixation of some genes or death of a small section of population by natural
calamity. Thus, the random changes in the allele frequency occurring by chance alone are called
genetic drift.
For example the process of reproduction of red beetles results in the formation of a colour variant
i.e., blue colour beetles. These beetles were also able to pass the colour on to its progeny, so that
all its progeny beetles are blue. These beetles can be seen by crows, so they are eaten. In initial
stages there are more number of red beetles in comparison to blue beetles in a population. But at
this point, an elephant comes by and stamps on the bushes where the beetles live. This kills most
of the beetles. But by chance, the few beetles that have survived are mostly blue. These beetles
(blue) will now slowly increase their number. In this case, the colour change gave no survival
advantage. It is simply a matter of accidental survival of beetles of one colour that changed the
common characteristics of the resultant population. This random change in the gene frequency
occurring by chance irrespective of its being beneficial or harmful is called genetic drift. For this
reason, in small populations, some unfavourable characters may also be fixed or beneficial
characters may be lost.
Q13. What are acquired traits?
Ans. Acquired traits are the traits which are acquired by organisms in the life time in response to
environment. Acquired traits are not inherited to the future generations as these traits don’t
develop with change in genes or DNA. They disappear with the death of the individual, e.g.,
muscular body of an athlete, learning of music, loss of weight due to starvation etc.

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 5

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
Q14. What are inherited traits?
Ans. Inherited traits are those traits which are controlled by specific genes and are passed on
from one generation to next generation. Any alteration in the genes will be inherited to next
generation through germ cells and will cause variation. Eg; Eye colour, skin colour in etc in
humans .Seed colour, height of plant etc in pea plant.
Q15. Define variations? Enumerate two types of variations.
Ans. The differences shown by the individuals of a species and also by the off springs of same
parents are referred to as variations. On the basis of nature of cells where variations occur,
variations are of two types:
1. Somatogenic variations
2. Genetic variation
1. Somatogenic variations:
These are characterized by:
i) These occur only in the somatic (non-germinal) cells of an individual.
ii) These are acquired during the life span of an individual.
iii) These are result of environmental factors like changes in light, temperature, food
availability, etc.
iv) In these, DNA of the germ cells is not changed so are non-inheritable and are lost with
the death of an individual.
v) These do not play any role in evolution.
2. Genetic variations:
These are characterized by:
i) These occur in the germinal cells of reproductive organs of an individual.
ii) These occur at the time of formation of gametes in the reproductive organs.
iii) These are developed either due to mutations (sudden changes in the genetic material) or
recombination of genes.
iv) These are inheritable variations so are transmitted from one generation to another.
v) These play an important role in evolution.
Example: Polydactly (extra fingers) in man. Sickle-cell anaemia.
Q16. Define a species?
Ans A group of individuals which are similar in structure and which can breed together to
produce fertile offsprings is called a species.
Q17. Define speciation. Explain how speciation occurs.
Ans. The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known as
speciation. New species are formed when the population of same species splits into two separate
groups which then get isolated from each other geographically by the barriers such as mountain
ranges, rivers or the seas. The geographical isolation of the two groups of population leads to
their reproductive isolation due to which no genes are exchanged between them. However,
breeding continues within the isolated population producing more and more generations. Over
the generations the processes of genetic drift and natural selection operate in different ways in
the two isolated groups of population and make them more and more different from each other.
After thousands of years the individuals of these isolated groups of population become so
different that they won’t be capable of reproducing with each other even if they happen to meet
again.
Q18. Describe the types of speciation.
Ans. There are two types of speciation:

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 6

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
1. Gradual Speciation.
2. Instantaneous or Abrupt Speciation.
1. Gradual Speciation: It is the gradual divergence of populations due to accumulation of
variations over a long period of time. It operates through subpopulations. It is again of two types:
i. Allopatric Speciation.
ii. Sympatric Speciation.
i) Allopatric Speciation
This occurs when an original population becomes separated into two or more sub-populations
due to development of certain geographical barriers which impose the restrictions on the gene
flow between these sub-populations, and they become reproductively isolated. The geographical
barriers include a creeping glacier or an ocean or a mountain range or a big desert. Geographical
isolation may also be achieved by migration of some individuals to a new area which is
geographical isolated from original range. These sub-populations become more and more
different due to processes of genetic drift and natural selection which operate differently in these
different geographical areas. Finally, such subpopulations become reproductively isolated and
become different species, called allopatric or geographical species.
Example: Darwin’s finches (A group of passerine birds discovered by Darwin on Galapagos
Islands) are geographically and reproductively isolated from related birds of South American
mainland.
ii) Sympatric Speciation
It occurs within the same geographical area and within original population. But the sub-
population becomes reproductively isolated by ecological barriers (having different habits) or
ethological barriers (different breeding behaviours).
Example: - (i) Pig frog and Gopher frog occur in different habitats in same pond so are
productively isolated from each other and are different species. Different species of sticklebacks
(fishes) have different modes of nest building and courtship dancing behaviour.
2. Instantaneous or Abrupt Speciation
It is the sudden development of new species and operates through individuals so is not a
populational phenomenon. It mainly occurs through sudden, large and inheritable changes in
genetic material (DNA), called mutations. Individuals with mutations are called mutants. The
changes in genetic material may involve one or more chromosomes of germ cells of an
individual. Such mutations can produce sibling species which are morphologically similar but
reproductively isolated.
Examples
i) Appearance of a short-legged sheep variety called Ancon sheep from long-legged parents
in a single generation.
ii) Appearance of green beetles from the red beetles by mutations followed by strong natural
selection so that green beetles breed only among themselves but fail to breed with the
parental red-coloured beetles.
Q19. Explain Darwin’s Theory of Evolution.
Ans. The theory states that organic evolution occurs through natural selection and accumulation
of inheritable variations which provide structural and functional superiority to some individuals
over others in their survival and reproduction. The important features of the theory are as
follows:
i. Over-Production: All organisms produce much more offspring’s than can actually
survive. A fern plant may produce 50 million spores, and an insect like a housefly may

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 7

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
lay thousands of eggs.
ii. Limited Food and Space: There is limitation of food and space on earth. Therefore,
populations of different species cannot increase beyond a certain limit.
iii. Struggle for Existence: There is a competition amongst organisms to obtain optimum
resources. The competition is maximum amongst members of the same species, i.e.,
intraspecific competition.
iv. Variations: A large number of variations occur in size, structure, physiology and behavior
of individuals of a species. The variations are of three types- useful, neutral and harmful.
v. Natural Selection (Survival of the Fittest): In the struggle for existence, only those
individuals survive and reproduce which have the most useful variations.
vi. Inheritance of Useful Variations: Individuals with useful variations reproduce and
transfer the variations to the next generation. Next generation repeats the process of
formation of new variations and natural selection. There is, therefore, a continuous
selection.
vii. Formation of New Species: Accumulation of variations produces a completely new
species.
Q20. Explain the origin of life by chemical evolution as suggested by Oparin and Haldane.
Or What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter?
Ans. Life originated on earth through chemosynthesis or formation and coming together of
biochemicals. It is called naturalistic theory or theory of chemical origin of life. The theory was
given by Oparin (1924) and J.B.S. Haldane (1929).
At the time of formation of earth lighter elements interacted and formed water (H2O), methane
(CH4), ammonia (NH3), molecular hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). They formed a
reducing hot atmosphere of earth. It was exposed to ultraviolet radiations, cosmic rays, lightning
and hot lava from volcanoes. Methane, ammonia, hydrogen and other molecules interacted and
formed sugars, amino acids, alcohols, fatty acids, nucleotides and other biochemicals. With
further interactions and polymerization, complex organic molecules were formed. Their
aggregation formed coacervates or colloidal complexes that developed covering
membrane and nucleic acids to produce protocells or primitive cells.
Experimental Proof: Miller and Urey (1953) assembled an apparatus to provide conditions
similar to those of early earth. They took a mixture of ammonia, methane and hydrogen (2: 2: 1)
and water and exposed it to electric sparks, heating and cooling to the resembles lightning and
provide temperature just below 10000C. After one week, 15% of carbon from methane had been
converted into organic compounds of sugars, organic acids, purines and pyrimidines. It clearly
proved that organic compounds or building blocks of life developed from inanimate matter in the
remote past when the hot earth was cooling.
Q21. What are homologous organs, analogous and vestigial organs?
Ans. Homologous Organs: (Owen 1843) The organs of different species which look different
and perform different functions, but have the same basic structure and similar embryonic origin
are called homologous organs.
For example; The forelimbs of frog, lizard, bird and human. They appear quite different
externally. In frog, the for limbs take part in absorbing shock at the time of landing after a leap.
In lizard, they help in creeping. In birds they take part in flying. In human begins they are
involved in grasping. The forelimbs of all these animals have a similar basic plan of structure but
have different functions.
Analogous Organs: (Owen 1843). The organs which have the same function and are

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 8

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
superficially alike but quite different in fundamental structure and embryonic origin are called
analogous organs.
For example; Wings of insects, bats and birds perform the same function of fight. They have a
nearly similar appearance. However, the wings of these three types of animals are structurally
quite different.
Vestigial Organs: The organs which are present in reduced form and do not perform any function
in the possessor but are fully developed and functional in related animals are called vestigial
organs. e;g tailbone, wisdom tooth, body hair in male ear muscles, vermiform appendix.
Q22.How homologous and analogous organs provide evidence for evolution?
Ans. The presence of homologous organs in different animals provide evidence for evolution by
telling us that they are derived from the same ancestor who had the same design of the organs on
which all the homologous organs are based.
For example; the presence of homologous forelimbs in humans, a lizard, a frog, a bird and a bat
indicate that all these forelimbs have evolved from a common ancestral animal which had a basic
design limb.
The presence of analogous organs provides evidence for the evolution in another way. Analogous
organs do not indicate a common ancestor for the organisms but it indicates that even the
organisms having the organs with different structures can adapt to perform similar functions for
their survival under harsh environmental conditions.
Q23. What are Fossils? Explain how fossils provide evidence for evolution?
Ans. Fossils (L.fossils-dug up) are the remains or impressions of the hard parts of the organisms
that once existed on the earth. They occur in sedimentary rocks, peat, amber, asphalt, lava and
snow. They represent the ancestors of plants and animals that are alive today. Branch of biology
that deals with the study of fossils is called paleontology.
Fossils provide a direct evidence of evolution. They are often called written documents of
evolution. Fossil record shows that different types of organisms appeared at different times.
Many of them became extinct later on but some continue to live in same or modified form. Fossil
history of some animals like horse has been discovered. How birds arose from reptiles had also
been found out with the discovery of fossil Archaeopteryx. The fossils of past organisms found
under deep layers of the earth were simple than the organisms found in above layers which
shows changes and evolution in the organisms.
Fossils of prokaryotes have been found in older rocks than those of eukaryotes. Invertebrates
were formed before vertebrates. In vertebrates, fishes appeared earlier than amphibians,
amphibians earlier than reptiles, reptiles earlier than birds and mammals. This is how fossils
provide evidence for evolution has occurred.
Q24. Enumerate the procedures of determining the ages of fossils.
Ans. Age of the fossil will be the same as that of the rock in which it is found. It is found out by
two methods, relative and absolute.
Relative Dating: Fossils closer to the surface are more recent than the fossils present midway
and the ones present midway more recent than the fossils present in deeper layer.
Absolute Dating (Radioactive dating): Fossil or piece of fossil containing rock is analyzed for
content of uranium and lead, radioactive potassium and argon or contents of radioactive carbon
(14C). Carbon dating is meant for calculating the age of a recent fossil. Uranium-lead dating and
potassium – argon dating are used where the age of fossil is several millions of years. Electron
spin resonance is the latest technique to determine the age of the fossil directly without breaking
any part.

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 9

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
Q25. Evolution by Stages
Ans. There has never been an evolution of an organ from a single DNA change or mutation. It is
because organs are complex and are genetically controlled by a number of genes. Therefore,
evolution of new organs always occurs in stages. To understand evolutionary stages let us think
about origin of some organs. The most primitive eyes developed in flatworms, e.g., Planaria.
They are eye spots which are photosensitive. The eye spot help the animals to be aware of the
environment. In insects both simple eyes as well as compound eyes evolved. Compound eyes
give mosaic vision. Perfect eyes developed in mollucs , e.g., Octopus have all the components of
vertebrate eye but the origin is quite different, i.e., from skin. In vertebrates an eye develops from
two different germinal layers (ectoderm and mesoderm). It is clear that the eye has evolved
through different pathways and different intermediate stages in different groups. The
intermediate stages were useful to the animals in making them aware of the surroundings. Limbs
have evolved from swimming paddles formed from lobed fins of the lung fishes. Wings have
been formed by modification of fore-limbs that were covered by feathers. Feathers evolved in
dinosaurs for providing insulation during cold. In members of the dromaesaur family of small
dinosaurs, feathers have been found to be present all over the body as well as over the fore limbs.
These feathered fore-limbs helped the small dinosaurs in longer jumps, followed by gliding and
then flying with the conversion of fore-limbs into wings.
Q 26. What is artificial selection? Discuss the role artificial selection in the evolution of
different types of vegetables.
Ans. Artificial selection is the process by which man selects traits useful to him for improving
the qualities of domesticated plants and animals. Man selects the individuals having the desired
traits and separates them from those which do not possess such characters. The selected
individuals are interbreed. This process of artificial selection when repeated for many
generations, produce a new breed with desired traits. In this way, wild forms are modified
through artificial selection.
For example, Wild mustard has been extensively selected and bred for certain traits. Broccoli,
cauliflower, kale, and cabbage are all related to the wild mustard plant. By artificial selection, we
get broccoli from flower suppression of the wild mustard and kale from its leaf enlargement.
What this means is that wild mustard plants with larger leaves were selected for and eventually
developed into a plant that now has very large, tasty leaves.
Q27. What is the role of DNA changes in determining evolutionary relationship?
Ans. Every mutation or change in trait is caused by change in the DNA representing a gene. All
the changes that an organism has undergone in its evolution is represented in the form of changes
in DNA. Comparison of DNA of two species can indicate the different changes in their DNA
during their evolution. The method is used in determining evolutionary relationship of different
organisms.
Q28. Why should evolution not be equated with progress?
Ans. Evolution should not be considered equal to progress as there is no real progress. It is just
the production of diversity of life and shaping of this diversity by environment. the only progress
in evolution is that more and more complex body designs are formed. It is not necessary that one
species has to get eliminated to give rise to new one. If it would have been progress then the
older and simple species like bacteria and other prokaryotes may not be still present. Moreover it
is not necessary that newly emerged species is better than the older one.
Q29. Human evolution
Ans. Human evolution has been studied by using various tools of tracing evolutionary

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 10

 10th Biology/HERIDITY AND EVOLUTION 2020
relationships like excavating (digging earth) carbon dating, studying fossils as well as
determining DNA sequences. The study reveals that, there is a great diversity of human forms
and features across the planet. Infact all human beings belong to single specie Homo sapiens.
The scientific study of tracing of human evolution is called anthropology. The earliest
members of Homo sapiens have been traced back to Africa. A couple of hundred thousand years
ago, some of our ancestors left Africa while others continued living there while the residents
spread across Africa. The migrants slowly spread across the planet from Africa to west Asia, and
then to Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia. They travelled down the islands of Indonesia and the
Philippines to Australia and America. These first human types evolved into modern man, Homo
sapiens, through a number of intermediate human types:
1. Homo erectus erectus (Java man)
2. Homo erectus perkinensis (Perking man)
3. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man)
4. Homo sapiens fossils (Cro-Magnon man).
In the course of their evolution, they went forwards and backwards, with groups sometimes,
separating from each other, sometimes coming back to mix with each other, even moving in and
out of Africa. Modern man evolved from Cro-Magnon man about 25,000 years ago and spread
all over the world about 10,000 years ago.

ZEENAT COACHING/GBHS AARATH/BILAL SIR NOTES Page 11

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
BIODEGRADABLE SUBSTANCES:-

Substances that are broken down by the biological processes are said to be
biodegradable. These substances are decomposed through the actions of fungi,
bacteria and other living organisms. Temperature and sunlight also play important
roles in the decomposition of biodegradable plastics and other substances.
A ‘biodegradable’ has the ability to break down, safely and relatively quickly, by
biological means into the raw materials of nature and disappear into the environment.
These products can be solids biodegrading into the soil or liquids biodegrading into
water. Biodegradable plastic is intended to break up when exposed to micro-organisms.
Examples: Food refuse, tree leaves urine and faecal matter, sewage agricultural
residue, paper, wood, cloth, cow-dung, etc.
NON-BIODEGRADABLE SUBSTANCES:-
Substances that are not broken down by biological processes. These substances may
be in solid, liquid or gaseous form. These substances are inert and simply persist in
the environment for a long time or may harm the various members of the ecosystem.
Example; these includes DDT, insecticides, pesticides, mercury, lead, arsenic,
aluminium, plastics, polythene bags, glass, radioactive wastes.
These non-biodegradable wastes are major pollutants of the environment.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF BIODEGRADABLE AND NON-BIODEGRADABLE SUBSTANCE:-
1. This waste destroyed the natural beauty and surroundings become dirty.
2. Decomposition of these wastes results in the production of foul smell, which
spreads to surroundings areas.
3. These wastes may also block the drains creating pools of waste which becomes
the breeding sites of mosquitoes. The letter is carriers of diseases like malaria
and dengue.
EFFECTS OF NON-BIODEGRADABLE WASTES:-
1. These wastes are very harmful. They enter the food chains and their
concentration goes on increasing from one trophic level to the next. This leads to
biological magnification and result in harmful effects in human beings and other
animals.
2. Dumping these wastes affects the soil fertility and subsequently reduces the crop
yield.
3. These substances are inert and persist in the environment for a long time or may
harm the various members of the ecosystem
Difference between Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable wastes:

1 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
Biodegradable Wastes Non-biodegradable
1. The wastes are broken down 1. The wastes are not broken down
naturally by microbial action by the microbes.
2. Biodegradation forms harmless 2. No such action is possible.
and nonpoisonous products.
3. They release raw materials back to 3. They do not release raw materials.
nature.
4. They pollute the environment only 4. Non-biodegradable wastes pollute
when they are produced in the environment even in small
quantity beyond the capacity of quantity.
environment to degrade them.
5. They seldom accumulate though 5. They continue to accumulate.
their concentration can increase.
6. Bio-concentration does not occur. 6. Bio-concentration or
biomagnifications occurs when
7. Recycling is possible both wastes enter food chains.
naturally or through human 7. Recycling is possible only through
efforts. human efforts.
ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem can be defined as followings:
Ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of the biosphere consisting of a
community of living beings and the physical environment; both interacting exchanging
materials between them also, an ecosystem is a relatively self containing and distinct
community of organisms (plants and animals) and their environment. In an ecosystem,
energy and matter are continuously exchanged between living and non-living
components.
An ecosystem can be both natural or man-made. Some examples of natural
ecosystems are grass land, a forest, a sea, a river, a desert, a mountain, a pond, a lake
etc.
The desert, grass land and mountain represent the terrestrial ecosystem (land-
based ecosystem).
The ponds, rivers, lakes and sea represent the aquatic ecosystem (water- based
ecosystem).
Man – made or artificial ecosystems are garden, crop fields, park aquarium, etc.

2 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM:-
Every ecosystem has two main components:
(i) Abiotic components and (ii) Biotic components.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:-
These are non- living components of an ecosystem. These include:
Physical environment:
(i) Edaphic factors like soil texture, topography, water and air.
(ii) Inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, water,
phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and calcium. These are involved in the cyclic
of materials in the ecosystem.
(iii) Organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. These largely
form the living body and link the abiotic and biotic components.
Climatic factors: these are sunlight, temperature, pressure, humidity, moisture,
rainfall, etc. these factors affect the distribution of the organisms.
BIOTIC COMPONENTS:-
The biotic component of an ecosystem is a community of living organisms (like plants,
animals and microbes). The biotic community of an ecosystem includes the following:
PRODUCERS:-
These are the organisms which are able to synthesize their food. They are mainly green
plants which make their food with the help of solar energy. All green plants have the
capability to absorb the sun energy and convert simple inorganic raw materials like
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, which give them food. This process is
called photosynthesis. Therefore, all green plants are called producers. They are also
called autotrophs.

CONSUMERS:-
They are organisms which consume other organisms or their products as their food. All
animals belong to this category. The consumers depend upon producers for their food
directly or indirectly. They get their food either by eating other organisms or their
products. For example, man, goat, deer, fish, lion, cow, buffalo, etc., are common
consumers.
The consumers can be classified into the following three types:
(i) HERBIOURS:- These are organisms (animals) which get their food by eating
the producers (or plants) directly. Herbivores are also called first order

3 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
consumers. Some common examples of herbivores are: deer, rabbit, rat,
squirrel, goat, cattle, etc.
(ii) CARNIVORES:- These are organisms (animals) which consume other animals.
Therefore, carnivores feed on the flesh of herbivores. These are also called
primary carnivores or second order consumers. Some common examples are
snake, wild cat, jackal, frog, some birds, fishes, etc.
There are animals which pray upon primary carnivores. They are called second order
consumers or third order consumers. For example, owl, peacock, tiger, lion, etc. some
second order carnivores may be eaten by third order carnivores. The carnivores which
are not preyed upon further are called top carnivores. For example, lion is a top
carnivore.
(iii) OMNIVORES:- The organisms which feed on both plants and animals are
called omnivores. Human beings are common example of omnivores because
they eat both plants (e.g., pulses, grams, oilseeds, fruit, etc.) animal products
(milk, meat, egg, etc).

DECOMPOSERS:-
These are organisms which feed on the dead bodies of plants and animals. These are
micro-organisms like bacteria and fungi which break down the complex organic
compounds present in dead organisms like plants and their products into a simpler
substance. These are also known as micro-organisms or saprotrophs. These are also
called reducers.
IMPORTANCE OF DECOMPOSERS:-
(I) Decomposers help in disposing off the wastes and dead bodies of plants and
animals. Therefore, they clean the environment and create space for living of
newer generations of organisms.
(II) The decomposers release minerals and other raw materials trapped in organic
matter. These are picked up by plants. This also help to maintain the fertility
of soil.
(III) The decomposers produce some acids which are useful in solubilisation of
some minerals.
(IV) Decomposers help in recycling the materials in the biosphere so that the
process of life may go on and on like an unending chain.
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:-
(i) Ecosystem indicates available solar energy and the efficiency of an ecosystem
to trap the same.

4 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
(ii) It gives information about the available essential minerals and their recycling
periods.
(iii) It provides knowledge about the web of interactions and interrelationship
amongst the various populations as well as between the populations and the
abiotic environment.
(iv) It helps human beings to know about conservation of resources, protection
from pollution and inputs required for maximizing productivity.
(v) In the ecosystem, two processes of energy flow and biogeochemical cycles
(nutrients movement) proceed side by side. The energy flow is uni-directional
while the movement of nutrients is cyclic.
FOOD CHAIN:-
In the biosphere, food relationships exist between different living organisms. They
interact with one another for their food preparation as well as food consumption. Some
organisms consume other organisms and they are in turn consumed by others, thereby
forming a chain. In this chain, energy transfer takes place, and it is called a food chain.
A food chain can be defined as follows:
Food chain is sequential process which represents “who eats whom”. In terms of
energy, sequence of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes
another organism to transfer food energy is called a food chain. In a food chain, uni-
directional transfer of energy takes place.
EXAMPLES OF FOOD CHAINS:-
Simple food chain operating in a grass land or forest:

Grass Deer Lion

(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore)

In this food chain, grasses represent the producers (first tropic level). Grass synthesize
their own food by the process of photosynthesis. Grass is eaten up by deer, which
represent the herbivores or the primary consumers. Deer in turn are consumed by
lions, the carnivores or the secondary consumers.

A food chain in grassland which has four steps is:

Grass Insect Frog Eagle

(Producers) (Herbivores) (Carnivores) (Secondary Carnivore)

5 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
SIGNIFICANCE OF FOOD CHAINS:-
(i) The study of food chains helps in understanding food relationships and
interactions among the various organisms in an ecosystem. The food chains
transfer energy and materials between various living components of an
ecosystem.
(ii) The food chains transfer energy and materials between various living
components of an ecosystem or biosphere.
(iii)The food chains give dynamicity to an ecosystem or biosphere.
(iv) The movement of toxic substances like pesticides, weedicides, etc., through food
chains can prove very harmful.
FOOD WEB:-
The various food chains, operating within an ecosystem or the biosphere cannot
function in isolation. Many of these food chains are interconnected by organisms which
are a part of more than one food chains form a network with interconnections and
linkages.
The network of various food chains which are interconnected at various tropic
levels is called food web.
In a food web, one organism may occupy position is more than one food chain.
An organism can obtain its food from different sources and in turn may be eaten up by
different types of organisms.

TROPHIC LEVELS:-
The various levels or steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food or energy takes
place from one generation to another are called trophic levels. The number of triohic
levels in a food is equal to the number of trophic levels in a food chain is equal to the
number of steps in the food chain.
The various trophic levels are given below:
i. The plant or the producers constitute the first trophic level.
ii. The herbivores or the primary consumers form the second trophic level.
iii. Carnivores or the secondary consumers make up the third trophic level.
iv. Large carnivores or the taritiary consumers which feed upon the small carnivores
constitute the fourth trophic level.

FLOW OF ENERGY:-
Energy is used and conveyed from one trophic level to another is a food chain. This is
called flow of energy. Green plants capture about 1% of the solar energy incident on

6 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
the earth through the biochemical process of photosynthesis. A part of this trapped
energy is used by plants in performing their metabolic activities and some energy is
released at heat into the atmosphere. The remaining energy is chemical energy stored
in the plants as ‘carbohydrates’.
When plants are eaten up by herbivores, the chemical energy stored in the plants
is transferred to these animals. These animals (herbivores) utilize some of this energy
for metabolic activities, some energy is released as heat and the remaining energy is
stored.
The process of energy transferred is similarly repeated with carnivores and so on.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY TRANSFER:-
The following are the characteristics of energy transfer in the biosphere:
(i) Energy is supplied by the sun and it is not created in the biosphere. Energy is
only converted from one form to another in the biosphere.
(ii) There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next in a
food chain.
(iii) At each trophic level, some of the energy is utilized by the organisms for their
metabolic activities.
(iv) At each trophic level, some amount of energy is utilized for the composition of
decomposers.
(v) At each tropical level, there is loss of energy, which goes into the environment
and remains un-utilized.
(vi) At each trophic level, the amount of energy available is less than that
available at the previous level.
TEN PERCENT LAW:-
According to this law only ten percent of the energy entering a particular trophic level
is stored and the remaining is lost during energy transfer. In the words, the energy
available at each successive trophic level is only 10 percent of the previous level.
e.g.,
Sun energy 1000 J Plant 10 J Dear 1J Lion

For example, suppose 1000 J of solar energy is received by green plants, then only 1%
of solar energy available on earth is utilized by plants. So only 10 J (1% of 1000 J) is
trapped by plants and the rest 990 J of energy is lost to the environment. So, plant
utilizes only 10 J of energy.
Next, only 10% off the 10 J energy of plants, that is, 1 J, is available to the
herbivore animal while 9 J is lost to the environment.

7 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY
Against, just 1% of the 1 J of energy of herbivore animals is utilized by carnivore
animals. Thus, carnivore animals have only 0.1 J of energy while 0.9 J is lost to the
environment.
DEPLETION IN OZONE LAYER:-
The upper reaches of the atmosphere extend up to 600 km above the earth. At about
10-50 km above the earth is a region called the ozonosphere, where there is a relative
abundance of the gas called ozone. The ozone layer protects life on the earth by
blocking most of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays.
The ozone molecule is made up of three atoms of oxygen. The chlorine atom
attacks ozone and takes one oxygen atom away from ozone, to chlorine monoxide
combines with another oxygen atom to form oxygen and chlorine.
When chlorine becomes free, it will combine with another molecule of ozone and
break the bonds between its oxygen atoms, thus, reducing the amount of ozone. The
newly formed oxygen molecules cannot prevent the sun’s ultraviolent rays from
reaching the earth. Exposure to these rays can lead to various diseases like cataract
and skin cancer.
The source of chlorine are compounds like fluorocarbon and chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC). Chlorofluorocarbon wafts up to the atmosphere. Very high up in the
atmosphere, this compound breaks up and starts the demolition of ozone.

BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION:-
Chemicals like DDT are widely used to kill pests. These chemicals can get into the food
chain and cause great harm. They enter the food chain through aquatic life forms like
plankton, which are eaten by fishes, which in turn might be eaten by birds and other
consumers higher up in the food chain. These chemicals are not metabolized in the
body of animals and hence accumulate in their tissues. As the chemical passes on
from one level to the next in the food chain, the concentration of the chemical retained
by organisms at each level increases. This is called biological magnification. This kind
of process was observed around Lake Michigan in North America. DDT was sprayed
extensively around the lake in 1942 to kill mosquitoes, which caused malaria. After
almost twenty years, i.e., in the early sixties, a dramatic fall in the number of pelicans
(a type of bird) was noticed.

MODES OF WASTE DISPOSAL :

The disposal of waste should be done scientifically. There are different
techniques of waste disposal, which depends upon the nature of the waste.

8 Designed by: Hilala Jan

CLASS 10th OUR ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY

Most solid wastes are buried in urban areas as land fills.

Some solid wastes like plastics, metals, papers are recycled. Industrial wastes
are treated in special plants and valuable wastes are recycled.

Domestic wastes are used as manure for plants, including trees after
compositing.

Waste coming out of industries, such as metals can be melted and recycled into
solid metal once again.

Molten plastic waste mixed with asphalt can also be used for making roads.
These reduce pollution.

The volume of the waste can be reduced by incineration or burning at high
temperature.

Biogas and manure can be prepared from the biodegradable waste, which cost
much less than other fuel and fertilizers.

STEPS TAKEN TO LIMIT DAMAGE TO OZONE LAYER:

The damage of ozone layer leads to variation in rainfall, ecological disturbances and
other effect in global food supply. To limit this damage, U.N.E.P, United Nations
environment programme has forged an agreement to freeze for CFC production at
1986. All t he developed and developed countries are taking keen interest to work in
this regard to save the ozone layer from further depletion.

9 Designed by: Hilala Jan

 Management of Natural Resources Biology 10th

N atural Resources: - Anything in the environment ‘which can be used’ is called ‘natural
resource’. Natural resources include total natural environment that support human life and
contribute to the production of necessities and comforts to mankind. So natural resources
are the components of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
On the basis of abundance and availability, the natural resources are of two types:
(a) Inexhaustible
(b) Exhaustible.
(a) Inexhaustible. These are in plenty and cannot be exhausted by man’s consumption e.g., air, sand,
clay etc, affected by over-population of mankind.

(b) Exhaustible. These are limited and can get exhausted over a period of time. i.e., coal, petroleum
etc.

Management of Natural Resources: -

A system of controlling the use of natural resources in such a way as to avoid their wastage and to use
them in the most effective way is called management of natural resources.

Why do we Need to Manage Our Resources:-

Resources:-
We need to manage our natural resources because of the following reasons:

1. The resources of the earth are limited. Because of the rapid increase in human population, the
demand for resources is increasing day by day. The proper management can ensure that the
natural resources are used judiciously so that they fulfill the needs of present generation and also
last for the generations to come.

2. The proper management of natural resources takes into consideration long-term perspective (or
view) and prevents their exploitation to hilt for short-term gains.

3. The proper management can ensure equitable distribution of natural resources so that all the
people can benefit from the development of these resources.

4. The proper management will take into consideration the damage caused to the environment
during the ‘extraction’ or ‘use’ of the natural resources and find ways and means to minimize this
damage.

Conservation of Wildlife:-
Wildlife:-
It is very important to conserve wild-life to maintain the ecological balance in nature and to preserve the
gene pool. Some of the measures (or steps) to be taken for the conservation of wildlife are given below:

1. Laws should be made to impose a total ban on the poaching (killing) or capturing of any animal or
bird belonging to an endangered species. The poaching of an endangered species of animals and
birds should be made a punishable offence. Such laws should not remain on paper only, they
should be enforced strictly.

2. The natural habitats of wild animals and birds should be preserved by establishing National Parks
and Sanctuaries throughout the country.

3. The government Department connected with the conservation of wildlife should conduct a
periodic survey in all the forests, National parks and Sanctuaries to have knowledge of the
1|Page
 Management of Natural Resources Biology 10th

population of all species of wild animals and birds, so that these animals can be helped in the
times of distress like floods and famines.

4. Special attention should be paid to the conservation of endangered species of wild animals and
birds to prevent their extinction altogether.

5. The unauthorized felling (cutting) of forest trees for timber trade and fuel-wood should be curbed
(stopped) immediately. This is because depletion of forests destroys the natural habitat of wild
animals and birds, and exposed them to he cruelty of man as well as nature.

6. In the case of Government authorized felling of forest trees, for every acre of forest cut down, an
equal area of land should be planted with saplings of trees to make up for the loss in the long run.

Advantages of Dams:
Dams:-
s:-
1. Water from a dam is used for irrigation in fields through a network of canals. Dams ensure round
the year water supply to the crop fields and help raise agricultural production.

2. Water from a dam is supplied to the people in towns and cities through pipelines after suitable
treatment. In this way, construction of dams ensures continuous water supply in the region.

3. The falling water (or flowing water) from the dam is used for generating electricity. The water
rushing down the dam turns turbines which run electric generators.

Disadvantages of Dams:-
Dams:-
1. Social problems. Due to the construction of high-rise dams, a large number of human settlements
(or villages) are submerged in the water of large reservoir formed by the dam and many people are
rendered homeless. This creates a social problem.

2. Environmental Problems. The construction of high –rise dams on the rivers contributes to
deforestation and loss of biodiversity. This is because a vast variety of flora and fauna (plants and
animals) get submerged in the water of large reservoir formed by the dam and disturb the
ecological balance.

3. Economic
Economic Problems. Some people say that the construction of high-rise dams involves the
spending of huge amount of public money without the generation of proportionate benefits.

Forests:-
Forests:-
Forests are important renewable natural resources dominated mainly by trees forming a sort of canopy
they are essential for ecological balance of all ecosystems. They maintain biological diversity, prevent
floods and safeguard future of tribals. The forests, cover a wide range of life forms including bacteria,
fungi, ferns, gymnosperms, flowering plants, nematodes, insects, birds, reptiles and mammals. They need
conservation in order to preserve the biodiversity we have inherited. Various studies have shown that a
loss of diversity may lead to a loss of ecological stability.

Conservation of Forests:-
Forests:-
Conservation is protection, augmentation and scientific management of resources so as to maintain them
at their optimum level providing benefit to the present as well as future generations. Forests and regulative
properties. It is carried out by the following methods.

2|Page
 Management of Natural Resources Biology 10th

1. Afforestation. It is growing of forests on unprotected barren lands. Van Mahotsava is a tree

plantation movement carried out twice a year (February and July) by both government and
voluntary agencies.

2. Reforestation. It is developing forest cover in the area which has been damaged or cleared during
exploitation.

3. Separation of Commercial Forestry. Useful plants required by industry should be planted

separately preferably on waste land. Growing industry required plants is called production
plantation.

4. Grazing. Grazing should be regulated according to the availability of pasturage.

5. Sustained Yield Block Cutting. A forest is divided into a number of blocks depending upon the
period required by forest trees to mature. In one year trees of one block are felled. The block is
reforested immediately. In this way annual deforestation is compensated by annual reforestation.
The forest is conserved indefinitely and provides sustained yield.

Effects of Deforestation:-
Deforestation:-
Removal, decrease or deterioration of the forest cover of an area is called deforestation. It ois caused buy
excessive felling of trees, overgrazing, monoculture, fragmentation and clearing of forests. Deforestation
causes.

1. Soil Erosion. Removal of plant cover exposes the fertile soil to wind and water. Te latter remove
the top soil and make the area infertile.

2. Desertification. Removal of forest cover in the plains makes the area dry. In hot season, the soil
becomes loose. Air currents take away the fine soil particles leaving behind sand.

3. Floods. In rainy season many temporary rivulets are formed due to loss of absorption capacity by
unprotected soil. The rivulets produce floods in low land causing loss to agriculture, property and
life.

4. Destruction of wildlife. Deforestation leads to destruction of natural habitats of wild animals and
plants. Wildlife is, therefore, destroyed.

5. Climatic changes. In the absence of forest cover, the summer becomes hotter while the winters
become extra cool. The frequency of rainfall decreases.

Chipko-
Chipko-Movement:-
Movement:-
Chipko-Movement was born in Nineteen seventees in a small hilly village of the upper reaches of
Himalayas. Tribal people of Tehri-Garhwal district of U.P realized the importance of the forests and
decided against giving its products to the people of other areas. They stood against the ruthless butchery
of nature and the axes of greedy contractors. At the initial stage of the movement (in December,1972), the
women of Advani village in Tehri-Garhwal protested against indiscriminate felling ot trees. In March
1973, a sports goods factory was to cut ten ash tress near the village Mandal in Chamoli district. The local
people prevented the same by hugging (vern. Hindi Chipko) the marked trees. In 1974, a group of
women led by Gaura Devi successfully prevented felling of trees near village Reni. The movement
became famous in 1978 when the women of Advani village in Tehri-Garhwal faced policed firing and later
courted arrest. The chipko Movement spread slowly to all nearby areas under the leadership of shri
3|Page
 Management of Natural Resources Biology 10th

Sunderlal Bahuguna of Silyara in Tehri region and Shir Chandi Prasad Bhatt of Gopeshwar. Sunderlal
Bahugna is now a world famous figure; he presented his plan of this movement at the UNEP meeting
held in London in June 1982.

Thus,

Chipko Movement (i.e., chipko Andolan) is the tree hugging movement in which the villagers compel the
axeman to stop tree felling by embracing and forming ring(circle) around the marked trees.

Watershed Management:-
Management:-
Watershed is a high raised area which is source of run off to low lying areas. Growing more trees in
watershed areas increases retention of more rain water and protection of soil from erosion. Therefore,
watershed management develops the primary resources of land and water. It enhances the development
of secondary resources of plants, animals and other biota. The enhanced productivity increases the
income of watershed community. There are fewer droughts and floods downstream. Silting of
downstream dams and reservoirs is also reduced.

Rainwater Harvesting:-
Harvesting:-
Water harvesting is capturing, collection and storage of rain water and surface run off for filling either
small water bodies or recharging ground water so that water continues to be available in non-rainy seasons.

Water harvesting designs for rain-

rain-fed areas in J&K State:-
State:-
Various designs have been recommended depending on the soil, topography climate, size of the land
holding, etc. which could be practiced:

1. Contour cultivation. Contours are made across the slope and in this cultivation of crops, trees etc
is carried out. These contours would form barriers across the flow path of runoff. It is the most
effective on moderate slopes. The water is collected in the depressions.

Vunding.. It is the most popular method practiced on large scale. The practice comprises
2. Contor Vunding
of constructing narrow based bunds on contour to impound runoff water behind them, so that
impounded water is absorbed gradually into the soil profile. The bunds are normally impouned
up to a height of 30 cms. The bunds should be constructed from the top of the catchment and
preceded downwards.

3. Bench Terracing. Bench terracing is another popular method practiced on steep hilly slopes
where agriculture practices are common. Bench terracing involves converting the original ground
into level step like fields constructed by half cutting and half filling, which reduces the degree of
the slope.

4. Strip farming. The cropping is usually intermittent on strips or in rows with catchment area left
fallow. The principle lying behind this process is to collect runoff from catchment area to improve
soil moisture on the cropped area.

5. Storing Runoff Water for Recycling. In semi-arid areas, summer rainfall is short in duration and
comprises of limited rainy days. The intensity or rainfall is high which gives high runoff. This is
because high intensity of rainfall has low infiltration rate and runoff rate is therefore, very high.
Therefore, catchment area, which has low-lying region, is selected and bunded for collection of
runoff water.
4|Page
 Management of Natural Resources Biology 10th

6. Chek Dams Construction on Nallas and Off Off--Stream. It is a process in which construction of bunds
of suitable dimensions across Nalla or stream to hold maximum runoff water to create temporary
flooding in the streams with arrangements to drain water at suitable intervals is carried out.
The water released from bunds.

Coal and Petroleum Conservation:-

Conservation:-
Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels found in earth’s crust. They are non-renewable and exhaustible
resources.

1. Coal. Coal is combustible fossilized rock derived from a large accumulation of plant remains that
is gradually compressed. About 6000 billion tons of coal lies under the earth and by now more
than 200 billion tons had been used. it occurs widespread in many countries including Japan,
China, Russia, U.K., U.S.A., Poland,Kuwait , Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Libya, Indonesia
and India. Coal is used for cooking, heating, in industry and thermal power plants.

2. Petroleum. Petroleum is another fossil fuel that occurs in the form of liquid –oil. It has been
formed in the past (about 10 to 20 crore years old) from plant and animal remains and occur in
the form of mineral oil in sedimentary rocks. Petroleum reserves are confined to a few countries.
In India, oil bearing area is estimated to be over a million square km/ petroleum is mainly used as
fuel for transport, agricultural operations, generators and some industries.

Methods of Conservation of fossil fuels:

1. Burning of coal causes air pollution. Thus m direct use of coal for the purpose or burning should
be avoided. Coal may be converted into liquid fuel and compressed natural gas (CNG) through
coal gasification.

2. Techniques should be developed to recover maximum fossil fuel that lies in deep mines and wells.
Wastage during extraction and transportation should be avoided.

3. Both oil wells and coal mines a prone to catch fires. Therefore, these should be well protected
from fire to avoid wastage pollution and loss of life and property.

4. Over-consumption of oil in automobiles should be checked. We must save oil for future use
because only a few years are left for its depletion.

5. Alternative sources of energy, such as hydroelectric, nuclear, solar, wind power and biogas plans
should encouraged

Some Important Terms:-

erms:-

National Park:-
Park:- A national park is a large area where one or several ecosystems exist and where plant and
animal species, geomor phological sites and habitats are of special educating and recreative interest.

Sanctuary:-
Sanctuary:- Wildlife sanctuary is a large area dedicated to protect wildlife and conserve species. Hunting
is not allowed in a sanctuary.

Endangered species: - All those species of plants and animals which are liable to become extinct are
called endangered species. E.g., snow orchid, Rhus hoolari, Indain wolf, Assam rabbit.

Vulnerable species:-
species:- Are those species that are vulnerable to get extincted. These are few in number and
are in danger of becoming extinct. These are protected under law.
5|Page
 Management of Natural Resources Biology 10th

Rare species:-
species:- Rare species are those species that are threatened of extinction. Their numbers are few or
they live in such small area or in such unusual environment s that they could quickly disappear.

Extinct species :-
:- Species that have no living members are said to be extinct. Extinct species are known
through the fossil record. e.g., dinosaurs, mammoth, sabertooth etc.

Khadins:-
Khadins:- khandins are earthern embankments down the slope of catchment areas which help in retaining
run off water. A dug well is often located behind that embankment to store extra run off if it happens to
overflow the embankment. Slowly the stored water perlocates down into the ground.

Abbreviations:-
Abbreviations:-

UNEP : Unite nation’s environment programme.

IPCC : Intergovernmental panel on climatic change.

GAP : Ganga action plan.

RS : Reduce, recycle, re-use.

BOD : Biochemical oxygen demand.

End……….

6|Page