Business Research Methods

Dr. RENJITH. R
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Commerce
Prajyoti Niketan College, Pudukad
Research
Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. It is a systematic method
of finding solutions to a problem.
Features of Research

1. Research means discovery of new knowledge

2. It is essentially an investigation
3. It is related with solution of a problem
4. It is based on observation or experimental evidences
5. Research involves collection of both primary and secondary data
6. Research gives prominence on the development to generalization of theories
or principles that will help in predicting the future occurrences.
7. It should be carefully recorded and reported.
Business Research
Business research research refers to systematic collection and analysis of data
with the purpose of finding answers to problems facing the management.

Features of Business Research:

1. Systematic
2. Business research has a clear objective purpose
3. It is multi disciplinary
4. Covers all the regions in which the business operates
5. Judging local problems of environment
6. Accurately determines the cost or profitability of a business
7. Flexibility
8. Business research is always focus on demand
9. Business research tends to have a time limit.
Role of business research in decision making

1. Product analysis:- it helps to find a product that meet the customer demand.
2. Market analysis:- to know the stage of business cycle the market is currently
in, it helps to determine the price points at which the product can be sold.
3. Financial analysis:- A financial analysis determines the cost of each
production item used to produce goods and services.
4. Competitor analysis:- knowing companies that have best production methods,
to know how they create a competitive advantage or buying a competitor.
5. Growth analysis:- forecasting the growth and direction of the current industry
or market.
Business Research Methods

Research methods means all those methods or techniques that are used for
conducting research.
1. Operational research
2. Case studies
3. Statistical data
4. Surveys and focus groups
5. Interview design
6. Listening
7. Questionnaires and questioning
Purpose or Objectives of Business Research

1. To promote business in an economically sound manner

2. To ensure future success
3. Gather relevant information for smooth conduct of business
4. To determine the players in the job market
5. Help manager to identify and solve small problems
6. Oto save time and cost
7. Facilitate managerial decision making process
Importance of Conducting Business Research

1. Job seekers
2. Investors
3. B2B providers
4. Philanthropic organizations
5. Companies
a. Testing new products
b. Ensuring adequate distribution
c. Measuring advertising effectiveness
d. studying competition
Functions of Business Research

1. Management Tool: Act as a management tool for making decision

2. Source of information: Gather data from reliable sources
3. Redefining perceptions: can assess to what extend the collected information
is suitable for business
4. Risk management
5. Shape strategies
Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to carryout
research effectively.
1. Temporary selection of research problem: Identify the problem he wants to
study. The general topic selected is then converted into a specific problem.
Sources of problem: Reading, Academic experience, Daily experience,
Exposure to field situations and Discussions.
2. Initial survey of literature: A general overview of literature should be done.
Review conceptual literature and empirical literature.
3. Finalization or Selection of research problem: Problem should be finalized and
it should be put into specific terms. A brief summary of topic should be
written (Synopsis).
Research Process…
4. Formulation of a problem: Selected problems should be translated into specific
research question.
Steps in formulation:
A. Develop a title
B. Workout conceptual model
C. Extensive literature survey
D. Define the objectives of the study
F. Setting investigative question
5. Formulation of hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in
order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It should
be very specific and limited to the concerned problem. It should show the
relationship among the different variables of the study.
Research Process…

6. Preparation of research design: Research design is the conceptual structure

with in which the research should be conducted. It is the blue print of the
research. The function of research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
7. Determination of sample design: It is not possible to study the entire
population. The representative sub group of population is called sample.
The way of selecting sample from population is known as sampling.
8. Collection of data: Collection of appropriate data is necessary to deal with real
life problems. There are several ways to collect data which differ
considerably in context of cost, time and other resources. Data can be
collected from both primary and secondary sources.
Research Process…
9. Analysis of data, interpretation and findings: This is the crux of researcher’s
contribution to the study. This stage requires selection of analytical tools
for assessing the information collected to realize the research objective.
There are number of statistical technique available to the researcher.
Once the data has been analysed the skill of the researcher is linking the
research with an objective.
10. Preparation of research report: The researcher has to prepare a report of
what he has done. The purpose of the report is to communicate others the nature
of the problem studied, the design and methodology used and the result and the
conclusions arrived. The layout of the report can be divided into different sections
such as preliminary pages, text of thesis and end matter.
Types of Research

1. Exploratory Research:- Exploratory research is a type of research

conducted to investigate a problem or topic that is not clearly defined. It aims
to gain insights and familiarity with the subject matter, establish priorities,
develop operational definitions, and improve the final research design. The
objectives of exploratory research is development of hypothesis rather than
their testing. These are less structured and more flexible research. It allows
the researcher to gain a better understanding of the concept and provide
direction in order to initiate more structured research.
Example:- A doctor conducts an initial investigation on patient who suffering from
new ill for getting some clue about the illness.
Objectives of Exploratory Research

•Gain initial insights and understanding

•Identify key variables and factors
•Establish research priorities
•Develop preliminary hypotheses
•Uncover patterns and relationships
•Generate new ideas and perspectives
•Assess feasibility of further research
•Refine research questions
•Inform future research design
•Identify gaps in existing knowledge
Methods for Exploratory Research

• In-depth Interviews
• Observations
• Experience survey
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Pilot Studies
Uses of Exploratory Research

•Clarify ambiguous problems

•Develop hypotheses
•Guide further research
•Identify research priorities
•Gain insights into new phenomena
•Determine the best research design
•Discover patterns and relationships
•Test feasibility of future studies
•Refine research questions
•Explore new areas of interest
2. Causal Research

Causal research, also known as explanatory research, is a type of research that

seeks to identify and understand cause-and-effect relationships between
variables. It aims to determine how changes in one variable (the independent
variable) directly impact another variable (the dependent variable). This type of
research is typically structured and involves hypothesis testing to establish
causality. These are highly structured research and require a rigid sequential
approach to sampling, data collection and analysis.
Example: The Effect of Study Habits on Academic Performance
3. Theoretical research

Theoretical research involves the development, exploration, and testing of

theories and concepts to understand and explain phenomena. This type of
research is primarily focused on advancing knowledge and building frameworks
rather than conducting practical or empirical investigations. It often involves
reviewing existing literature, synthesizing findings, and proposing new theories or
models.
4. Empirical research

Empirical research is a type of research that relies on observation,

experimentation, and data collection to obtain evidence and draw conclusions. It
involves systematically collecting and analyzing data to answer research
questions or test hypotheses. This type of research is grounded in empirical
evidence, which means it is based on actual, measurable observations and
experiences rather than theories or beliefs.
Examples:- Customer Satisfaction and Repeat Purchase Behavior
Objective: To examine the relationship between customer satisfaction and
repeat purchase behavior in the retail industry.
Methods of Empirical Research
Quantitative Methods of Empirical Research:- used to gather information through numerical
data.
1. Surveys
2. Experiments
3. Longitudinal Studies:- used to understand the behaviour of a subject after repeatedly testing
over a period of time.
4. Cross-sectional Studies:- used to understand the behaviour of a subject after observed at a
point of time.
5. Correlational research
Qualitative Methods of Empirical Research:- used to gather information through non numerical
data.
1. Interviews
2. Focus Groups
3. Case Studies
4. Participant Observations
5. Basic research or Fundamental or Pure research
Basic research, also known as fundamental or pure research, is conducted to
enhance general knowledge and understanding of phenomena without any
immediate application or practical end-use in mind. It aims to expand scientific
theories and principles, contributing to the broader body of knowledge in a particular
field.
Characteristics of Basic Research:
1. Emphasizes theoretical understanding rather than practical applications.
2. Aims to expand the fundamental understanding of a subject area.
3. Driven by researchers' curiosity and desire to explore unknown aspects of a
phenomenon.
4. Often has long-term implications, potentially leading to future applied research
and innovations.
5. Follows rigorous scientific methods to explore hypotheses and theories.
6. Applied research
Applied research is conducted to solve specific, practical problems or to answer
specific questions with immediate real-world applications. It focuses on finding
solutions that can be directly implemented and used to address issues in various
fields such as business, education, healthcare, and technology. It is also known as
action research.
Action Research is a collaborative, iterative process involving participants in all
stages of the research to solve practical problems and generate new knowledge
within a specific context.
Characteristics of Applied Research:
1. Aims to address and solve real-world problems.
2. Results are intended to be applied directly to current issues or challenges.
3. Seeks practical outcomes and solutions rather than theoretical understanding.
4. Often conducted in collaboration with industries, organizations, or government
bodies to have a direct impact.
5. Uses empirical data collection and analysis methods to derive actionable insights.
Difference Between Basic Research and Applied Research
Aspect Basic Research Applied Research
Expand general knowledge and
Purpose Solve specific, practical problems
understanding
Theoretical understanding and Practical application and solution
Focus
knowledge development development
Generate new theories, concepts, and Implement and test solutions to real-
Goals
insights world issues
Nature Curiosity-driven, exploratory Problem-driven, solution-oriented
Emphasizes theoretical analysis and Utilizes empirical methods to develop
Methodology
conceptual models practical solutions
Advances scientific theories and Provides actionable recommendations
Outcome
principles and interventions
Long-term impact on knowledge and Immediate impact on practices,
Impact
future research policies, and industries
Context Broad, generalizable contexts Specific, contextualized settings
7. Descriptive research

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population,

situation, phenomenon or state of affairs as it exist at present. The main feature
of this research is the research has no control over variables, he has only report
what has happened or what is happening.

Example:- Consumer Behavior in Online Shopping.

8. Analytical research

Analytical research is a type of research that aims to understand complex

phenomena by breaking them down into their constituent parts and examining
the relationships between them. This approach involves analyzing existing
information or data to uncover patterns, draw conclusions, and identify causal
relationships. Analytical research is often used to test hypotheses and theories,
making it a crucial component of scientific inquiry and decision-making
processes.
Example:- The Effect of Marketing Strategies on Brand Loyalty
9. Quantitative research

Quantitative research is a systematic investigation that primarily focuses on

quantifying variables, analyzing numerical data, and uncovering patterns,
relationships, and trends. This type of research often involves the use of
statistical tools to test hypotheses and make predictions.

Example :- The Impact of Advertising on Consumer Purchase Decisions

10. Qualitative research

Qualitative research focuses on understanding phenomena from a subjective,

contextual, and detailed perspective. It involves collecting non-numerical data to
gain insights into people's experiences, behaviors, and interactions. This types of
research aims at discovering underlying motives and desires using in-depth
interviews for the purpose.
Research Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction or statement about the
expected outcome of a scientific research, that provides direction and focus for the
study. The hypothesis is formulated based on existing theories, knowledge, or
observations, and it is designed to be tested through empirical research.
Characteristics of a Research Hypothesis:
1. Testable: A hypothesis must be framed in a way that it can be tested through
experiments or observations.
2. Specific: It should be specific and clear, outlining the expected relationship
between variables.
3. Based on Theory: The hypothesis should be grounded in existing theories or
previous research.
4. Predictive: It should make a prediction about the relationship between two or
more variables.
5. Falsifiable: There should be a possibility to disprove the hypothesis through
evidence.
Importance of a Research Hypothesis:

• Guides Research: Provides a clear focus and direction for the study.
• Framework for Data Analysis: Helps in designing the study and determining
the methods of data collection and analysis.
• Predictive Value: Offers predictions that can be tested, thereby contributing
to the body of knowledge.
• Basis for Theory Testing: Enables the testing and validation of theoretical
frameworks.
• It prevents from blind research
Functions of a Research Hypothesis

1. Guiding the Research Study

2. It will bring clarity to research problem
3. Formulating a Testable Prediction
4. Providing a Framework for Data Collection
5. Facilitating Data Analysis and Interpretation
6. Supporting Theory Development
7. Ensuring Focus and Relevance
8. It enables to conclude with what is true or what is false
Types of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypothesis (H0):
States that there is no relationship or effect between the variables.
It is a statement of no difference or no effect.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha):
States that there is a relationship or effect between the variables.
It is the opposite of the null hypothesis.
3. Simple Hypothesis:
States a direct relationship between two variables.
Example: Increasing the amount of daily exercise decreases the risk of heart disease.
4. Complex Hypothesis:
Involves more than two variables.
Example: Diet, exercise, and sleep quality collectively affect the risk of heart disease
Types of Hypotheses…
5. Working Hypothesis
A working hypothesis is a provisional hypothesis formulated at the beginning of a
research study. It serves as a starting point for investigation and guides the initial
stages of research. Unlike a final hypothesis, a working hypothesis is subject to
modification and refinement as new data and insights are gathered throughout the
research process.
6. Statistical Hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is a formal statement about a population parameter that can
be tested using statistical methods.
7.Directional Hypothesis
Specifies the direction of the expected relationship. Example: "Students who receive
tutoring will perform better on exams than those who do not receive tutoring.
8.Non-Directional Hypothesis
States that there is a relationship, but does not specify the direction. Example: "There
is a difference in exam performance between students who receive tutoring and those
who do not.
Induction and Deduction Theory in Research

Induction and deduction are two fundamental approaches to reasoning and

theory development in research. Both methods play a crucial role in the scientific
process, guiding how researchers construct and test theories.
Induction

Induction is a bottom-up approach that involves generating general principles or

theories from specific observations or empirical data. This method consist of
studying several individual cases and drawing a generalization. It use specific
facts to create a theory.
Inductive Process:
1. Gather Data: Collect specific observations or empirical evidence.
2. Identify Patterns: Look for patterns, trends, or regularities in the data.
3. Develop Hypothesis: Formulate a hypothesis based on the observed
patterns.
4. Build Theory: Generalize the findings to develop a broader theory.
Deduction

Deduction is a top-down approach or from general to specific that involves

testing hypotheses or theories against empirical data.
Deductive Process:
1. Start with a Theory: Begin with an established theory or general principle.
2. Formulate Hypothesis: Derive a testable hypothesis based on the theory.
3. Collect Data: Conduct observations or experiments to test the hypothesis.
4. Analyze Results: Determine whether the data supports or refutes the
hypothesis.
5. Draw Conclusion: Confirm, revise, or reject the original theory based on the
results.
 Difference Between Induction and Deduction

Aspect Induction Deduction

Approach Bottom-up Top-down

Starts With Specific observations General theory or principle

Ends With General theory or hypothesis Specific observations or evidence

Nature Exploratory Confirmatory

Probabilistic (subject to new Logical certainty (if premises are

Certainty
evidence) true)

Use in Research Theory generation Hypothesis testing

Observing patient symptoms and Testing an existing theory of

Example
developing a new theory disease causation
Concepts and Constructs
Concepts are broader and more general, representing categories or ideas that
are important for understanding a phenomenon. They are often the starting point
for research and theory development.
Constructs are more specific and are often derived from concepts to represent
them in a way that can be empirically tested or measured. Constructs are integral
to theory building because they are the entities that researchers test, measure,
and manipulate in their studies.
Concept: Motivation
A general idea representing the desire or drive to act in a certain way.
Construct: Intrinsic Motivation
A specific construct developed from the concept of motivation, representing the
internal drive to perform a task for its own sake.
Proposition

A proposition is a declarative statement that expresses a relationship between

two or more concepts or constructs. In the context of theory building and
research, propositions are used to articulate the ideas that a theory or hypothesis
is trying to convey. They are the building blocks of theories, providing the logical
connections between concepts or constructs that can be tested and validated
through research.
Example: Employee motivation is positively related to job performance.
Higher levels of education lead to higher income.
Increased customer satisfaction leads to higher customer loyalty
Operational Definition

An operational definition is a clear, precise, and measurable definition of a

concept or variable in terms of the specific procedures or operations used to
observe or measure it. In research, operational definitions are crucial because
they allow researchers to translate abstract concepts into measurable
observations, enabling consistent data collection and analysis.
Research Design

The research design is the blue print or the frame work for carrying out the
research study. It indicates the plan constituted in order to give the necessary
direction to the research study.
According to Bernard S. Philips, “ the research design constitute the blue print for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the scientist in the
collection of his limited resources by posing crucial choices”
Features of Research Design

1. Clear Research Problem and Objectives:

The research design begins with a well-defined research problem or question
and clearly outlines the objectives the study aims to achieve. This provides
direction and focus for the entire research process.
2. Appropriate Methodology:
The research design specifies whether the study will use qualitative, quantitative,
or mixed methods, selecting the approach that best suits the research question
and objectives. This includes the methods for data collection and analysis.
3. Sampling Design:
The research design outlines the sampling strategy, including the target
population, sample size, and sampling method.
Features of Research Design…

4. Time Frame and Budget: The research design includes a timeline for
completing various stages of the study and outlines the budget, ensuring that the
research is feasible and resources are adequately allocated.
5. It is framework for specifying the relationship among the variables which are
going to be studied.
6. It also mentions the boundaries of the research activities and enables the
researcher channel his energies in the right work.
Essential concepts concerning to a research design

1. Dependent and independent variables

The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the
researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Example: Does the amount of study time affect students' test scores
Independent Variable: Amount of study time (e.g., 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours).

The dependent variable is the factor that is measured or observed to assess the
effect of the independent variable.
Example: Does the amount of study time affect students' test scores
Dependent Variable: Test scores of the students.
2.Extraneous variable
An extraneous variable is a variable that is not the focus of the study but could
influence the results if not controlled. Controlling for extraneous variables is crucial
in research to ensure that the observed effects are due to the independent variable
and not other factors, thereby increasing the validity of the study's conclusions.
Example of Extraneous Variables Scenario: A company conducts a study to
evaluate the effect of a new training program on employee productivity.
Independent Variable: The new training program (whether employees receive the
training or not).
Dependent Variable: Employee productivity (measured by the number of units
produced per hour).
Possible Extraneous Variables:
1. Experience Level : Employees with varying levels of experience may
naturally have different productivity levels, regardless of the training.
3.Control:The term control is used when we design the study by minimizing the
effects of extraneous variables.
4. Confounded relationship: if the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variables such a relationship is known as confounded
relationship.
5. Experimental and control groups: when a group is exposed to some special
condition in an experimental research it is termed as experimental group and if
the group exposed of usual conditions it is termed as control group.
6. Treatments: Treatments are different conditions under which the group are
put.
7. Experiment: An experiment is a process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to some research problem.
8. Experimental units: These are the predetermined plots where different
treatments are applied.
Stages/Steps in Research Design
1. Selection of a problem
2. Identifying the research gap:- Research gap is a question that has not been
answered by any of the existing studies.
3. Ascertain the nature of the study:- statistical, comparative or experimental etc.
4. Setting objectives and hypothesis
5. Geographical area to be covered
6. Socio cultural context of the study
7. Identifying variables:- a variable is the characteristics or attribute of an
individual, group or the environment that is of interest in a research study.
8. Period of study
9. Dimensions of the study
10. Basis for selecting data
11. Technique of the study
12. Document the Research Design and Implement the Research Design
13. Review and Revise as Necessary
Merits of research design

● It save money, time and energy

● It helps to conduct the research systematically
● It ensure proper time schedule for the implementation of the project
● It provides confident to the researcher for completing the research work
● It provides a sense of success at every stage of work
 Types of Research design

Exploratory Conclusive

Descriptive Causal

Cross sectional Longitudinal Experimental

Types of research design
1. Exploratory research design:- it is the simplest and most loosely structured
research design. It is flexible in its approach and involves a qualitative
investigation in most cases. The sample size is not strictly representative and
at times it might only involves unstructured interviews with a couple of subject
experts. A researcher can make use of a wide variety of established methods
and techniques like secondary data sources, unstructured or structured
observations, expert interviews and focus group discussions with the
concerned respondent group for conducting the exploratory research.
Forms of exploratory research:
1. Experience surveys
2. Secondary analysis
3. Case analysis
4. Pilot studies
Forms of exploratory research design
1. Experience surveys:- Survey is to be conducted among the people who have had
practical experience with the problem to be studied. It involves talking with the
knowledgeable individuals both inside and outside the organisation who may
provide insight in to the problem.
2. Secondary analysis:- Analysis of secondary data helps to define the business
research problem. It reveal a lot of historical data. Secondary data are data that
have been gathered by other people for some other purpose. Researcher has to
modify such data for individual requirements.
3. Case analysis:- this method is used to attain information from one or few
situations that are similar to researcher’s problem situation. A case is regarded as
a microscopic view of a problem from its historical or social perspectives.
4. Pilot studies:- It is a small scale preliminary study conducted before the main
research. These are surveys using limited number of respondents and often
employing less accurate sampling techniques that are employed in large
quantitative studies.
 Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research design is a type of research that is focused on describing the
characteristics of a phenomenon or a population being studied. Descriptive research
design are more structured and formal in nature. The objective of these research is to
provide comprehensive and detailed explanation of the phenomena under study.
Descriptive research design is a versatile and practical approach that allows
researchers to systematically describe a phenomenon, population, or condition. While
it does not establish causality, it provides valuable insights that can form the basis for
further research or decision-making. By using methods like surveys, observations, and
case studies, descriptive research captures a detailed picture of the "what" and "how"
of a particular subject, making it an essential tool in many fields of study.
Descriptive Research Design…

Descriptive research design is further subdivided into two.

1. Cross sectional studies:- studying a phenomenon at a specific point in time.

2. Longitudinal:- studying the same phenomenon over a period of time.

 Methods Used in Descriptive Research Design
1.Surveys:Surveys are widely used in descriptive research to collect data from a
large number of respondents. They can involve questionnaires with closed-ended
or open-ended questions. Example: A survey conducted to describe the
demographic characteristics of smartphone users in a city.
2.Observations:Observational research involves systematically watching and
recording behaviors or events as they occur naturally, without interference.
Example: Observing the customer service practices in a retail store to describe
common interactions between staff and customers.
3.Case Studies: A case study provides an in-depth description of a single case or a
small number of cases, often used to explore complex issues in real-life contexts.
Example: A detailed case study of a successful startup to describe its growth
strategy and challenges.
4.Document Analysis: Involves analyzing existing records, documents, or archival
data to describe a phenomenon. Example: Analyzing company financial reports to
describe trends in revenue growth over the past decade.
 Causal Research Design
Causal research design is a type of research methodology used to identify and
understand the cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It goes beyond
simply observing correlations and aims to determine whether one variable directly
influences another. This type of research is often employed when researchers want to
test hypotheses about the impact of one factor (the independent variable) on another
(the dependent variable).
Causal research design is a powerful tool for uncovering the cause-and-effect
relationships that drive changes in various outcomes. By carefully manipulating
independent variables, controlling for extraneous factors, and establishing a clear
temporal sequence, researchers can confidently identify the causal links between
variables. This method is particularly valuable in fields where understanding the
impact of specific actions is crucial for informed decision-making and strategic
planning.
 Causal Research Design…
Methods for exploring cause and effect relationship between variables:-

1. Experimentation:- This method allows the researcher to manipulate a specific

independent variable in order to determine what effect this manipulation would
have on other dependent variable.

2. Simulation:- Simulation involves creating a computer-based model that represents

the essential features of a real-world system or process. This model can be used to test
various scenarios by altering the inputs (independent variables) and observing the
resulting changes in outputs (dependent variables). In the context of causal research,
simulations allow researchers to explore "what-if" scenarios by creating virtual
environments that mimic real-world processes, enabling them to study the effects of
changes in variables on outcomes.
Experimental Design

Experimental design is a research methodology used to establish cause-and-

effect relationships between variables. It involves the deliberate manipulation of
one or more independent variables and the observation of their effect on a
dependent variable, while controlling for extraneous variables. This design is
particularly valuable in scientific research, allowing researchers to test
hypotheses and draw conclusions about the relationships between variables.
Types of Experimental Design
1.Pre-Experimental Designs: -
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design: Involves one group where a pretest is conducted,
the treatment is applied, and then a posttest is conducted.
Example: Testing student knowledge before and after a teaching intervention in the
same group.
2. True Experimental Designs:-
Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs): Participants are randomly assigned to either the
experimental or control group, and the independent variable is manipulated to observe
its effect.
3. Quasi-Experimental Designs:-
Non-Randomized Control Group Design: Similar to true experiments but without
random assignment. This design is used when randomization is not possible. Example:
Comparing outcomes between two schools where one implements a new teaching
method and the other does not. Interrupted Time Series Design: Involves multiple
measurements before and after a treatment to observe changes over time. Example:
Monitoring crime rates before and after the implementation of a new policing strategy.
Measurement and Scaling

Measurement is a systematic way of assigning numbers or names to objects and

their attributes.
Scaling is the process of assigning numbers to various degrees of openion,
attitude and other concepts.
Types of Measurement Scales:
1.Nominal,
2.Ordinal,
3.Interval, and
4.Ratio.
Nominal Scale

The nominal scale is the most basic level of measurement. It categorizes data
without any quantitative value or rank order. The numbers or labels assigned to
categories do not have any intrinsic meaning other than to identify different
groups. It is mainly used in surveys and expost facto research when data is being
classified by major sub groups of population.
Characteristics:
• Labels or categories.
• No intrinsic order.
• No numerical value associated.
• Mode is the measure of central tendency
Examples:
• Customer segments (e.g., "VIP," "Regular," "Occasional").
Ordinal Scale

An ordinal scale organizes data into categories that have a meaningful order or
ranking, but the intervals between the ranks are not uniform or known. This scale
allows for relative comparisons but does not provide precise differences between
ranks.
Characteristics:
• Data is ranked or ordered.
• Intervals between ranks are not equal.
• No absolute zero point.
• Median is the measure of central tendency
Examples:
• Customer satisfaction ratings (e.g., "Very Satisfied," "Satisfied," "Neutral," "Dissatisfied").
Interval Scale

The interval scale builds on the ordinal scale by offering meaningful and equal
intervals between measurements. However, it lacks a true zero point, meaning
that ratios (e.g., "twice as much") are not meaningful.
Characteristics:
• Equal intervals between points.
• No true zero.
• Can measure the difference between items but not the absolute quantity.
• Mean is the measure of central tendency
Examples:
• Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit (the difference between 20°C and 30°C is the
same as between 30°C and 40°C, but 0°C is not an absolute absence of temperature).
Ratio Scale

The ratio scale is the highest level of measurement. It possesses all the
characteristics of the interval scale, but with a meaningful absolute zero point,
which allows for a wide range of statistical operations, including meaningful ratios
(e.g., "twice as much").
Characteristics:
• Equal intervals between values.
• A true zero point exists, indicating an absence of the variable being measured.
• Allows for meaningful ratios and a full range of mathematical operations.
Examples:
• Annual revenue (e.g., $0 revenue indicates no earnings, and $100 million is twice as much as
$50 million).
Sources of Errors in Measurement

1. Respondent Errors: Misunderstanding questions

2. Situational Factors: Time of day effects
3. Observer or Human Errors: Reading mistakes
4. Environmental Errors: Noise interference
5. Sampling Errors: Sample size issues
Features of good measurement tool

1.Reliability:-
a)Consistency: The tool should provide consistent results over repeated trials or
time, assuming the variable being measured remains unchanged.

b)Test-Retest Reliability: When used on the same group under similar

conditions at different times, the tool should yield the same results.

c)Internal Consistency: Multiple items within the tool that measure the same
concept should give consistent responses.
Features of good measurement tool…

2. Validity:-
a)Content Validity: The tool must measure all aspects of the concept being
studied and cover the full domain.
b)Construct Validity: The tool should actually measure the theoretical concept it
is intended to assess.
c)Criterion Validity: The tool’s measurements should correlate well with
established standards or benchmarks.
• Concurrent Validity: The measurement tool’s results align with other assessments taken at the
same time.
• Predictive Validity: The tool should predict future outcomes related to the concept being
measured.
Features of good measurement tool…

3. Measurability

4. Unidimensionality

5. Linearity

6. Practicability

7. Accuracy
Approaches related with construction of scale
1. Arbitrary approach:- the researcher develop a scale on ad hoc basis. He
collects a number of statements which he believes that they are unmistakable
and suitable to a given topic.
2. Consensus approach:- statements are selected by a panel of judges.
Differential scales.
3. Item analysis approach:- The Item Analysis Approach evaluates each item
based on its ability to differentiate between individuals with high and low total
scores, including only the items that best pass this discrimination test in the
final scale. Likert scales.
4. Cumulative approach:- This scale contains a series of statements to which
the respondents express their agreement or disagreement. The special
feature of this scale is that they are cumulative in nature. Guttmann’s scale
5. Factor analysis approach:- Factor scale are designed to inter correlate items
to determine their degree of interdependence between items.
Scaling Techniques

I. Rating Scales:- are used for measuring the attitudes and the intensity of
attitudes.
Following are the types of rating scales.
1. Dichotomous scale:- it is used to draw Yes or No answer.
2. Category scale:- it uses multiple items to draw out a single response.(place of
residence; pkd, tsr, tvm)
3. Likert scale:- it is termed as summated instrument scale. This means that the
items making up a Likert scale are summed to produce a total score. It
consists of number of statements which expresses either a positive or
negative attitude towards the object of interest. (Strongly agree, agree,
neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)
Scaling Techniques..

4. Semantic scales:- Semantic Scales (or Semantic Differential Scales)

measure people's attitudes or perceptions by asking them to rate a concept,
object, or event on a series of bipolar adjective pairs (e.g., "good-bad," "happy-
sad") typically using a 7-point scale.
5. Numerical scale:- A Numerical Scale is a type of rating scale where
respondents assign a number, typically from a defined range (e.g., 0 to 10), to
indicate their level of agreement, satisfaction, or perception about a particular
concept, object, or experience. Rating customer satisfaction on a scale from 1
(very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied).
Scaling Techniques..

6. A Graphic Rating Scale :-is a type of rating scale where respondents rate
their opinion, feeling, or performance on a continuous line or graphical
representation, typically between two endpoints representing opposite extremes
(e.g., "Poor" to "Excellent"). Respondents mark a point along the line that best
represents their level of agreement or satisfaction.
7. Fixed or Constant scale:- here the respondents are asked to distribute a given
number of points across various items. The respondents are asked to indicate
importance to the five aspects by allotting points for selecting a toilet soap.
Colour, smell, size, shape, quality of foam.
II. Ranking scale
1. Paired comparison:- A Paired Comparison Scale is a type of measurement scale
where respondents are presented with two items at a time and asked to choose
which one they prefer or which is more important based on a specific criterion. Each
item is compared to every other item in the set, and the frequency of selections is
used to rank the items.
Example: In a product evaluation, respondents might be asked to choose between
"Brand A" and "Brand B" based on quality, then between "Brand A" and "Brand C,"
and so on for all possible pairs.
II. Ranking scale…
2. Comparative Scale :- A Comparative Scale is a type of scale where
respondents evaluate two or more items directly against each other, rather than
independently.
Example: In a comparative scale survey, respondents may be asked to rank
various smartphone brands (e.g., Brand A, Brand B, Brand C) from most pref
3. A Forced Choice Scale is a type of rating scale where respondents are
required to choose between two or more specific options, without the possibility
of selecting a neutral or middle option. This forces the respondent to make a
definitive decision, eliminating indecision or neutrality, and is often used to
uncover clear preferences or attitudes.
● Example: In an employee evaluation, a forced choice question might ask,
"Which statement best describes your colleague?" with options like "Works
well under pressure" or "Completes tasks on time," requiring the respondent
to choose one even if both seem true.
erred to least preferred based on features like design or performance.
II. Ranking scale…

4. A Continuous Scale is a type of measurement scale that allows respondents to

place their responses anywhere along a continuous spectrum, rather than choosing
from predefined categories or numbers.
Example: A survey might use a continuous scale for measuring pain, where
respondents mark a point on a line between "No pain" and "Extreme pain," rather
than selecting a specific number.
5. A Line Marking Scale (also known as a Visual Analog Scale) is a type of
continuous scale where respondents indicate their level of agreement, feeling, or
intensity by placing a mark on a horizontal or vertical line between two endpoints that
represent opposite extremes of a variable.
Example: In a pain assessment, a patient might be asked to mark their pain level on
a line where the left end represents "No pain" and the right end represents "Worst
pain imaginable."
Data collection

Data: - Data refers to raw facts, figures, or information collected for analysis,
reference, or decision-making. It can represent quantities, qualities, observations,
or measurements about various phenomena, which may be collected in different
forms such as numbers, text, images, or audio.
Classification of data
1. Primary data:- collected for the first time
2. Secondary data:- already been collected, tabulated and presented in some
form by sone one else for some other purpose. It may be internal secondary
data or external secondary data.
Sources of data

1. Primary sources: the researcher directly collect the data that have not been
previously collected.
2. Secondary sources: already published
3. Other classification:
a) Documentary sources:
1. Individual document- diary , life history, letters etc.
2. Public document- news papers, journals and magazines,
published records, statistics and historical documents.

b) Personal sources
c) Library sources
Methods of collecting primary data
1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Simulation
4. Interview
5. Use of telephone
6. Panel method
7. Mail survey
8. Projective technique
9. Sociometry
10. Focus group discussion
11. Content analysis
Choice of methods of data collection

1. Nature of the study

2. The unit of enquiry
3. The size of the sample
4. Scale of survey
5. Respondents educational level
6. Type of information required
7. Availability of skilled personal
8. Required accuracy
Observation
The Observation Method of data collection involves systematically watching,
listening to, and recording behaviors, actions, or events as they occur in their natural
setting. This method does not rely on direct interaction with participants, like surveys
or interviews, but instead focuses on observing and documenting real-world
behaviors and conditions.
● Key Features:
• Direct Data Collection: Information is gathered firsthand by observing subjects in
their natural environment.
• Non-intrusive: Subjects are often unaware they are being observed, reducing
bias or altered behavior.
• Qualitative and Quantitative: The method can collect both qualitative data
(descriptions of behavior) and quantitative data (frequencies, timings).
• It is purposive
Types of Observation
1. Structured Observation: Predefined criteria guide what is being observed.
2. Unstructured Observation: Open-ended, allowing for broader or more spontaneous
observation.
3. Participant Observation: The observer becomes part of the group being studied.
4. Non-Participant Observation: The observer remains separate from the subjects.
5. Subjective observation: involves interpretations or judgments based on personal feelings,
opinions, or experiences of the observer.
6. Objective observation: on the other hand, is based on factual, measurable, and observable
data that is not influenced by personal feelings or opinions.
7. Controlled observation: is a type of observation conducted in a structured and regulated
environment, where the observer has control over variables and conditions.
8. Uncontrolled observation; also known as naturalistic observation, occurs in a natural,
real-world setting where the observer has no control over the variables or environment.
9. Direct observation: In this approach, the observer is physically present or uses tools like
cameras to witness the behavior firsthand.
10. Indirect observation involves studying the results, traces, or evidence of behaviors or
events rather than watching them as they happen.
Advantages of Observation
1. Real-time Data Collection: Observers capture behaviors and events as they
occur, providing immediate and accurate insights.
2. Natural Behavior: In uncontrolled or naturalistic observation, subjects behave
naturally, offering authentic data, especially when unaware of being observed.
3. Rich, Detailed Data: Observation allows for the collection of nuanced, contextual
data that other methods (like surveys) might miss.
4. Applicable to All Subjects: It can be used for subjects who cannot effectively
communicate their experiences (e.g., children, animals).
5. Non-intrusive: Observation doesn't require interaction with subjects, making it
less likely to influence or alter behavior compared to direct questioning.
6. Direct Evidence: Observers can see what people do rather than relying on self-
reports, which may be biased or inaccurate.
Disadvantages of Observation
1. Observer Bias: Observers may unintentionally influence or interpret data based
on their own expectations or experiences, reducing objectivity.
2. Time-consuming: It often requires prolonged periods to observe behaviors,
especially if waiting for specific events to occur naturally.
3. Limited Generalizability: Findings from small, specific settings may not apply to
broader populations, particularly in uncontrolled environments.
4. Hawthorne Effect: When subjects know they are being observed, they may alter
their behavior, compromising the authenticity of the data.
5. Costly: Observation often requires dedicated personnel, tools, or technology
(e.g., cameras), and may be resource-intensive.
6. Lack of Insight into Motivation: Observation captures actions but may not
reveal the underlying reasons or motivations behind behaviors unless combined
with other methods like interviews.
 Survey
A survey is a research method used to collect data from a predefined group of respondents to gather
information and insights on various topics of interest. Surveys typically use questionnaires or interviews
to collect opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or demographic information. The goal of a survey is to gain a
representative understanding of the group being studied.
Features of a Survey
1. Structured Questions: Surveys use pre-designed questions, often in a standardized format, to
ensure consistency across responses.
2. Quantitative and Qualitative Data: Surveys can collect both types of data, although they are
commonly used for quantitative research.
3. Large Sample Size: Surveys often target large groups of respondents to ensure the results are
representative of a larger population.
4. Data Collection Tools: Surveys can be conducted through various methods, such as online forms,
face-to-face interviews, phone calls, or paper questionnaires.
5. Standardization: To reduce bias and variability, all respondents are asked the same set of
questions in the same way.
6. Analysis and Reporting: Surveys typically result in numerical data that can be statistically
analyzed, but they can also gather qualitative insights from open-ended questions.
Objectives of a Survey
1. Understanding Opinions or Attitudes: Surveys are used to gauge people's
views or beliefs on various topics, such as customer satisfaction or employee
engagement.
2. Collecting Descriptive Data: Surveys collect demographic or behavioral
information, such as age, income, purchasing habits, etc.
3. Measuring Public Perception: Surveys help businesses and policymakers
understand public perception, preferences, and trends.
4. Market Research: Surveys can determine market demand, customer
preferences, and product feedback.
5. Evaluating Programs or Services: Surveys can assess the effectiveness or
quality of services, products, or initiatives.
6. Identifying Relationships: Surveys can explore potential relationships between
different variables, such as income level and purchasing habits.
Types of Surveys
1. Descriptive Surveys: Focus on describing characteristics of a population
(e.g., "What percentage of people use smartphones?").
2. Analytical Surveys: Seek to explore relationships between variables (e.g.,
"How does income level affect smartphone usage?").
3. Cross-Sectional Surveys: Conducted at a single point in time to provide a
snapshot of the population (e.g., a one-time customer satisfaction survey).
4. Longitudinal Surveys: Repeated over time to track changes in respondents'
behavior or opinions (e.g., an annual employee engagement survey).
5. Census Survey: Involves gathering data from every member of the
population, not just a sample.
6. Sample Surveys: Only a subset of the population is surveyed, with results
generalized to represent the entire group.
Methods of Conducting Surveys
1. Census Method: The Census Method involves collecting data from every single
member of the population being studied. It provides a complete picture of the
population because no one is excluded.
Features:
• Comprehensive: Data is collected from the entire population.
• Time-Consuming and Expensive: Since every individual must be surveyed, it
requires more time, effort, and financial resources.
• Highly Accurate: Since it covers the entire population, the results are highly
reliable and leave little room for error (assuming all responses are accurate).
• Infeasible for Large Populations: It may be impractical for large populations,
especially in terms of time and cost.
Methods of Conducting Surveys…
2. Sample Method: The Sample Method involves collecting data from a subset of
the population, known as a sample, and using that data to make inferences about the
entire population. This method is more practical when studying large populations.
Features:
• Less Expensive and Faster: Since only a portion of the population is surveyed, it
requires fewer resources and less time.
• Efficient for Large Populations: Ideal for large populations where surveying
everyone is impractical.
• Risk of Sampling Error: If the sample is not properly selected or too small, the
results may not accurately represent the entire population.
• Generalization: The data is used to infer the characteristics of the entire
population, but there is a margin of error.
 Methods of Conducting Surveys…
3.Online Surveys: Surveys are distributed via the internet using survey platforms
like Google Forms, SurveyMonkey, or Type form.
• Advantages: Cost-effective, fast data collection, reaches a wide audience.
• Disadvantages: Low response rates if not well-targeted, may exclude people
without internet access.
4. Telephone Surveys: Interviewers ask questions over the phone.
• Advantages: Faster than face-to-face, can reach geographically dispersed
respondents.
• Disadvantages: Declining response rates due to phone call screening, limited
depth of responses.
5. Mail Surveys: Questionnaires are sent by post, and respondents fill them out
and return them.
• Advantages: Can reach a broad audience, no interviewer bias.
• Disadvantages: Low response rates, slow process.
Experimental methods

Experimental methods are used to collect data by manipulating one or more

variables under controlled conditions to observe their effect on other variables.
This method is widely used in scientific research, psychology, medicine, and
market testing to establish cause-and-effect relationships. In experiments,
researchers deliberately change (manipulate) an independent variable to
measure its impact on a dependent variable, while controlling other factors to
isolate the cause.
Interview method
The Interview Method is a qualitative data collection technique in which a researcher
or interviewer directly engages with a respondent to gather information. This method
allows for in-depth exploration of opinions, behaviors, experiences, or motivations.
Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the level
of flexibility needed in questioning.
Features of the Interview Method
1. Direct Interaction: The interviewer interacts face-to-face or remotely (via phone
or video call) with the respondent to collect data.
2. Flexibility: Interview questions can be adjusted based on the respondent's
answers, especially in semi-structured or unstructured formats.
3. In-depth Data: Interviews allow for deep exploration of complex issues, capturing
nuances that might be missed in surveys or questionnaires.
4. Non-Verbal Cues: Interviewers can observe body language, facial expressions,
and tone of voice to gain additional insights beyond verbal responses.
5. Customizable Format: Interview questions can be tailored to the specific
research objectives, allowing for exploration of themes not possible in more rigid
formats.
Objectives of the Interview Method

1. Understanding Attitudes and Opinions: Interviews help uncover

respondents' beliefs, attitudes, and opinions about specific topics.
2. Exploring Behaviors and Experiences: Researchers use interviews to learn
about past behaviors, experiences, or decision-making processes.
3. Clarifying Responses: Interviewers can probe for further details or
clarification on responses to gather more detailed information.
4. Building Rapport: Through direct engagement, the interviewer can establish
trust and encourage openness, leading to more honest responses.
5. Generating Insights: Interviews help researchers uncover new insights or
ideas that might not emerge through other data collection methods.
 Types of Interviews
1. Structured Interviews:
The interviewer asks a pre-determined set of standardized questions in a fixed order, without deviation.
1. Advantages: Consistency across interviews, easier to analyze and compare data.
2. Disadvantages: Limited flexibility to explore new topics or follow up on interesting answers.
2. Semi-Structured Interviews:
The interviewer follows a general set of questions but has the flexibility to explore topics more deeply as needed.
1. Advantages: Allows for structured data collection while still enabling deeper exploration of specific issues.
2. Disadvantages: More difficult to standardize responses, can be harder to analyze.
3. Unstructured Interviews:
The interview is open-ended, with no fixed set of questions, allowing the conversation to flow naturally.
1. Advantages: Maximum flexibility, ideal for exploring new or complex topics.
2. Disadvantages: Difficult to compare responses across different interviews, time-consuming, and harder to
analyze.
4. Focus Group Interviews:
A group of respondents is interviewed together to discuss a specific topic, allowing for interaction and shared
opinions.
1. Advantages: Encourages discussion, multiple perspectives in a single session.
2. Disadvantages: Dominant participants may influence others' responses, groupthink can occur.
 Methods of Conducting Interviews
1. Face-to-Face Interviews:
In-person interviews conducted between the interviewer and respondent.
1. Advantages: Allows for observation of body language and deeper engagement.
2. Disadvantages: Time-consuming and potentially expensive due to travel and scheduling logistics.
2. Telephone Interviews:
Interviews conducted over the phone, often used when respondents are geographically dispersed.
1. Advantages: More cost-effective than face-to-face, easier to schedule.
2. Disadvantages: No visual cues, limited ability to build rapport.
3. Online/Video Interviews:
Interviews conducted via video conferencing tools like Zoom or Skype.
1. Advantages: Combines the benefits of face-to-face interaction with the convenience of remote access.
2. Disadvantages: Technical issues (internet connectivity) may interfere, some non-verbal cues are less
noticeable.
4. Email Interviews:
Respondents answer questions in writing via email.
1. Advantages: Convenient for respondents, allows them to answer at their own pace.
2. Disadvantages: Lack of immediacy and interaction, limited follow-up or probing for more detail.
Advantages of the Interview Method

1. In-depth Information: Interviews allow for the collection of detailed, rich data,
especially on complex or sensitive topics.
2. Flexibility: Semi-structured and unstructured interviews allow researchers to
adapt questions based on the respondent’s answers, enabling deeper
exploration.
3. Clarification: Interviewers can ask follow-up questions or clarify answers in
real-time, improving the accuracy of the data collected.
4. Non-Verbal Insights: In face-to-face or video interviews, the interviewer can
observe body language and other non-verbal cues to gain additional insights.
5. Personalization: Interviews can be tailored to each respondent, allowing for
a more personalized and relevant conversation.
Disadvantages of the Interview Method
1. Time-Consuming: Conducting and transcribing interviews can be labor-intensive
and slow, especially with large samples.
2. Costly: Interviews, particularly face-to-face ones, can be expensive in terms of
both time and money.
3. Interviewer Bias: The interviewer’s own biases or behavior may influence the
respondent's answers, leading to less reliable data.
4. Limited Generalizability: Interviews often involve smaller samples, which may
not be representative of the broader population.
5. Analysis Complexity: Qualitative data from interviews can be harder to analyze
systematically compared to structured surveys, especially when responses are
diverse or lengthy.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions
designed to gather information from respondents. It is commonly used in surveys
to collect data on attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographic information from
individuals or groups. Questionnaires can be administered through various
formats, such as paper forms, online surveys, or face-to-face interviews.
Features:
1. Simplicity
2. Reliability
3. Validity
4. Flexibility
5. Cost effective
6. Structured Format
Objectives of a Questionnaire
1. Data Collection: The primary goal of a questionnaire is to collect accurate and relevant data
from respondents about their views, experiences, or behaviors.
2. Understanding Attitudes and Opinions: Questionnaires are often used to gather opinions,
attitudes, and perceptions on specific issues or topics, such as customer satisfaction or
employee engagement.
3. Measuring Behavior: They can measure past or current behaviors, such as shopping habits,
product usage, or health practices.
4. Exploring Relationships: Questionnaires help explore relationships between different
variables, such as age and purchasing habits or income and lifestyle choices.
5. Gathering Demographic Information: Researchers use questionnaires to collect
demographic data such as age, gender, education, income, and location.
6. Standardized Data Collection: Questionnaires ensure standardized data collection, making
it easier to compare responses across large groups or different segments.
Questionnaire Design Process
Designing a questionnaire is a critical process that requires careful planning to
ensure that it meets the research objectives and yields valid and reliable data.
Below are the key steps in the questionnaire design process.
1. Define the Objectives: Clearly define the purpose of the questionnaire. What
specific information do you want to collect, and how will it help achieve the
overall research goals
2. Identify the Target Audience: Determine who the respondents will be, such
as customers, employees, students, or a specific demographic group. The
language and structure of the questionnaire should match the target audience’s
understanding and needs.
3. Decide on the Type of Questions: Choose the appropriate types of
questions to gather the required data. This includes deciding between open-
ended or close-ended questions, and the use of multiple-choice, Likert scales,
ranking, etc.
 Questionnaire Design Process…
4. Structure the Questionnaire: Organize the questions in a logical sequence. The
flow should be easy to follow, starting with general questions and moving toward
more specific ones.
5. Decide on the Format and Layout: Make the questionnaire visually appealing
and easy to read, with a clear structure and format.
6. Pilot Testing: Conduct a trial run of the questionnaire with a small group of
respondents to identify any issues with question clarity, structure, or the overall flow.
7. Revise and Finalize the Questionnaire: After pilot testing, revise the
questionnaire based on feedback. Make necessary adjustments to improve clarity,
remove redundant questions, and ensure all questions align with the research
objectives.
8. Administer the Questionnaire: Choose the method of distribution (online, in-
person, phone, or paper) and administer the questionnaire to the target respondents.
 Schedule
A schedule is a structured form or set of questions used by an interviewer to collect data in a face-to-face
or telephonic interaction with respondents. Unlike a questionnaire, where respondents fill out answers on
their own, a schedule is administered by the interviewer, who records the respondent's answers during
the interview.
Purposes of a Schedule
1. Facilitating Data Collection: Schedules are used to systematically gather data through direct
interaction between the interviewer and the respondent. This ensures that all relevant information is
collected in a structured and consistent manner.
2. Clarifying Complex Questions: In cases where questions are complex or technical, an interviewer
using a schedule can explain and clarify the questions to ensure the respondent fully understands,
leading to more accurate responses.
3. Improving Response Rates: Since an interviewer is present to guide the respondent, schedules
typically result in higher response rates compared to self-administered questionnaires. The
interviewer can encourage participation and ensure the completion of all questions.
4. Capturing Non-Verbal Cues: When conducting face-to-face interviews using schedules, the
interviewer can observe and record non-verbal cues such as body language, tone, and facial
expressions, which can provide additional insights into the respondent's answers.
5. Ensuring Consistency: Schedules help standardize data collection across respondents by using a
pre-determined set of questions, ensuring that all interviewees are asked the same questions in the
same way. This consistency helps in reducing bias and improves the reliability of the data.
Types of Schedules
1. Structured Schedule: A pre-defined set of questions with fixed wording and
sequence, leaving little flexibility for the interviewer. It is similar to a structured
questionnaire but conducted in person.
2. Unstructured Schedule: Contains more open-ended questions or topics that
the interviewer can explore based on the respondent’s answers, allowing for
flexibility during the interaction.
3. Semi-Structured Schedule: Combines elements of both structured and
unstructured schedules, where there is a set of key questions, but the
interviewer has some flexibility to probe deeper into certain topics.
4. Rating Schedule: Designed to obtain responses based on a numerical or
descriptive rating scale, where respondents provide quantitative feedback
(e.g., rating a service on a scale from 1 to 5).
5. Interview schedule
6. Observation schedule: Used to recording observations
 Difference Between Schedule and Questionnaire
Aspect Schedule Questionnaire

A set of questions administered by an interviewer A written or electronic form filled out by

Definition
who records the respondent's answers. respondents independently.

Administered By An interviewer or researcher. The respondent (self-administered).

Requires the presence of an interviewer for face- No interviewer is needed; respondents fill it out on
Presence of Interviewer
to-face or telephonic data collection. their own.

Can allow flexibility, especially in unstructured or

Generally rigid, with fixed questions and limited
Flexibility semi-structured schedules, where the interviewer
room for flexibility.
can probe further.

The interviewer can clarify questions, explain Respondents must interpret the questions
Response Clarification
terms, and guide the respondent if needed. themselves, with no guidance from an interviewer.

Typically higher, as interviewers can encourage

Response rates can be lower, especially in mail or
Response Rate responses and complete the schedule during the
online formats, due to lack of engagement.
interaction.

Higher accuracy due to real-time clarification and Risk of inaccurate responses if respondents
Data Accuracy
personal interaction. misunderstand questions.

More expensive and time-consuming due to the More cost-effective and quicker, especially for
Cost and Time need for interviewers and scheduling face-to-face large sample sizes, since no interviewer is
interactions. needed.
Sampling plan

A sampling plan is a strategy used to determine how to select a subset (sample)

of individuals or units from a larger population for the purpose of data collection
and analysis. The sampling plan outlines how the sample will be selected, the
size of the sample, and the method of data collection, ensuring that the sample
accurately represents the larger population. A well-designed sampling plan is
critical for making valid inferences about the population from the sample.
Key Components of a Sampling Plan
1. Population: The population refers to the entire group of individuals or units that the researcher
is interested in studying. A clear definition of the population is crucial for identifying who should
be included in the sample.
2. Sample Frame: The sample frame is a complete list or representation of all the members of
the population from which the sample will be drawn.
Example: A list of all customers who have made purchases in a company's database can serve
as a sample frame.
3. Sample Size: The sample size refers to the number of individuals or units selected from the
population for data collection. The sample size should be large enough to provide reliable and
valid results but small enough to be manageable.
Example: If a company wants to survey customer satisfaction, they might select 500 customers
from a population of 10,000.
4. Sampling Unit: A sampling unit is the basic element or entity from which data is collected in
a research study. It refers to an individual unit within the population that can be selected for
inclusion in the sample. Depending on the context of the study, a sampling unit could be a
person, household, business, school, or any other distinct entity being measured.
Example: For a Study on Consumer Behavior: Each individual consumer could be the
sampling unit or For a School Survey: The sampling unit could be a school, a teacher, or a
student, depending on the focus of the research
 Sample Design
Sample design is the blueprint or framework used to select a subset of individuals or units (sample)
from a larger population for the purpose of gathering data. It outlines how the sample will be selected,
the sampling method to be used, the size of the sample, and the procedures for data collection. A well-
constructed sample design ensures that the sample accurately represents the population and that the
findings can be generalized to the broader group.
Characteristics of Sample Design
1. Representativeness: The sample should reflect the characteristics of the entire population,
ensuring that the results of the study can be generalized to the larger group.
2. Efficiency: The design should balance cost and time while maximizing the accuracy of the results. A
good sample design provides valid and reliable data while keeping resources to a minimum.
3. Randomness: If a probability sampling method is used, the sample selection should be random,
giving each unit in the population an equal chance of being chosen.
4. Appropriate Sample Size: The design should specify an adequate sample size to ensure statistical
accuracy and confidence in the findings.
5. Measurable Accuracy: The sample design allows for the calculation of error margins, such as
sampling error or confidence intervals, to assess the accuracy of the results.
6. Flexibility: The design should accommodate changes in the population or research objectives
without compromising the reliability and validity of the sample.
Steps in Sample Design

1. Define the Population

2. Determine the Sampling Frame
3. Identify sampling unit
4. Choose the Sampling Method
5. Determine the Sample Size
6. Specify the Sampling Procedure
7. Select the sample
 Methods of Sampling
I. Probability Sampling; In probability sampling, each member of the population has a
known, non-zero chance of being selected. This method allows for accurate representation
of the population and minimizes sampling bias.
A. Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected, often using random number generators.(Lottery and Random number
method)
Example: Randomly selecting 100 students from a university roster.
B. Restricted random samples:
1. Systematic Sampling/Quasi Sampling: Selects every nth individual from a population
list after a random starting point.
Example: Choosing every 10th customer entering a store.
2. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata), and random
samples are drawn from each subgroup.
Example: Surveying equal numbers of men and women by selecting random individuals from each gender.
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and a random sample of
clusters is chosen. Data is collected from all members within the selected clusters.
Example: Selecting random schools in a district and surveying all students in those schools.
 Probability Sampling…
4. Multi-stage cluster sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling where the process
of sampling is carried out in multiple stages, typically to simplify data collection from large,
geographically dispersed populations. Instead of directly selecting individuals, groups
(clusters) are selected in stages, with smaller groups or individuals selected from within
each cluster.
5. Random route sampling is a technique often used in face-to-face surveys when there is
no comprehensive list of the population. In this method, interviewers follow a predetermined
random route to select households or individuals for the survey. It ensures randomness in
areas where direct access to lists of potential respondents is not possible.
Steps in Random Route Sampling:
1. Starting Point: Choose a random starting point, often a central location or landmark in a
neighborhood.
2. Route Selection: The interviewer follows a randomly determined route, such as "every
3rd house on the right" or "every 5th apartment," until a specific number of interviews are
conducted.
II. Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, not every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected, often based on convenience or judgment. This method
is less likely to represent the entire population.
1.Convenience Sampling: Sampling units are chosen based on availability and
ease of access.
Example: Interviewing people at a mall due to their proximity.
2. Judgmental (Purposive) Sampling: The researcher uses their judgment to
select the sample based on specific criteria.
Example: Selecting experts for a technology trend study.
3. Quota Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups, and a specific
number of respondents is chosen from each group, often based on convenience.
Example: Selecting 50 students from each class year at a university.
4. Snowball Sampling: Existing participants recruit additional participants from
their network, often used for hard-to-reach populations.
Example: A researcher studying a hidden community asks participants to refer others.
II. Non-Probability Sampling…

5. Self-selection sampling is a non-probability sampling method where

individuals volunteer to participate in a study or survey. In this approach,
respondents decide whether to be part of the sample based on their own interest
or willingness, without being directly chosen by the researcher.
Determinants of optimum sample size

1. Nature of population: homogeneous or heterogeneous

2. Problem related with collection of data: time and money
3. Type of sampling method used
4. Degree of accuracy required for the study
5. Margin of Error (Confidence Interval):The margin of error indicates the range
within which the true population parameter is expected to fall, expressed as a
percentage.
6. Type of Study or Research Design: The nature of the study (e.g.,
descriptive, experimental, correlational) can influence the required sample size.
 Principles of Sampling
1. Law of Statistical Regularity: The Law of Statistical Regularity is a
fundamental principle in statistics that states that a large, random sample
selected from a population is likely to represent the characteristics of the entire
population accurately.

2. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers (Law of Large Numbers): The Law of Inertia
of Large Numbers is a statistical principle that states that as the size of a sample
increases, the average of the sample becomes closer to the true average (or mean)
of the population. The larger the sample, the more reliable the results and the
smaller the deviation from the population parameter.
Data processing stages
1. Editing of Data: Editing involves reviewing and correcting the collected data
to ensure that it is accurate, consistent, and complete before analysis. This is a
crucial step in data processing, as it helps identify and fix errors or
inconsistencies that may have occurred during data collection.
Objectives of Editing:
1. Detect and Correct Errors: Identify mistakes like incomplete responses,
inconsistencies, or outliers.
2. Ensure Accuracy: Verify that the data aligns with the expected values or
formats.
3. Consistency Check: Ensure that responses are logically consistent across
the dataset.
4. Remove Irrelevant Data: Identify and remove data that is not useful for the
study.
Stages of editing: 1. Field editing 2. Central editing
Data processing stages…

2. Coding of Data: Coding is the process of converting qualitative or categorical

data into a numeric or symbolic form for easier analysis. Coding is especially
useful for open-ended responses or text-based data, making the data ready for
statistical or quantitative analysis.
Objectives of Coding:
1. Simplify Data: Convert complex or descriptive responses into manageable
numerical codes.
2. Facilitate Analysis: Make it easier to analyze and interpret data using
statistical methods.
3. Ensure Consistency: Assign consistent codes for similar responses to avoid
ambiguity in the data.
 Data processing stages…
3. Classification of Data: Classification involves grouping or categorizing data into
meaningful categories based on shared characteristics or attributes. Classification helps
in organizing data to facilitate more insightful and systematic analysis.
Objectives of Classification:
1. Simplify Analysis: Organize large datasets into smaller, manageable groups for
analysis.
2. Reveal Patterns: Grouping similar data can highlight trends, patterns, or
relationships that might not be apparent in raw data.
3. Improve Comparability: Classification makes it easier to compare different
categories and subgroups within the dataset.
Types of Classification:
1. Qualitative Classification: Categorizes data based on non-numeric characteristics
(e.g., gender, occupation).
2. Quantitative Classification: Categorizes data based on numeric values (e.g.,
income levels, age ranges).
3. Geographical classification
4. Chronological classification
 Data processing stages…
4. Tabulation of Data: Tabulation is the process of systematically arranging data into
rows and columns, usually in a table format, to simplify data presentation and analysis.
Tabulation helps to summarize and organize the data, making it easier to interpret
patterns and relationships between variables.
Objectives of Tabulation:
1. Organize Data: Structure data in a clear, concise manner for easier interpretation.
2. Summarize Information: Provide a comprehensive overview of the data, enabling
quick comparisons.
3. Facilitate Analysis: Make it easier to calculate statistical measures such as
frequencies, percentages, averages, etc.
Types of Tabulation:
1. Simple Tabulation: Presents data on one variable, showing frequency distribution
(e.g., a table of the number of people in different age groups).
2. Cross Tabulation: Shows the relationship between two or more variables (e.g., a
table showing the relationship between age group and customer satisfaction levels).
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data involves displaying data visually using charts,
graphs, or diagrams. These representations make it easier to understand trends,
patterns, relationships, and comparisons in the data. Different types of graphical
methods are used depending on the nature of the data and the objectives of the
analysis.
1. Bar Chart: Used to compare categorical data. Each bar represents a category,
and the length or height of the bar corresponds to the frequency or value of the
category.
Example: A bar chart showing sales for different product categories.
2. Pie Chart: Displays data as a percentage of a whole. Each slice represents a
category's contribution to the total.
Example: A pie chart showing the market share of different brands in a market.
 Graphical representation of data…
3. Histogram: Similar to a bar chart but used to display the distribution of continuous
data. It shows the frequency of data points within specified ranges (called bins).
Example: A histogram showing the distribution of students' test scores.
4. Line Graph: Shows trends over time or the relationship between two variables.
Data points are connected by lines.
Example: A line graph showing the change in stock prices over a year.
5. Scatter Plot: Displays the relationship between two numerical variables. Each
point represents a pair of values, and the pattern of the points shows any
correlation or trends.
Example: A scatter plot showing the relationship between hours of study and exam
scores
Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Analysis of data means studying the tabulated material in order to determine inherent
facts.
Analysis can be classified into two.

1. Descriptive analysis

2. Inferential analysis
Descriptive analysis

Descriptive analysis refers to transformation of raw data into a form that will facilitate
easy understanding and interpretation. It describe the nature of phenomenon under study.
It consist of three types of analysis.

A). Unidimensional

B). Bivariate analysis

C). Multivariate analysis

Unidimensional

Unidimensional- Study related to one variable.

Example: Average, Dispersion, Skewness and Kurtosis.

Bivariate analysis-

Bivariate analysis- Study related to two variables.

Example: Correlation analysis and regression analysis, ANOVA and Chi-square Test.
Multivariate analysis-

Multivariate analysis- Study related with more than two variable.

Example: Multiple regression analysis, Multiple discriminant analysis, Multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA)
* Factor analysis: is a data reduction technique in which a researcher reduces large number variables to a
smaller and more manageable number of factors.
* Canonical analysis: it study the relationship between two sets of data with several independent and
dependent variables. It is a regression analysis of data.
* Cluster analysis: involves the classification of similar items or data points into groups or clusters. The
goal is to organize a set of objects in such a way that items in the same group are more similar to each other
than they are to items in other groups. This technique is widely used in various fields, including machine
learning, data analysis, pattern recognition, and statistics.
Inferential analysis
Inferential analysis is the process by which we draw a conclusion about some measure of
population on the basis of a sample value. It is concerned with testing of hypothesis and
significance.
Statistical inference can be classified into two.
1. Estimation of population parameter:-Parameters are characteristics of
populations, and Statistics are characteristics of samples. The relationship between
them is crucial in inferential statistics, where we use information from a sample to
make inferences about the population.

2. Testing of hypothesis:-A hypothesis is a statement or tentative assumption that is

proposed to explain a phenomenon or predict the outcome of a research study. In the
scientific method, a hypothesis plays a crucial role, guiding the researcher in designing
and conducting experiments, collecting data, and drawing conclusions.
Level of significance: It represents the threshold at which you are willing to reject the
null hypothesis. In other words, it is the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis.
The level of significance is the probability of making a Type I error.
A Type I error and A Type Two error
A Type I error occurs when you reject a null hypothesis that is actually true.
A Type II error occurs when you accept a null hypothesis that is actually false.

Critical Region: The critical region is the range of values for which you would reject the
null hypothesis.
It is determined by the level of significance and the distribution of the test statistic.

Standard error: The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistics is

known as standard error.
Parametric Tests

Parametric tests assume that the data follows a specific probability distribution, often the
normal distribution. Parametric tests are more suitable for data with interval or ratio
scales.

I. t-test: A t-test is a statistical hypothesis test used to determine if there is a significant

difference between the means of two groups. It's commonly employed when you have
two groups (e.g. males and females) and want to assess whether their means are
significantly different from each other.
 Types of t-tests
1. Independent Samples T-Test (or Two-Sample T-Test): This is used when you want to compare the means of
two independent groups to determine if there's a significant difference between them. For example, you might use
this test to compare the exam scores of two different classes to see if one class performed significantly better than
the other.
Independent variable is grouping variable (e.g. male and female)
Dependent variable is measuring variable (e.g. exam score)
2. Paired Samples T-Test (or Dependent Samples T-Test): This test is used when you have two sets of data that
are related or paired in some way. It assesses whether there is a significant difference in the means of paired
observations. For instance, you might use this test to determine if a new teaching method improves students' scores
by comparing their scores before and after implementing the method.
3. One-Sample T-Test: This test is used when you have a single group of data, and you want to determine if the
mean of that group is significantly different from a known or hypothesized population mean. For example, you
might use this test to determine if the average weight of apples in a sample is significantly different from the
average weight of apples in the entire orchard.

Each of these t-tests serves a specific purpose and can help you draw conclusions about the differences or
similarities between groups or populations based on sample data.
 II. Z-test
A Z-test is a statistical hypothesis test that's used to determine whether the mean of a sample is significantly different from
a known population mean when you have a large enough sample size. It's similar to the t-test, but the Z-test is typically
employed when you have a sample size large enough for the Central Limit Theorem to apply, allowing you to assume that
the sample mean follows a normal distribution.

There are two main types of Z-tests:

1. Z-Test for One Sample: This type of Z-test is used to compare the mean of a single sample to a known population
mean. It's employed when you have a large enough sample size and know the population standard deviation.
2. Z-Test for Two Samples (Independent Samples Z-Test): This type of Z-test is used to compare the means of two
independent groups to determine if there's a significant difference between them. It's similar to the independent samples t-
test but is used when you have a large sample size and know the population standard deviations for both groups. The
formula is more complex and involves both sample means and standard deviations.

Z-tests are particularly useful when dealing with large sample sizes because they rely on the properties of the normal
distribution, making calculations simpler compared to t-tests. However, t-tests are often preferred when dealing with
smaller sample sizes or when the population standard deviation is unknown and must be estimated from the sample data.
III. F-test
The F-test is a statistical test used to compare the variances or the ratio of variances between two or more
groups or samples. It is commonly used in analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis. There
are two main types of F-tests:
1. One-Way ANOVA (One-Factor ANOVA): This type of F-test is used to compare the means of three
or more independent (unrelated) groups to determine if there are any statistically significant differences
between them.

2. Two-Way ANOVA (Two-Factor ANOVA): This extension of the one-way ANOVA is used to analyze
the influence of two independent variables (factors) on a single dependent variable. It helps answer
questions like "Do both gender and age significantly affect income levels?" Two-way ANOVA assesses not
only the main effects of each factor but also the interaction effect between the factors.

3. Regression Analysis (F-Test for Regression Models): In regression analysis, the F-test is used to
determine the overall significance of a regression model. It assesses whether the regression model, which
includes multiple independent variables, explains a significant portion of the variance in the dependent
variable. In this context, the F-test is often used to compare a full model (with predictors) to a null model
(without predictors) to see if the predictors collectively contribute significantly to explaining the variance in
the dependent variable.
Correlation
Correlation is a statistical measure that quantifies the extent to which two variables are related or associated
with each other. In simpler terms, it helps you understand if there is a relationship between two variables and,
if so, the nature of that relationship. Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that even if two variables
are correlated, it doesn't necessarily mean that changes in one variable cause changes in the other.
There are several types of correlation measures, including:
1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r): Measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between
two continuous variables. It ranges from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to 1 (perfect positive correlation),
with 0 indicating no linear correlation.
2. Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (ρ or rs): Measures the strength and direction of a monotonic
relationship between two variables. It's used when the relationship isn't necessarily linear or when dealing with
ordinal data.

Correlation Coefficient (r): Pearson's correlation coefficient, denoted as "r," quantifies the strength and
direction of the linear relationship between X and Y. The value of r ranges from -1 to 1:
r = 1: Perfect positive linear relationship
r = -1: Perfect negative linear relationship
r ≈ 0: Little to no linear relationship
Interpretation: You interpret the value of r as follows:
r > 0: Indicates a positive linear relationship (as X increases, Y tends to increase).
r < 0: Indicates a negative linear relationship (as X increases, Y tends to decrease).
r = 0: Suggests little to no linear relationship between the variables.
Non parametric Test

Non-parametric tests make fewer assumptions about the distribution of the data. They are
distribution-free or have fewer distributional assumptions.

Non-parametric tests can be applied to nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data

 Chi-Square (χ²) test
The Chi-Square (χ²) test is a statistical test used to determine whether there is a significant association between
categorical variables. It's commonly used in hypothesis testing to examine if the observed frequencies of data match
the expected frequencies, assuming no association between the variables. There are several types of Chi-Square
tests:
1. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test: This test is used to determine if the observed frequency distribution of a
single categorical variable fits a specified theoretical or expected distribution. For example, you can use it to test
whether the distribution of colors of M&M candies in a sample matches the expected distribution.
2. Chi-Square Test for Independence (Chi-Square Test of Association): This test assesses whether there is a
statistically significant association between two categorical variables. It's often used in contingency tables to
determine if there is a relationship between two variables. For example, you can use it to examine if there is a
significant association between gender and voting preference.
3. Chi-Square Test for Homogeneity: This test is similar to the Chi-Square Test for Independence but is used to
compare the distribution of one categorical variable across different groups or populations. It helps determine if the
proportions or distributions are homogeneous across these groups. For instance, you might use it to compare the
distributions of preferences for different smartphone brands among different age groups.
4. Chi-Square Test of Independence for R × C Contingency Tables: This extension of the Chi-Square Test for
Independence is used when you have a contingency table with more than two rows and two columns (i.e., a table
with multiple categories for both variables). It helps determine if there is a significant association between these two
categorical variables.
Interpretation of data

Interpreting data involves making sense of the information collected, drawing

conclusions, and providing insights based on the analysis. The interpretation process
depends on the context of the study, the research questions, and the type of data
collected.

Techniques of interpretation

1. Relationship 2.Proportion 3.Percentages 4.Average.

Tools for statistical analysis

1. Measures of central tendency

2. 2. Measures of Dispersion
3. Other measures

1. Measures of central tendency: Measures of central tendency are statistical

tools used to identify the center or average value in a dataset. These measures
help summarize and describe a set of data by providing a single value that
represents the center point of a distribution. The most commonly used measures
are Mean, Median, Mode, Geometric mean and Harmonic mean.
Mean (Arithmetic Average)

The mean is the sum of all the values in a dataset divided by the number of
values. It represents the average of the dataset and is most commonly used for
quantitative data.
Median

The median is the middle value in a dataset when the numbers are arranged in
ascending or descending order. If the dataset has an odd number of values, the
median is the middle value; if it has an even number, the median is the average
of the two middle values.
Example:
For the dataset: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25
Median = 15 (middle value)
For the dataset: 5, 10, 15, 20
Median = 10+152=12.5\frac{10 + 15}{2} = 12.5210+15​=12.5
Mode

The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset. A dataset can
have one mode (unimodal), more than one mode (bimodal or multimodal), or no
mode at all if all values are unique.
Example:
For the dataset: 5, 10, 10, 15, 20, 20, 20, 25
Mode = 20 (appears three times)
Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is a measure of central tendency used primarily for sets of
positive numbers, especially when dealing with growth rates, percentages, or
ratios. It is the nth root of the product of n values in a dataset.

Harmonic Mean
The harmonic mean is another measure of central tendency, commonly used for
datasets involving rates, ratios, or where the reciprocal of the data is meaningful
(e.g., speed, rates). It gives the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the
reciprocals of the values
2. Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion are statistical tools used to describe the spread,

variability, or distribution of data in a dataset. They provide insights into how
much the data points deviate from the central tendency (mean, median, mode)
and help in understanding the consistency or variability in the dataset. The most
common measures of dispersion include Range, Variance, Standard Deviation
1. Range: The range is the simplest measure of dispersion, representing the
difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.

2. Variance: The variance measures how much the values in a dataset differ
from the mean. It is the average of the squared differences from the mean, giving
more weight to values further from the mean.

3. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square root of the

variance and provides a measure of the average distance of each data point from
the mean.
3. Other measures

1. Index Numbers
Index numbers are statistical measures that express changes in a variable or
group of variables over time relative to a base value. They are often used to track
changes in economic indicators such as prices, production, sales, or other
economic factors. Index numbers provide a way to compare how these variables
change over time, making them useful for analyzing trends, inflation, cost-of-
living adjustments, and other economic phenomena.

2. Inferential Analysis
Research Report

A research report is a structured document that presents the results of a

research project, study, or investigation. It involves the systematic presentation of
research findings, analysis, and conclusions based on the data collected. The
report often follows a specific format that includes an introduction, methodology,
results, and conclusions, allowing others to understand, evaluate, and use the
findings.
Types of Report
1. Oral Report; reporting may be done to an administrator orally
2. Written Report: A written report is a structured, formal document that conveys
information, research findings, analysis, or recommendations on a specific topic.
a) Popular report: it is prepared for layman
b) Report submitted to an administrator: it is intended for taking decision
c)Technical report: Technical Report: Focuses on technical information, often
used in fields like engineering, IT, and science. It provides details on the methods,
processes, or systems used in a project.
Example: A technical report explaining the design and testing of a new software
system.
Format / Structure of Report

A comprehensive layout of a research report should comprise of

1. The preliminaries
2. The text
3. The reference materials
1. The preliminaries: In the preliminary pages of the report should carry a (1) title
followed by (2)acknowledgement, (3) letter of authorisation, (4) table of
content, (5) list of tables, (6) list of figures.
2. The text: it is the most significant part of the report. It include (1) abstract
(describe the topic, the principal findings and the conclusions). (2)
introduction (3) research procedure (research design, sample design, data
collection methods, data analysis) (4) results (5) discussion (conclusion and
summary)
3. References Materials: it include (1) bibliography (2) appendix (3)Index if any.
Bibliography and References

References: list only the sources that are directly cited or quoted within the text of a
research paper or report. These sources are explicitly referenced to support facts,
arguments, or data presented in the work.

Bibliography is a broader list that includes all the sources consulted for the research,
whether they were cited directly in the text or not. It can contain references to
background readings, additional materials, or works related to the subject that were
influential in the research process.

Citation is the practice of giving credit to the original sources of information, ideas, or
data that you have used in your work. It involves acknowledging the authors,
researchers, or organizations whose work has contributed to your research, paper, or
report. Citations help avoid plagiarism, demonstrate research integrity, and allow
readers to verify the sources of the information.
APA Style vs. MLA Style of Writing
APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern Language
Association) are two widely used citation styles, each with its own guidelines for
formatting academic papers, citing sources, and organizing references. They are
used in different academic disciplines and serve to provide consistency in how
sources are cited and presented.
The APA style is primarily used in the social sciences, such as psychology,
sociology, education, business, and health sciences. It focuses on the date of
publication to give credit to recent and credible research, which is often critical in
these fields.
ExampleJones, R. (2019). The effects of remote work on employee well-being.
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(3), 213-227.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000170.
The MLA style is primarily used in the humanities, such as literature, arts,
philosophy, and languages. MLA focuses more on the author and the page number
rather than the date of publication, which is often less important in these fields.
Example: Jones, Rebecca. “The Effects of Remote Work on Employee Well-Being.”
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, vol. 24, no. 3, 2019, pp. 213-227.
Stages of Report Writing
Writing a report involves a systematic process that ensures clarity, organization, and
thoroughness. Each stage is essential to producing a well-structured and effective
report that communicates information accurately. Here are the main stages of report
writing.
1. Understanding the report: Clearly define the purpose of the report and understand
who the intended audience is.
2. Gathering data
3. Make overall report format
4. Make detail outline
5. Drafting of the report: first draft (Write the first version of the report, focusing on
content and structure without worrying too much about grammar and style.),
second draft and final draft
6. Editing the final draft
7. Documentation
Ethics in Research
Research ethics refers to the set of moral principles that guide researchers in
conducting their work responsibly and with integrity. Ethical research practices are
essential for ensuring the credibility of the research, protecting participants' rights,
and contributing positively to society. Adhering to these ethical principles helps
prevent harm and promotes trust in the research process.
Ethical principles:
1. Honesty
2. Objectivity: Minimize bias
3. Integrity: Researchers should be honest and transparent in all aspects of their
work, from data collection to reporting findings. Misleading or falsifying data is a
serious breach of research ethics.
4. Confidentiality and Privacy: Researchers must protect the privacy of
participants and maintain confidentiality regarding the information provided by
them.
5. Social responsibility
6. Respect intellectual property
7. Openness