10.

1 Sequences 581

lowest such line. None of the points (n, an) lies above y = L, but some do lie above any
lower line y = L - P, if P is a positive number. The sequence converges to L because
a. an … L for all values of n, and
b. given any P 7 0, there exists at least one integer N for which aN 7 L - P.
The fact that 5an 6 is nondecreasing tells us further that
an Ú aN 7 L - P for all n Ú N.
Thus, all the numbers an beyond the Nth number lie within P of L. This is precisely the
condition for L to be the limit of the sequence 5an 6.
The proof for nonincreasing sequences bounded from below is similar.
It is important to realize that Theorem 6 does not say that convergent sequences are
monotonic. The sequence 5(-1)n + 1 >n6 converges and is bounded, but it is not monotonic
since it alternates between positive and negative values as it tends toward zero. What the
theorem does say is that a nondecreasing sequence converges when it is bounded from
above, but it diverges to infinity otherwise.

Exercises 10.1
Finding Terms of a Sequence 3 1 1 3 5
18. - , - , , , , c Integers differing by 2
Each of Exercises 1–6 gives a formula for the nth term an of a 2 6 12 20 30
sequence 5an 6. Find the values of a1, a2, a3, and a4.
divided by products of
consecutive integers
1 - n 1 19. The sequence 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, c Squares of the positive
1. an = 2. an =
n2 n! integers diminished by 1
(-1)n + 1 20. The sequence -3, - 2, -1, 0, 1, c Integers, beginning with - 3
3. an = 4. an = 2 + (- 1)n
2n - 1 21. The sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, c Every other odd positive
2n 2n - 1 integer
5. an = n + 1 6. an =
2 2n 22. The sequence 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, c Every other even positive
integer
Each of Exercises 7–12 gives the first term or two of a sequence along
with a recursion formula for the remaining terms. Write out the first 5 8 11 14 17
ten terms of the sequence. 23. , , , , ,c Integers differing by 3
1 2 6 24 120
divided by factorials
7. a1 = 1, an + 1 = an + (1>2n)
8. a1 = 1, an + 1 = an >(n + 1) 24.
1 8 27 64
, , , ,
125
,c Cubes of positive integers
9. a1 = 2, an + 1 = (- 1)n + 1an >2
25 125 625 3125 15,625
divided by powers of 5

10. a1 = - 2, an + 1 = nan >(n + 1) 25. The sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, c Alternating 1’s and 0’s
11. a1 = a2 = 1, an + 2 = an + 1 + an 26. The sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, c Each positive integer
12. a1 = 2, a2 = -1, an + 2 = an + 1 >an repeated

Finding a Sequence’s Formula

Convergence and Divergence
Which of the sequences 5an 6 in Exercises 27–90 converge, and
In Exercises 13–26, find a formula for the nth term of the sequence.
13. The sequence 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, c 1’s with alternating signs which diverge? Find the limit of each convergent sequence.
14. The sequence - 1, 1, - 1, 1, -1, c 1’s with alternating signs
n + (- 1)n
15. The sequence 1, -4, 9, -16, 25, c Squares of the positive inte- 27. an = 2 + (0.1)n 28. an = n
gers, with alternating signs
1 - 2n 2n + 1
1 1 1 1 29. an = 30. an =
16. The sequence 1, - , , - , , c Reciprocals of squares of 1 + 2n 1 - 3 2n
4 9 16 25
the positive integers, with
1 - 5n4 n + 3
alternating signs 31. an = 32. an = 2
n4 + 8n3 n + 5n + 6
1 2 22 23 24 n2 - 2n + 1 1 - n3
17. , , , , ,c Powers of 2 divided by 33. an = 34. an =
9 12 15 18 21 n - 1
multiples of 3 70 - 4n2
582 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series

(ln n)200
36. an = (-1)n a1 - n b
1 n
35. an = 1 + (- 1)n 84. an = 2n2 + n 85. an = n
(ln n)5
37. an = a b a1 - n b 38. an = a2 - b a3 + n b
n + 1 1 1 1
86. an = 87. an = n - 2n2 - n
2n 2n 2 2n
(- 1)n + 1
40. an = a- b
1 n 1
39. an = 88. an =
2n - 1 2 2n - 1 - 2n2 + n
2

2n 1 n n
41. an = 42. an = 1 1 1
An + 1 (0.9)n 89. an = n x dx 90. an = p dx, p 7 1
L1 L1 x
43. an = sin a + nb
p 1
44. an = np cos (np) Recursively Defined Sequences
2
In Exercises 91–98, assume that each sequence converges and find its
sin n sin2 n limit.
45. an = n 46. an =
2n 72
91. a1 = 2, an + 1 =
n 3n 1 + an
47. an = 48. an =
2n n3 an + 6
92. a1 = -1, an + 1 =
ln (n + 1) ln n an + 2
49. an = 50. an =
2n ln 2n 93. a1 = - 4, an + 1 = 28 + 2an
51. an = 81>n 52. an = (0.03)1>n 94. a1 = 0, an + 1 = 28 + 2an
95. a1 = 5, an + 1 = 25an
53. an = a1 + n b 54. an = a1 - n b
n n
7 1
96. a1 = 3, an + 1 = 12 - 2an
1 1 1
n
55. an = 210n
n
56. an = 2n2 97. 2, 2 + , 2 + ,2 + ,c
2 1 1
2 + 2 +
2 1
2 +
57. an = a n b
3 1>n 2
58. an = (n + 4)1>(n + 4)
98. 21, 31 + 21, 41 + 31 + 21,
ln n
59. an = 60. an = ln n - ln (n + 1)
n1>n 51 + 41 + 31 + 21, c
n n 2n + 1
61. an = 24 n n
62. an = 23 Theory and Examples
99. The first term of a sequence is x1 = 1. Each succeeding term is
(Hint: Compare with 1 > n.)
n! the sum of all those that come before it:
63. an =
nn
xn + 1 = x1 + x2 + g + xn.
(- 4)n n!
64. an = 65. an =
n! 106n Write out enough early terms of the sequence to deduce a gen-
eral formula for xn that holds for n Ú 2.
67. an = a n b
1>(ln n)
n! 1
2n # 3n
66. an = 100. A sequence of rational numbers is described as follows:
a a + 2b
68. an = lna1 + n b 69. an = a b
n n
1 3n + 1 1 3 7 17
, , , , c, , , c.
3n - 1 1 2 5 12 b a + b
Here the numerators form one sequence, the denominators form
70. an = a b 71. an = a b , x 7 0
n 1>n
n xn
n + 1 2n + 1 a second sequence, and their ratios form a third sequence. Let xn
3n # 6n
and yn be, respectively, the numerator and the denominator of
72. an = a1 -
1 n
b the nth fraction rn = xn >yn.
2-n # n!
73. an =
n2
a. Verify that x1 2 - 2y1 2 = -1, x2 2 - 2y2 2 = + 1 and, more
(10>11)n
74. an = 75. an = tanh n generally, that if a2 - 2b2 = -1 or + 1, then
(9/10)n + (11/12)n
(a + 2b)2 - 2(a + b)2 = + 1 or -1,
n2 1
76. an = sinh (ln n) 77. an = sin n
2n - 1 respectively.
b. The fractions rn = xn >yn approach a limit as n increases.
78. an = na1 - cos n b
1 1
79. an = 2n sin
2n What is that limit? (Hint: Use part (a) to show that
rn 2 - 2 = {(1>yn)2 and that yn is not less than n.)
80. an = (3n + 5n)1>n 81. an = tan-1 n
101. Newton’s method The following sequences come from the
recursion formula for Newton’s method,
83. an = a b +
n
1 1 1
82. an = tan-1 n
2n 3 22n ƒ(xn)
xn + 1 = xn - .
ƒ′(xn)
 10.2 Infinite Series 591

We saw this reindexing in starting a geometric series with the index n = 0 instead of the
index n = 1, but we can use any other starting index value as well. We usually give prefer-
ence to indexings that lead to simple expressions.

EXAMPLE 10 We can write the geometric series

q
1 1 1
= 1 + + +
a n-1
n=1 2 2 4 g
as
q q q
1 1 1
a 2n , a n-5, or even a 2n + 4 .
n=0 n=5 2 n = -4

The partial sums remain the same no matter what indexing we choose to use.

Exercises 10.2
Finding nth Partial Sums
18. a b + a b + a b + a b + a b + g
-2 2 -2 3 -2 4 -2 5 -2 6
In Exercises 1–6, find a formula for the nth partial sum of each series 3 3 3 3 3
and use it to find the series’ sum if the series converges.
Repeating Decimals
2 2 2 2
1. 2 + + + + + +
3 9 27 g 3n - 1 g Express each of the numbers in Exercises 19–26 as the ratio of two
integers.
9 9 9 9
+ + + g+ + 19. 0.23 = 0.23 23 23 c
100n g
2.
100 1002 1003
20. 0.234 = 0.234 234 234 c
1 1 1 1
3. 1 - + - + + (- 1)n - 1 n - 1 + g
2 4 8 g 2 21. 0.7 = 0.7777 c
4. 1 - 2 + 4 - 8 + g + (- 1) n-1 n-1
2 + g 22. 0.d = 0.dddd c , where d is a digit
23. 0.06 = 0.06666 c
1 1 1 1
2 # 3 3 # 4 4 # 5 g (n + 1)(n + 2) g
5. + + + + + 24. 1.414 = 1.414 414 414 c
5 5 5 5 25. 1.24123 = 1.24 123 123 123 c
1 # 2 2 # 3 3 # 4 g n(n + 1) g
6. + + + + +
26. 3.142857 = 3.142857 142857 c
Series with Geometric Terms Using the nth-Term Test
In Exercises 7–14, write out the first eight terms of each series to In Exercises 27–34, use the nth-Term Test for divergence to show that
show how the series starts. Then find the sum of the series or show the series is divergent, or state that the test is inconclusive.
that it diverges. q q
n n(n + 1)
q
(- 1)n q 27. a 28. a
7. a n
1
8. a n n = 1 n + 10 n = 1 (n + 2)(n + 3)
n=0 4 4
n=2 q q
1 n
q q 29. a 30. a 2
9. a a1 - n b
7 5
10. a (- 1)n n n=0 n + 4 n=1 n + 3
n=1 4 n=0 4 q q
1 en
q q 31. a cos n 32. a n
+ n
11. a a n + n b 12. a a n - n b
5 1 5 1 n=1 n=0
e
n=0 2 3 n=0 2 3 q q
1
q
(- 1)n q n+1 33. a ln n 34. a cos np
13. a a n + b 14. a a n b
1 2 n=1 n=0
n=0 2 5n n=0 5
Telescoping Series
In Exercises 15–18, determine if the geometric series converges or In Exercises 35–40, find a formula for the nth partial sum of the series
diverges. If a series converges, find its sum. and use it to determine if the series converges or diverges. If a series
converges, find its sum.
15. 1 + a b + a b + a b + a b + g
2 2 2 2 3 2 4
q q
35. a a n - b 36. a a 2 - b
5 5 5 5 1 1 3 3
16. 1 + (- 3) + (- 3)2 + (- 3)3 + (- 3)4 + g n=1 n + 1 n=1 n (n + 1)2

37. a 1 ln 2n + 1 - ln 2n 2
q
17. a b + a b + a b + a b + a b + g
1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
8 8 8 8 8 n=1
592 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series

q q q
(- 1)n
b a b
38. a (tan (n) - tan (n - 1)) x - 1 n 1 n
71. a 3a 72. a
n=1 n=0 2 n=0 2 3 + sin x
q
39. a acos-1 a b - cos-1 a bb
1 1 In Exercises 73–78, find the values of x for which the given geometric
n=1 n + 1 n + 2 series converges. Also, find the sum of the series (as a function of x)

40. a 1 2n + 4 - 2n + 3 2
q for those values of x.
q q
n=1
73. a 2nxn 74. a (-1)nx-2n
n=0 n=0
Find the sum of each series in Exercises 41–48.
q q
76. a a- b (x - 3)n
q q 1 n
4 6 75. a (-1)n(x + 1)n
41. a 42. a 2
n=1 (4n - 3)(4n + 1) n=1 (2n - 1)(2n + 1) n=0 n=0
q q
q q
40n 2n + 1 77. a sinn x 78. a (ln x)n
43. a 44. a 2 n=0 n=0
n=1 (2n - 1) 2
(2n + 1)2 n=1 n (n + 1)2
q q
45. a a b 46. a a 1>n - 1>(n + 1) b
1 1 1 1 Theory and Examples
- 79. The series in Exercise 5 can also be written as
n=1 2n 2n + 1 n=1 2 2
q q q

47. a a b
1 1 1 1
- a and a .
n=1 ln (n + 2) ln (n + 1) n = 1 (n + 1)(n + 2) n = -1 (n + 3)(n + 4)
q
Write it as a sum beginning with (a) n = - 2, (b) n = 0,
48. a (tan-1 (n) - tan-1 (n + 1)) (c) n = 5.
n=1
80. The series in Exercise 6 can also be written as
Convergence or Divergence q q
5 5
Which series in Exercises 49–68 converge, and which diverge? Give a n(n + 1) and a (n + 1)(n + 2) .
n=1 n=0
reasons for your answers. If a series converges, find its sum.
Write it as a sum beginning with (a) n = -1, (b) n = 3,
50. a 1 22 2n
q q
49. a a b
n
1
(c) n = 20.
n=0 22 n=0
q q
81. Make up an infinite series of nonzero terms whose sum is
3
51. a (- 1)n + 1 n 52. a (- 1) n+1
n a. 1 b. -3 c. 0.
n=1 2 n=1
q q
82. (Continuation of Exercise 81.) Can you make an infinite series of
53. a cos a b
np cos np nonzero terms that converges to any number you want? Explain.
54. a
83. Show by example that g(an >bn) may diverge even though gan
n=0 2 n=0 5n
q q
-2n 1 and gbn converge and no bn equals 0.
55. a e 56. a ln n
n=0 n=1 3 84. Find convergent geometric series A = gan and B = gbn that
q
2
q
1 illustrate the fact that gan bn may converge without being equal
57. a n 58. a n , x 7 1 to AB.
10 x
85. Show by example that g(an >bn) may converge to something
n=1 n=0
q q
59. a
2n - 1
60. a a1 - n b
1 n other than A > B even when A = gan, B = gbn ≠ 0, and no bn
n=0 3n n=1 equals 0.
q q
n! nn 86. If gan converges and an 7 0 for all n, can anything be said
61. a 62. a
1000n
n=0 n=1 n! about g(1>an)? Give reasons for your answer.
q q
2n + 3n 2n + 4n 87. What happens if you add a finite number of terms to a divergent
63. a 64. a n
n=1 4n n=1 3 + 4n series or delete a finite number of terms from a divergent series?
q q Give reasons for your answer.
65. a ln a b b
n n
n + 1
66. a lna
2n + 1 88. If gan converges and gbn diverges, can anything be said about
n=1 n=1
their term-by-term sum g(an + bn)? Give reasons for your answer.
q q
67. a a p b
e n enp 89. Make up a geometric series gar n - 1 that converges to the number
68. a ne
n=0 p
n=0 5 if
a. a = 2 b. a = 13>2.
Geometric Series with a Variable x
90. Find the value of b for which
In each of the geometric series in Exercises 69–72, write out the first
few terms of the series to find a and r, and find the sum of the series. 1 + eb + e2b + e3b + g = 9.
Then express the inequality  r  6 1 in terms of x and find the values
of x for which the inequality holds and the series converges. 91. For what values of r does the infinite series
q q
1 + 2r + r 2 + 2r 3 + r 4 + 2r 5 + r 6 + g
69. a (- 1)nxn 70. a (- 1)nx2n
n=0 n=0 converge? Find the sum of the series when it converges.
598 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series

The error in this approximation is then less than half the length of the interval, so the error
The p-series for p = 2
is less than 0.005. Using a trigonometric Fourier series (studied in advanced calculus), it
q
1 p2 can be shown that S is equal to p2 >6 ≈ 1.64493.
a n2 = 6 ≈ 1.64493
n=1

Exercises 10.3
q q
Applying the Integral Test
Use the Integral Test to determine if the series in Exercises 1–10 con- 39. a sech n 40. a sech2 n
n=1 n=1
verge or diverge. Be sure to check that the conditions of the Integral
Test are satisfied. Theory and Examples
q q q
For what values of a, if any, do the series in Exercises 41 and 42 converge?
1 1 1 q q
41. a a b 42. a a b
1. a 2 2. a 0.2 3. a 2 a 1 1 2a
n=1 n n=1 n n=1 n + 4 - -
n=1 n + 2 n + 4 n=3 n - 1 n + 1
q q q
1 1
4. a 5. a e-2n 6. a 43. a. Draw illustrations like those in Figures 10.11a and 10.11b to
n=1 n + 4
2
n=1 n = 2 n(ln n) show that the partial sums of the harmonic series satisfy the
q q inequalities
n ln (n2)
7. a 2 8. a n+1
n + 4 n 1 1 1
n=1 n=2 ln (n + 1) = x dx … 1 + 2 + g + n
q q
L1
n2 n - 4 n
9. a n>3 10. a 2 1
n=1 e n=2 n - 2n + 1 … 1 + x dx = 1 + ln n.
L1
Determining Convergence or Divergence T b. There is absolutely no empirical evidence for the divergence
Which of the series in Exercises 11–40 converge, and which diverge? of the harmonic series even though we know it diverges. The
Give reasons for your answers. (When you check an answer, remem- partial sums just grow too slowly. To see what we mean, sup-
ber that there may be more than one way to determine the series’ con- pose you had started with s1 = 1 the day the universe was
vergence or divergence.) formed, 13 billion years ago, and added a new term every
q q q second. About how large would the partial sum sn be today,
1 n
11. a n 12. a e-n 13. a assuming a 365-day year?
n = 1 10 n=1 n=1 n + 1 q
44. Are there any values of x for which g n = 1(1>nx) converges? Give
q q q
5 3 -2 reasons for your answer.
14. a 15. a 16. a
n=1 n + 1
q
n=1 2n n = 1 n 2n 45. Is it true that if g n = 1 an is a divergent series of positive numbers,
q
q q q then there is also a divergent series g n = 1 bn of positive numbers
1 -8 ln n
17. a - n 18. a n 19. a n with bn 6 an for every n? Is there a “smallest” divergent series of
n=1 8 n=1 n=2
positive numbers? Give reasons for your answers.
q q q
ln n 2 n 5n 46. (Continuation of Exercise 45.) Is there a “largest” convergent
20. a 21. a n 22. a n
n = 2 2n 3 n=1 n=1 4 + 3 series of positive numbers? Explain.
q q q n = 1 1 1 , 2n + 1 2 diverges
47. g H
-2 1 2n
23. a 24. a 25. a
n=0 n + 1 n=1 2n - 1 n=1 n + 1 a. Use the accompanying graph to show that the partial sum
s50 = g n = 1 1 1> 2n + 1 2 satisfies
50
q q q
26. a a1 + n b
1 n 2n 1
n = 1 2n1 2n + 1 2
27. a 28. a 51 50
n=1 n = 2 ln n 1 1
dx 6 s50 6 dx.
q q L1 2x + 1 L0 2x + 1
1 1
29. a
(ln 2)n
30. a
(ln 3)n Conclude that 11.5 6 s50 6 12.3.
n=1 n=1
q q y
(1>n) 1
31. a 32. a 1
n = 3 (ln n) 2ln n
2
- 1 n=1 n ( 1 + ln2 n )
q q
1 1
33. a n sin n 34. a n tan n
n=1 n=1 1
q q
f (x) =
e n
2 "x + 1
35. a 36. a
n=1 1 + e
n
n=1 1 + e
2n

q q ···
8 tan-1 n n x
37. a 38. a 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· 48 49 50 51
n=1 1 + n + 1
2
n=1 n
 10.4 Comparison Tests 603

for n sufficiently large. Then taking an = (ln n)>n3>2 and bn = 1>n5>4, we have
an ln n
lim = lim
n Sq bn n Sq n1>4

1>n
= lim l’Hôpital’s Rule
n Sq (1>4)n-3>4

4
= lim = 0.
n Sq n1>4

Since g bn = g ( 1>n5>4 ) is a p-series with p 7 1, it converges, so g an converges by Part 2

of the Limit Comparison Test.

Exercises 10.4
q q
Comparison Test 10n + 1 5n3 - 3n
23. a 24. a 2
n = 1 n(n + 1)(n + 2)
In Exercises 1–8, use the Comparison Test to determine if each series n = 3 n (n - 2)(n + 5)
2
converges or diverges.
q q q
25. a a b
q q q n
1 n - 1 1 n 1 1
26. a 27. a
n = 1 3n + 1
1. a 2 2. a 4 3. a n=1 2n3 + 2 n=3 ln (ln n)
n=1 n + 30 n=1 n + 2 n = 2 2n - 1
q q q q q q
n + 2 cos2 n 1 (ln n)2 1 (ln n)2
4. a 2 5. a 3>2 6. a n 28. a 3
29. a 30. a 3>2
n=2 n - n n=1 n n=1 n3 n=1 n n = 2 2n ln n n=1 n
q q q
q
n + 4
q
2n + 1 1 ln (n + 1) 1
7. a 8. a 31. a 32. a 33. a
n=1 An + 4
1 + ln n n=2 n + 1 2 - 1
4 2
n=1 2n + 3
2 n=1 n=2 n n
q q q
Limit Comparison Test 2n 1 - n n + 2n
34. a 2 35. a n 36. a 2 n
In Exercises 9–16, use the Limit Comparison Test to determine if each n=1 n + 1 n = 1 n2 n=1 n 2
series converges or diverges. q q q
q 1 3n - 1 + 1 n + 1 # 1
n - 2 37. a n - 1 38. a 39. a 2
9. a 3 n=1 3 + 1 n=1 3n n = 1 n + 3n 5n
n=1 n - n + 3
2
q q q
q
( Hint: Limit Comparison with g n = 1 ( 1>n2 ) ) 2n + 3n 2n - n ln n
40. a n 41. a 42. a
n=1 3 + 4
n n
n = 1 n2 n = 1 2n e
n
q
n + 1
10. a q
n=1 An + 2
2 1
1 Hint: Limit Comparison with g n = 1 1 1> 2n 22
q
43. a
n!
n=2
q q (Hint: First show that (1>n!) … (1>n(n - 1)) for n Ú 2.)
n(n + 1) 2 n
q q q
11. a 2 12. a (n - 1)!
n=1 3 + 4
n 1 1
n = 2 (n + 1)(n - 1) 44. a 45. a sin n 46. a tan n
q q n = 1 (n + 2)! n=1 n=1

14. a a b
5n 2n + 3 n q q q
13. a tan-1 n sec-1 n coth n
n = 1 2n 4 n = 1 5n + 4
n 47. a 1.1 48. a 1.3 49. a 2
n=1 n n=1 n n=1 n
q
1 q q q n
15. a tanh n 1 2n
ln n
n=2 50. a 51. a 52. a 2
2 n
q n=1 n n = 1 n 2n n=1 n
(Hint: Limit Comparison with g n = 2 (1>n))
q q
q 1 1
16. a lna1 + 2 b
1 53. a 54. a
n=1 1 + 2 + 3 + g + n n=1 1 + 2 + 3 + g + n
2 2 2
n=1 n
q
( Hint: Limit Comparison with g n = 1 ( 1>n2 ) ) Theory and Examples
55. Prove (a) Part 2 and (b) Part 3 of the Limit Comparison Test.
Determining Convergence or Divergence q
56. If g n = 1an is a convergent series of nonnegative numbers, can
anything be said about g n = 1(an >n)? Explain.
Which of the series in Exercises 17–54 converge, and which diverge? q
Use any method, and give reasons for your answers.
q q q 57. Suppose that an 7 0 and bn 7 0 for n Ú N (N an integer). If
limn Sq (an >bn) = q and gan converges, can anything be said
1 3 sin2 n
17. a 18. a 19. a n
n=1 2
3
n = 1 2 2n + 2n n = 1 n + 2n
about gbn? Give reasons for your answer.
q q q
1 + cos n 2n n + 1 58. Prove that if gan is a convergent series of nonnegative terms,
20. a 21. a 22. a
n=1 n2 n=1 3n - 1 n = 1 n 2n
2
then gan2 converges.
 10.5 Absolute Convergence; The Ratio and Root Tests 609

Solution We apply the Root Test, finding that

2 0 an 0 = e
n
n 2n>2, n odd
1>2, n even.

Therefore,

… 2 0 an 0 …
n
1 n 2n
.
2 2

Since 2n S 1 (Section 10.1, Theorem 5), we have limn Sq 2 0 an 0 = 1>2 by the Sandwich
n n

Theorem. The limit is less than 1, so the series converges absolutely by the Root Test.

EXAMPLE 4 Which of the following series converge, and which diverge?

q q q
(c) a a b
n
n2 2n 1
(a) a n (b) a 3
n=1 2 n=1 n n=1 1 + n

Solution We apply the Root Test to each series, noting that each series has positive terms.
q
n2 n n2 2n2
n 12
n
n 22 2
(a) a n converges because n = n n = S 1 6 1.
n=1 2 B2 22 2 2

q
2n n 2n 2 S 23 7 1.
12 n 23
(b) a 3 diverges because =
n=1 n A n3 n
1

q
(c) a a b converges because a b =
n n
1 n 1 1 S
0 6 1.
n=1 1 + n B 1 + n 1 + n

Exercises 10.5
Using the Ratio Test q q
14. a sinn a b
-8 1
In Exercises 1–8, use the Ratio Test to determine if each series con- 13. a
n = 1 (3 + (1>n))
2n
n=1 2n
verges absolutely or diverges.
q 2

15. a (-1)n a1 - n b
q q 1 n
2n n + 2
1. a 2. a (- 1)n n=1
n = 1 n! n=1 3n
q
(n - 1)! q (Hint: lim (1 + x>n)n = ex)
2n + 1 n Sq
3. a 4. a n - 1
n = 1 (n + 1)
2
n = 1 n3 q
q q
(-1)n
n4 3n + 2 16. a 1 + n
5. a n 6. a n=2 n
n = 1 (- 4) n = 2 ln n
q q
n2(n + 2)! n5n Determining Convergence or Divergence
7. a (- 1)n 8. a
n=1 n! 32n n=1 (2n + 3) ln (n + 1) In Exercises 17–44, use any method to determine if the series con-
verges or diverges. Give reasons for your answer.
Using the Root Test q q
n22
In Exercises 9–16, use the Root Test to determine if each series con- 17. a n 18. a (-1)n n2e-n
verges absolutely or diverges. n=1 2 n=1
q q n q q
7 4 n!
9. a 10. a 19. a n!(-e)-n 20. a n
n=1 (2n + 5)n n=1 (3n) n
n=1 n = 1 10
q q n+1 q q
22. a a n b
n - 2 n
11. a a b 12. a a- lnae2 + n b b
n
4n + 3 1 21. a n
n10
n=1 3n - 5 n=1 n = 1 10 n=1
610 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series

q q
2 + (-1)n (- 2)n 1 n + ln n
23. a 24. a n 52. a1 = , an + 1 = a
1.25n 2 n + 10 n
n=1 n=1 3
q q 1 n
53. a1 = , an + 1 = 2an
25. a (- 1)n a1 - n b 26. a a1 - b
3 n 1 n 3
n=1 n=1 3n
1
q q 54. a1 = , an + 1 = (an)n + 1
ln n (- ln n)n 2
27. a 3 28. a
n=1 n n=1
nn
Convergence or Divergence
q q
29. a a n - 2 b 30. a a n - 2 b
1 1 1 1 n Which of the series in Exercises 55–62 converge, and which diverge?
n=1 n n=1 n Give reasons for your answers.
q q
q
en
q
n ln n 2nn!n! (-1)n (3n)!
31. a e 32. a 55. a 56. a
n = 1 (2n)! n = 1 n!(n + 1)!(n + 2)!
n
n=1 n n = 1 (- 2)
q q
q
(n + 1)(n + 2) q (n!)n (n!)n
33. a 34. a e-n ( n3 ) 57. a n 2 58. a (-1)n (n2)
n=1 n! n=1 n = 1 (n ) n=1 n
q q q q
(n + 3)! n2n(n + 1)! nn nn
35. a n 36. a 59. a (n2) 60. a n 2
n = 1 3!n!3 n=1 3nn! n=1 2 n = 1 (2 )
q
n!
q
n!
q
1 # 3 # g # (2n - 1)
37. a 38. a 61. a
n=1 (2n + 1)! n=1 (- n)n n=1 4n2nn!
q
-n
q
n
q
1 # 3 # g # (2n - 1)
39. a
(ln n)n
n=2
40. a
n = 2 (ln n)
(n>2)
62. a
n=1 32 # 4 # g # (2n) 4(3n + 1)
q q
n! ln n (- 3)n
41. a 42. a 3 n Theory and Examples
n(n + 2)!
n=1 n=1 n 2 63. Neither the Ratio Test nor the Root Test helps with p-series. Try
q q
(n!)2 (2n + 3)(2n + 3) them on
43. a 44. a
(2n)!
n=1 n=1 3n + 2 q
1
q a np
Recursively Defined Terms Which of the series g n = 1 an defined n=1

by the formulas in Exercises 45–54 converge, and which diverge? and show that both tests fail to provide information about
Give reasons for your answers. convergence.
1 + sin n 64. Show that neither the Ratio Test nor the Root Test provides infor-
45. a1 = 2, an + 1 = n an
mation about the convergence of
1 + tan-1 n
46. a1 = 1, an + 1 = n an q
1
1 3n - 1 a (ln n)p ( p constant).
47. a1 = , an + 1 = a n=2
3 2n + 5 n
n
48. a1 = 3, an + 1 =
65. Let an = e
a n>2n, if n is a prime number
n + 1 n
1>2n, otherwise.
2
49. a1 = 2, an + 1 = n an
n Does gan converge? Give reasons for your answer.
66. Show that g n = 1 2(n ) >n! diverges. Recall from the Laws of Expo-
2n q
50. a1 = 5, an + 1 =
2
an
2
nents that 2(n ) = (2n)n.
2

1 + ln n
51. a1 = 1, an + 1 = n an

10.6 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence

A series in which the terms are alternately positive and negative is an alternating series.
Here are three examples:
1 1 1 1 (-1)n + 1
1 - + - + - g+ n + g (1)
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 (-1)n4
-2 + 1 - + - + g + + g (2)
2 4 8 2n
1 - 2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - 6 + g + (-1)n + 1n + g (3)
 10.6 Alternating Series and Conditional Convergence 615

Exercises 10.6
Determining Convergence or Divergence q q
(2n)! (n!)2 3n
In Exercises 1–14, determine if the alternating series converges or 39. a (-1)n n 40. a (-1)n
n=1 2 n!n n=1 (2n + 1)!
diverges. Some of the series do not satisfy the conditions of the Alter-
41. a (-1)n 1 2n + 1 - 2n 2
q
nating Series Test.
q q n=1
1 1
1. a (- 1)n + 1 2. a (- 1)n + 1 3>2
42. a (-1)n 1 2n2 + n - n 2
q
n=1 2n n=1 n
q q n=1
1 4
3. a (- 1)n + 1 n 4. a (- 1)n
43. a (-1)n 1 2n + 1n - 2n 2
n3 q
n=1 n=2 (ln n)2
q q
n n2 + 5 n=1
5. a (- 1)n 2 6. a (- 1)n + 1 2 q q
n=1 n + 1 n=1 n + 4 (-1)n
44. a 45. a (-1)n sech n
q
2n
q
10n n=1 2n + 2n + 1 n=1
7. a (- 1)n + 1 2 8. a (- 1)n
n=1 n n=1 (n + 1)! q
46. a (-1)n csch n
q q
a b
n+1 n n n+1 1 n=1
9. a (- 1) 10. a (- 1)
10 ln n 1 1 1 1 1 1
n=1 n=2 - + - + - +
4 6 8 10 12 14 g
47.
q q
12. a (- 1)n ln a1 + n b
ln n 1
11. a (- 1)n + 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
48. 1 + - - + + - - +
n=1 n=1
4 9 16 25 36 49 64 g
q q
2n + 1 3 2n + 1
13. a (- 1)n + 1 14. a (- 1)n + 1
n=1 n + 1 n=1 2n + 1 Error Estimation
In Exercises 49–52, estimate the magnitude of the error involved in
Absolute and Conditional Convergence using the sum of the first four terms to approximate the sum of the
Which of the series in Exercises 15–48 converge absolutely, which entire series.
converge, and which diverge? Give reasons for your answers. q q
1 1
q q
(0.1)n 49. a (-1)n + 1 n 50. a (-1)n + 1 n
10
15. a (- 1)n + 1(0.1)n 16. a (- 1)n + 1 n n=1 n=1
n=1 n=1 q
(0.01)n As you will see in Section 10.7,
q
1
q
(- 1)n 51. a (-1)n + 1 n the sum is ln (1.01).
n
17. a (- 1) 18. a n=1
n=1 2n n=1 1 + 2n q
1
q
n
q
n! 52. = a (-1)nt n, 0 6 t 6 1
19. a (- 1)n + 1 3 20. a (- 1)n + 1 1 + t n=0
n=1 n + 1 n=1 2n
q q In Exercises 53–56, determine how many terms should be used to
1 sin n
21. a (- 1)n 22. a (- 1)n 2 estimate the sum of the entire series with an error of less than 0.001.
n=1 n + 3 n=1 n q q
1 n
q
3 + n
q
(- 2)n + 1 53. a (-1)n 2 54. a (-1)n + 1 2
23. a (- 1)n + 1 24. a n=1 n + 3 n=1 n + 1
n=1 5 + n n=1 n + 5
n
q q
1 1
26. a (- 1)n + 11 210 2 1 n + 3 2n 23
q
1 + n
q 55. a (-1)n + 1 56. a (-1)n
25. a (- 1)n + 1 2
n
n=1 n=1 ln (ln (n + 2))
n=1 n n=1
q q T Approximate the sums in Exercises 57 and 58 with an error of magni-
1 tude less than 5 * 10-6.
27. a (- 1)nn2(2>3)n 28. a (- 1)n + 1
n=1 n=2 n ln n q
1 As you will see in Section 10.9, the sum is
q q 57. a (-1)n
tan-1 n ln n (2n)! cos 1, the cosine of 1 radian.
29. a (- 1)n 2 30. a (- 1)n n=0
n=1 n + 1 n=1 n - ln n
q
q q 1 As you will see in Section 10.9,
n -n
58. a (-1)n the sum is e-1 .
31. a (- 1) n
32. a (- 5) n=0 n!
n=1 n + 1 n=1
q q
(- 100) n
(- 1)n - 1 Theory and Examples
33. a 34. a 2
n=1 n! n = 1 n + 2n + 1 59. a. The series
q q
cos np cos np 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
- + - + - + + - n + g
35. a
n = 1 n 2n
36. a
n=1
n 3 2 9 4 27 8 g 3n 2
q q
(- 1)n(n + 1)n (- 1)n + 1(n!)2 does not meet one of the conditions of Theorem 14. Which one?
37. a 38. a
n=1 (2n)n n=1 (2n)! b. Use Theorem 17 to find the sum of the series in part (a).
630 Chapter 10: Infinite Sequences and Series

EXAMPLE 4 It can be shown (though not easily) that

x = 0
ƒ(x) = e
y 0,
x=0
0,
e-1>x , x≠0
2
y=
e−1x , x ≠ 0
2
1
(Figure 10.19) has derivatives of all orders at x = 0 and that ƒ(n)(0) = 0 for all n. This
means that the Taylor series generated by ƒ at x = 0 is
ƒ″(0) 2 ƒ(n)(0) n
ƒ(0) + ƒ′(0)x + x + g + x + g
x 2! n!
= 0 + 0 # x + 0 # x2 + g + 0 # xn + g
−2 −1 0 1 2

FIGURE 10.19 The graph of the con- = 0 + 0 + g + 0 + g.

tinuous extension of y = e-1>x is so flat
2

at the origin that all of its derivatives there The series converges for every x (its sum is 0) but converges to ƒ(x) only at x = 0. That is,
are zero (Example 4). Therefore its Taylor the Taylor series generated by ƒ(x) in this example is not equal to the function ƒ(x) over
series, which is zero everywhere, is not the the entire interval of convergence.
function itself.
Two questions still remain.
1. For what values of x can we normally expect a Taylor series to converge to its generat-
ing function?
2. How accurately do a function’s Taylor polynomials approximate the function on a
given interval?
The answers are provided by a theorem of Taylor in the next section.

Exercises 10.8
Finding Taylor Polynomials 25. ƒ(x) = x4 + x2 + 1, a = -2
In Exercises 1–10, find the Taylor polynomials of orders 0, 1, 2, and 3 26. ƒ(x) = 3x5 - x4 + 2x3 + x2 - 2, a = -1
generated by ƒ at a.
27. ƒ(x) = 1>x2, a = 1
1. ƒ(x) = e2x, a = 0 2. ƒ(x) = sin x, a = 0
28. ƒ(x) = 1>(1 - x)3, a = 0
3. ƒ(x) = ln x, a = 1 4. ƒ(x) = ln (1 + x), a = 0
29. ƒ(x) = ex, a = 2
5. ƒ(x) = 1>x, a = 2 6. ƒ(x) = 1>(x + 2), a = 0
30. ƒ(x) = 2x, a = 1
7. ƒ(x) = sin x, a = p>4 8. ƒ(x) = tan x, a = p>4
31. ƒ(x) = cos (2x + (p>2)), a = p>4
9. ƒ(x) = 2x, a = 4 10. ƒ(x) = 21 - x, a = 0
32. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, a = 0

Finding Taylor Series at x = 0 (Maclaurin Series) In Exercises 33–36, find the first three nonzero terms of the Maclaurin
Find the Maclaurin series for the functions in Exercises 11–22. series for each function and the values of x for which the series con-
verges absolutely.
11. e-x 12. xex
33. ƒ(x) = cos x - (2>(1 - x))
1 2 + x
13.
1 + x
14.
1 - x 34. ƒ(x) = ( 1 - x + x2 ) ex
x 35. ƒ(x) = (sin x) ln (1 + x)
15. sin 3x 16. sin
2 36. ƒ(x) = x sin2 x
17. 7 cos (-x) 18. 5 cos px
Theory and Examples
ex + e-x ex - e-x 37. Use the Taylor series generated by ex at x = a to show that
19. cosh x = 20. sinh x =
2 2
(x - a)2
21. x4 - 2x3 - 5x + 4 22.
x2 ex = ea c 1 + (x - a) + + gd .
x + 1 2!
38. (Continuation of Exercise 37.) Find the Taylor series generated by
Finding Taylor and Maclaurin Series ex at x = 1. Compare your answer with the formula in Exercise 37.
In Exercises 23–32, find the Taylor series generated by ƒ at x = a.
39. Let ƒ(x) have derivatives through order n at x = a. Show that the
23. ƒ(x) = x3 - 2x + 4, a = 2 Taylor polynomial of order n and its first n derivatives have the
24. ƒ(x) = 2x3 + x2 + 3x - 8, a = 1 same values that ƒ and its first n derivatives have at x = a.