LGCSE PHYSICS REVISION NOTES

& EXERCISES 2025

Prepared by K. Hlajoane

P1: General Physics 1-35

P2: Thermal Physics 36-59
P3: Waves 60-79
P4: Electricity & Magnetism 80-108
P5: Atomic Physics 109-117
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 1 / 117

K.H. Exam Prep

P1: General Physics
53743131
Jan 19, 2025, 11:13 PM

P1.1: Length and Time Another error to be avoided is the

systematic (or zero) error, shown
Instruments for measuring length are a below…
rule (or ruler) and a measuring tape.

● Every measurement should start

at zero. Otherwise, it causes a
zero error.
● The length is shown to be 9 cm,
● The SI unit of length is metres which is wrong.
(m).
The correct length = final length - starting length
● Other units of length include:
○ millimetres (mm) Therefore, correct length = 9-2 = 7 cm
○ centimetres (cm)
○ kilometres (km) Average Thickness of a Sheet of Paper
● A ruler that is 100 cm long is It is difficult to measure the thickness of
called a meter rule a thin sheet of paper because it is
smaller than the smallest unit on the
How to Use the Rule Correctly ruler (which is a mm).

● Looking at the ruler from the ● Stack many sheets together, and
wrong angle will give the wrong call their number n (for example
length. This error is known as n = 100 sheets).
parallax error. ● With a ruler, measure their
● To avoid parallax error, view the combined thickness.
instrument at a 90° angle. ● Then the average thickness of 1
sheet = total thickness ÷ n
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Example 1 Example 3

● L.C. is HUNDREDTHS OF a mm
(or 0.01 mm)
● The M.S. reading is found
immediately to the left of the 0
Example 2 on the vernier scale; it is 13 mm.
● Next, the V.S. reading is
obtained by finding where the
two scales coincide.
○ That place is on 42 of the
vernier scale.
○ So v.s. reading=42 × L.C.
=42 × 0.01
= 0.42 mm
● Therefore,

Measuring Thickness With Vernier Callipers

total reading = 13 + 0.42 = 13.42 mm

Example 4

● Vernier callipers consist of the

main scale and the vernier scale.
● Here is the formula to be used
for getting the total thickness ● L.C. = 0.01 mm
measured by the vernier ● M.S.R. = 19 mm
callipers: ● The scales coincide at 64 on the
vernier scale.

So V.S.R. = 64 × 0.01 = 0.64 mm

T.R. = 19+0.64 = 19.64 mm
 3 / 117

Exercise 1 Using Micrometers

Follow Example 4 above to answer the Smaller measurements of length like the
following questions: thickness of a sheet of paper or the
diameter of a piece of wire can be made
with a micrometer.

● It also has 2 scales:

○ Main Scale (M.S.), labelled
as <primary scale.=
○ And Rotating Scale (R.S.),
labelled as <second scale.=

Example 5

What are vernier callipers used for?

● Measuring internal and
external diameters with a
higher accuracy than that of the
ruler.
The largest reading shown on the main
scale is 7 mm.
● M.S.R. = 7 mm
● Index line coincides with 14 on
the rotating scale.
● So R.S. = 14 × 0.01 = 0.14 mm
● T.R. = 7 + 0.14 = 7.14 mm
 4 / 117

Example 6
2. The thickness of a 2 Quire exercise
book of 192 pages was measured with a
ruler, and found to be 13 cm (or 130
mm).
a) Calculate the average thickness
of one of its pages.
● M.S. = 5.5 mm b) Suggest 2 possible errors that the
● Index line coincides with 0 on the person doing the measurements
rotating scale. could make if not careful. In each
● So R.S. = 0 × 0.01 = 0.00 mm case, suggest how each of the
● Therefore, errors could be avoided.
T.R. = 5.5 + 0.00 = 5.00 mm c) Thabo could only find a broken
ruler to measure the length of a
Exercise 2 caterpillar. He aligned the
1. Find the total reading shown by each caterpillar as shown. Find the
of the following micrometers: correct length of the caterpillar.

Volume of a Cuboid
● A cuboid is an example of a
a) regular solid because its
dimensions (like length, width
and height) can be measured.
● In Example 2 above, the pile of
sheets of paper form a cuboid of
L=30.0 cm, W=20.0 cm and
H=5.0 cm.
b)
● Therefore, volume = L × W × H
= 30 × 20 × 5
= 3000 cm³
● The SI units of volume are cubic
metres (m³), but cm³ are
commonly used instead.
c)
 5 / 117

Volume of Irregular Objects 1. The measuring cylinder should be

A stone is an example of an irregular placed on a flat surface like the
object, without a clear length, width or top of a desk.
height. To measure the volume of a 2. Take the reading at the bottom of
stone, displacement method is used: the meniscus.
3. Place the eye at a 90° angle to
the measuring cylinder.

Measuring Time Intervals

● During a thunderstorm there is a
flash of lightning which can be
seen. This can be called signal 1.
● Then there is a pause, after
which a clap of thunder can be
heard. This can be called signal
2.
● Volume of water only, V¡, is
● The length of the pause
recorded.
between signal 1 and signal 2
● Then the volume of water and
can be measured with a
stone, V¢, is also recorded.
stopwatch. We can call it a <time
● Volume of stone = V¢ - V¡
interval.=
= 40-30
= 10 cm³
Devices used for measuring time
The stone must be fully submerged
intervals include:
under water in order to displace the
volume of the water equivalent to ● Stopwatches: Handheld devices
its volume. for precise timing, often used in
sports and experiments.
Using Measuring Cylinder Correctly
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● Timers: Count down from a set Measuring Period of a Pendulum

duration, useful in cooking (for
example, with a microwave) and
experiments, showing how much
time is left.

● A metal ball is suspended by a

string from a fixed position.
● Next, it is held at point A, and
then released.
● It swings to B, and back to A
again, making a complete swing.
● The time taken for a complete
swing is called period.
● Oscilloscopes: Electronic signals
appearing on a screen are used
The time taken for 1 complete swing is
in measuring time intervals
too short. So it is difficult to measure it
between pulses.
accurately. It is possible that the
reaction time of the person starting
or stopping the time could be too
fast or too slow.

Here is how to improve the results:

● Measure time for several swings
(for example, n= 20 swings).
● Calculate the time for 1 swing,
using the formula

The screen shows the time between Period = total time ÷ number of swings
2 similar signals as 6 divisions, on a
time base of 2ms/div: ● Repeat the above steps a few
times, and find the average
2ms = 1 div period.
t = 6 div

t = (2 × 6)/1 = 12 ms
 7 / 117

Exercise 3 (b) Why is a digital stopwatch preferred

1. A student fills a measuring cylinder over an analog clock for timing short
with water. A stone is then placed into intervals? Choose the letter of the
the water, and the level rises to a new correct answer.
volume. A) It is more beautiful than the
analog clock.
B) It uses batteries.
C) It is more accurate.
D) It is smaller in size.

4. A simple pendulum is set up with a

length of 1.0 m. A student measures the
time it takes for the pendulum to
complete 20 oscillations and records it
as 40.0 seconds.
a) Calculate the period of the
a) Calculate the volume of the
pendulum.
stone.
b) Suggest how the student can
b) Why must the student ensure the
reduce errors when measuring
stone is fully submerged?
the period.

2. A rectangular block has dimensions of

5. The diagram shows the signal
length 20 cm, width 10 cm, and height
displayed on an oscilloscope for
5 cm.
measuring the time interval between
a lightning flash and the clap of thunder.

a) Which instrument could have

been used for measuring its
length, width and height?
b) Write the formula you would use
to calculate its volume.
a) How many divisions are there
c) Give the value for its volume, and
between any 2 similar successive
attach the correct units.
points on the signal?
b) The oscilloscope is set on a time
3. (a) Suggest two instruments that can
base of 10 μsec/div. Calculate the
be used to measure short intervals of
time interval.
time.
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P1.2: Speed, Velocity and Acceleration K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
Jan 11, 2025, 9:39 AM

What is speed? Example 1

● Consider a taxi travelling from Taxi:
Maseru to Butha -Buthe , a Speed = distance ÷ time
distance of 90 km, in 1½ hours. = (90×1000)÷(1.5×3600)
● Consider, also, a bus travelling = 16.7 m/s
the same distance in 2 hours.
● Which of the two vehicles Exercise 1
covered the distance faster? Calculate the speed of the bus in m/s.

By using the formula: 1. Scalar Quantities

● Definition: Quantities that have
only magnitude (size) and are
without direction.
We can compare their speeds (or rates
● Examples: Mass, temperature,
of covering the given distance).
time, speed, energy, distance.
● Representation: Represented
Taxi:
by a single number and unit
Speed = distance ÷ time
(e.g., 5 kg, 20°C).
= 90 ÷ 1.5
= 60 km/h
2. Vector Quantities
Bus:
● Definition: Quantities that have
Speed = distance ÷ time
both magnitude and direction.
= 90 ÷ 2
● Examples: Force, velocity,
= 45 km/h
acceleration, displacement,
momentum.
The taxi has a higher speed; meaning, it
● Representation: Represented
is faster than the bus.
by an arrow, where the length of
the arrow indicates magnitude
The SI units of speed are m/s. That
and the arrowhead shows
means:
direction.
● Change km to metres (m) by ×
1000.
● Change hours to seconds (s)
by × (3600).

2 vectors: different sizes and directions.

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Distance moved in a specified direction Mark any 2 points on the graph; for
is called displacement. For example, example, start and end.
move 30 m up (up is a specified ● End is 5 spaces or metres above
direction); or 16 m due south (south is start. We call those 5 spaces
also a specified direction). Other <rise=.
directions include <to the left= or <at an ● End is 5 spaces or metres to the
angle of 60° to the horizontal.= right of start. We call those 5
spaces <run=.
velocity = displacement ÷ time ● Therefore, we use the formula
speed = rise ÷ run
In other words, velocity is speed in a =5÷5
specified direction. = 1 m/s

Exercise 2
Distance-time Graph
The greater the slope (or gradient) of a
distance-time graph the greater the
speed.

Find the speed of the journey shown in

red.

Speed-time Graph
Here is how to find the speed from the
distance-time graph:

What does the slope of a speed-time

graph show? It shows acceleration.
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Example 2 Stage 2
For the first part of the journey: The shape of this stage is a rectangle.
Slope = rise ÷ run So area = L × W
=8÷4 =5×8
= 2 m/s² = 40 m
Therefore, a = 2 m/s²
Stage 3
For the second part, where the graph The shape of this stage is another
is flat, a = 0 (because speed or triangle.
velocity is constant). So area = ½ × b × h
=½×2×8
For the third part, instead of rising the =8m
graph is going down. So <rise= is
represented by a negative sign: Total distance = 16 + 40 + 8 = 64 m
Slope = rise ÷ run
=-8÷2 Exercise 3
= - 4 m/s²
Therefore, a = - 4 m/s²
(This negative acceleration is called
deceleration.)

Area Under the Speed-time Graph

1. For each stage of the above

speed-time graph, calculate:
a) the acceleration.
b) the distance travelled.
2. State the highest speed reached.
3. At which stage is:
How much distance was travelled in a) the speed constant?
each stage of the journey? b) the object decelerating?

Stage 1 Describing the Stages of a Journey

The shape of this stage is a triangle. 1. A straight line that shows
So area = ½ × b × h speed increasing with time
=½×4×8 represents uniform
= 16 m acceleration.
 11 / 117

2. A straight line that shows speed From A to B

decreasing with time represents a = slope = rise ÷ run
uniform deceleration. = 30 ÷ 4
3. A flat graph represents constant = 7.5 m/s²
speed.
From C to D
a = slope = rise ÷ run
A Curved Graph = - 30 ÷ 2
= - 15 m/s²

Another way of finding acceleration is by

using the first equation of motion:

Where:
A curved speed-time graph (or ● a is acceleration
velocity-time graph) represents ● u is the starting or initial speed or
non-uniform acceleration. It can be velocity
either increasing and decreasing. ● v is the ending or final speed or
velocity and t is the time

The 1st Equation of Motion From A to B

When finding the acceleration from the ● u = 0 m/s
speed-time graph we used the formula ● v = 30 m/s
● t=4s
acceleration = slope = rise ÷ run
a = (v - u) ÷ t
For example, here is a velocity-time = (30 - 0) ÷ 4
graph. = 7.5 m/s²

From C to D
● u = 30 m/s
● v = 0 m/s
● t=2s

a = (v - u) ÷ t
= (0 - 30) ÷ 2
= -15 m/s²
 12 / 117

Exercise 4 From A to B
1. Use the first equation of motion Distance = area
to calculate the acceleration in stages 1 =½×b×h
and 3 of the journey. = ½ × 4 × 30
= 60 m

Another way of finding distance

travelled is by using the second
equation of motion:

Where:
● s is the distance travelled
2 a) A car starts moving from rest (0
m/s) to 35 m/s in a time of 7 seconds. From A to B
Use the first equation of motion to find ● u = 0 m/s
the acceleration of the car. ● v = 30 m/s
● t=4s
b) Another car accelerates from 6 m/s to ● a =?
24 m/s in a time of 5 seconds. Calculate ● s =?
its acceleration.
a = (v - u) ÷ t
The 2nd Equation of Motion = (30 - 0) ÷ 4
When finding the distance travelled from = 7.5 m/s²
the speed-time graph we used the
formula So, applying the second equation of
motion:
Distance = area s = ut + ½at²
= (0×4) + ½×7.5×(4)²
For example, here is a velocity-time = 0 + 60
graph. = 60 m

Exercise 5
Use the second equation of motion to
find the distance travelled in the third
stage of the journey shown in the above
graph.
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P1.3: Mass and Weight K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
Jan 12, 2025, 1:07 PM

Mass is measured using a triple beam Weight is measured using a spring

balance or an electronic scale in g or kg. balance in Newtons or N.

Here is an example of getting the total

mass of a beaker containing a liquid.

The SI unit of mass is kilogram (or kg),

and that of weight (which is the
downward force acting on an object)
Adding the numbers shown by each of is the Newton.
the 3 riders gives:
Mass-weight Relationship
Total mass = 400 + 40 + 4 = 444 g ● A 50 kg mass has a weight of 500
N on earth.
Exercise 1 ● This means that the ratio of
What is the correct reading for each of weight to mass, called the
the following triple beam balances? gravitational field strength,

g = W/m = 500N/50kg = 10N/kg

a)

b)
 14 / 117

Differences Between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight

1. Mass is the amount of matter in an 1. Weight is the force exerted on an

object. object due to gravity.

2. It is measured in kilograms (kg) or 2. It is measured in newtons (N).

grams (g).

3. Mass is a scalar quantity (it has 3. Weight is a vector quantity (it has
magnitude only). both magnitude and direction).

4. It remains constant regardless of 4. Weight depends on the

location. gravitational field strength and can
change with location (e.g., on the
Moon or Earth).

Calculating Weight From Mass The Effect of g on Weight

The weight-mass relationship is given The gravitational field strength on the
by: moon is 1.6 N/kg, making it smaller
W = m×g than that of the earth or larger planets.
Where g=10N/kg on earth
Exercise 2
For example, find the weight of: 1. Calculate the weight on the
a) A 25 kg mass. moon of an object having:
b) A 7345 g mass. a) A 25 kg mass.
b) A 7345 g mass.
Solutions 2. Compare the weights you got in
a) W = m×g = 25 × 10 = 250N (1) above with those of the same
b) W = m×g = (7345/1000) × 10 masses on earth.
= 73.45N 3. State any two differences
(7345g is put over 1000 to between mass and weight.
change it to kg first) 4. Name an instrument used for
measuring weight.
5. What is the SI unit of mass?
 15 / 117

P1.4: Density ● An example of a regular object is

a cuboid.
The diagram shows an experiment for ● Using a ruler, its length, width
measuring the density of a liquid. and height are measured.
● Volume = L×W×H
● Mass is displayed on the
electronic scale.
● Density = mass ÷ volume

Density of Irregular Solid

● Using an electronic balance, mass

of an empty measuring cylinder is
measured, and recorded as m¡.
● Some liquid is poured into the
measuring cylinder, and its
volume is recorded as V.
● The mass of the liquid and
measuring cylinder is recorded as
m¢. ● A stone or pebble is an example
● Calculations: of an irregularly shaped object.
○ Mass m of liquid = m¢ - m¡ ● Its mass is measured using an
○ Density of liquid = m ÷ V electronic balance.
● Its volume is obtained using the
Example displacement method.
From the above diagram: ● Density = mass ÷ volume
● m¡ = 200 g
● m¢ = 250 g Density of Air - Evacuation Method
● m = m¢ - m¡ = 250-200 = 50g
● V = 25 cm³
● Density = m÷V=50/25 = 2g/cm³

Density of a Regular Object

● The mass of a round bottom flask
containing air is measured using
an electronic scale.
● The air is removed from the flask
using a vacuum pump.
 16 / 117

● The mass of the empty flask is a) the mass, volume and density of
measured, and recorded as m¢. the liquid.
● So the mass of air = m¡ - m¢ b) the mass, volume and density of
● The volume of the flask is the stone.
measured by filling the flask with
water and emptying it into the 3. A student wishes to determine the
measuring cylinder. density of a small stone.
● Density = mass ÷ volume a) Suggest 2 instruments which
would be required to find this
Exercise 3 density.
1. The diagram shows a measuring b) Describe the specific
cylinder containing a liquid and that measurements which each
same measuring cylinder when it is instrument would be used to
empty. carry out.

4. Another student wishes to determine

the density of a small cuboid.
c) Suggest 2 instruments which
would be required to find this
density.
d) Describe the specific
measurements which each
instrument would be used to
What is the density of the liquid? carry out.
A) 6.30 g/cm³
B) 3.00 g/cm³
C) 0.33 g/cm³
D) 0.16 g/cm³

2. Use the information below to

calculate:
 17 / 117

Experiment
P1.5: Forces To investigate the relationship between
P1.5 (a): Effects of Force the force applied and size.

A force is a pull or a push. So what

happens to the size and shape of an
object when a force is applied on it?

Effects of Force on Shape & Size

● The object can be deformed;
meaning, its shape can be
changed; for example, bending
a plastic pipe.

● A spring is suspended from a

retort stand, and its unstretched
length is measured using a ruler.
● The object can also be Record it as L₀ (original length).
compressed, becoming shorter. ● A small mass is then attached to
the lower end of the spring, and
the new length is recorded as
Lnew.
● The distance by which the spring
● Or the object can be stretched,
has been stretched is called
becoming longer or extended.
extension, x. And x = Lnew - L₀.

Example 1

The diagram below shows a spring

balance being used to measure the
force applied to pull a 50 g block across
the surface of a flat desk.
 18 / 117

Find the extension of the spring when

the size of the load attached at the
lower end of the spring is:
a) 20N
b) W

Solution
The unstretched length of the spring,
L₀=15 cm. Therefore,
a) x = Lnew - L₀ = 25 - 15 = 10 cm
b) x = Lnew - L₀ = 35 - 15 = 20 cm
● The graph begins as a straight
line before it eventually becomes
a curve.
Exercise 1
● Where the graph is a straight
The diagram shows a spring, first
line, force is shown to be directly
without a load attached to its lower end,
proportional to extension.
and then with several loads attached.
● The straight part of the graph
The length of the spring after the
shows that the spring obeys
addition of each load is recorded in the
Hooke's Law which says:
table below.
Force is directly proportional to
extension. In symbols

Fill the column for the extension each

time a new load is attached.

The Extension-load Graph

After finding the extension on the spring The above graph shows that a 10N force
for several loads, a graph of load (or produces a 70 cm extension.
force) vs extension is drawn.
 19 / 117

Example 2 d) Step 2 (Hooke's Law)

The figure below shows how the length F:x cross-multiplying
of a spring changes when loaded. 200N : 10cm (120×10)/200=6cm
120N : ?

So a 120N force produces an extension

x=6cm.
Therefore, (new) length of spring is
Lnew = L₀ + x = 15 + 6 = 21 cm
Assuming the spring obeys Hooke's, use
the information given in the diagram to
calculate: Exercise 2
a) The extension produced by the 1. An experiment was conducted with a
200N load spring that obeys Hooke's Law, and the
b) The load that produces an results are shown below.
extension of 1 cm
c) The load X
d) The length of the spring when a
120 N load is attached to it.

Solution
a) x = Lnew - L₀ = 25 - 15 = 10 cm
b) Using Hooke's Law, or direct
proportionality
F:x cross-multiplying
200N : 10cm (200×1)/10=20N Calculate:
? : 1 cm a) The extension produced by the
c) Step 1 20N load
Load X produces b) The load that produces an
x = Lnew - L₀ = 18 - 15 = 3 cm extension of 1 cm
c) The load W
Step 2 (Hooke's Law) d) The length of the spring when a
F:x cross-multiplying 30 N load is attached to it.
200N : 10cm (200×3)/10=60N
? : 3 cm
 20 / 117

2. A spring of unstretched length 5 cm 3. The force-extension graph for a

was suspended from a fixed position. spring is drawn below.
Then different loads were attached at its
lower end. The results are shown below.

a) What is the name given to the

point labelled Q on the graph?
b) Use the graph to estimate the
a) Find the extension produced by extension produced by a 4.0N
the 80g mass. weight.
b) Assuming the spring obeys c) For a 13N force, calculate:
Hooke's Law, find the mass of the i) The extension produced.
stone. ii) The (new) length of the
spring.
d) State the assumption you had to
make about the spring in order to
answer c) above.
 21 / 117

Effect of Force on Motion ● The resultant force which

causes the block to move can
The diagram shows a rectangular block be represented by the equation:
resting on a flat surface, with the forces ○ FR = m × a
acting on it marked with arrows. ○ Also: FR = F - Ff

Example 3
The forces acting on a block that rests
● The block rests on the surface on a table are shown.
without sinking or floating
because the vertical forces are
balanced.

Normal force (N) = Weight (mg) a) How much is the vertical

Or (normal) reaction force (N)?
Normal force (N) - Weight = 0 b) A force of 5N is used to pull the
(There is 0 vertical resultant block to the right, and if it
force) experiences a friction force of
1.5N, calculate the horizontal
● The block is also at rest because resultant force.
the horizontal forces are c) To which direction will the block
balanced. move?
d) Calculate the acceleration of the
Applied force (F) = Friction (Ff) block.
Or
Applied force (F) - Friction (Ff)=0 Solution
(There is 0 horizontal resultant a) Normal force (N) = 20N
force) (balanced forces)
b) FR = F - Ff = 5 - 1.5 = 3.5N
● The block remains at rest, c) To the right
without moving until the applied d) FR = m × a
force (F) is greater than Friction 3.5 = 20 × a
(Ff). That means, for the block a = (3.5/20) = 0.175 m/s²
to move

Applied force (F) > Friction (Ff)

There is a resultant force.
 22 / 117

Exercise 3 Exercise 4
The diagram shows a parachutist falling
in space.

The diagram shows the forces acting on

a 10kg steel box which rests on the top
of a horizontal desk.
a) Suggest a reason why the box
rests on the desk without floating
or sinking.
b) Calculate:
i) The horizontal resultant
force. And here is the speed-time graph
ii) The acceleration of the showing his descent.
box towards the right.

Falling Objects

a) At (1) he falls with maximum

acceleration because only one
force is acting on his body. Which
force is that?
b) At (2) the acceleration is
1. At first, an object falls due its
decreasing. This is because
weight (mg) acting downward.
another force is opposing his
2. As it accelerates, it gives rise to
downward fall. Name this force.
an upward drag force called air
c) At (4) the graph is flat. This is as
resistance which is smaller than
a result of 3 things happening.
the weight.
Which are they?
3. Air resistance increases until it is
d) What name is given to the
equal to weight, resulting in:
highest constant speed a fall
○ 0 resultant force and 0
object can reach?
acceleration;
○ a maximum constant
(terminal) velocity.
 23 / 117

K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
Jan 13, 2025, 1:08 AM
P1.5 (b): Centre of Mass ● The third object just rolls when
pushed.
Experiment
● To determine the position of the 2 Factors Affecting Stability
centre of mass (c.m.) of a lamina To be more stable, an object must have:
1. A lower centre of mass.
2. And a wider base.

Exercise 1
1. Describe how the centre of a thin
irregular sheet of metal may be
obtained.

2. When drinking water, a giraffe

spreads its legs apart. State two ways in
which this helps to make it more stable.
● Hang a lamina and a plumbline
from a point.
● Mark the vertical line from the
P1.5 (c): Turning Effect of Force
pin.
● Hang the lamina and the
In the diagram applying a force on a
plumbline from a second point.
spanner causes it to turn and loosen the
● Centre of mass is positioned
nut from the bolt.
where the lines cross.

Stability

Similarly, applying a force on a crowbar

causes it to turn and lift a load on the
other end of the crowbar.
● The first object has a lower
centre of mass. So it is less likely
to topple when tilted. Therefore,
it is more stable.
● The second object has a high
centre of mass. So it topples
easily.
 24 / 117

1. Definition In equation form:

● The turning effect of a force F¡d¡ = F¢d¢
about a fixed point is called the
moment of the force. 4. How to apply the principle of
moments to find an unknown force
2. Calculating Moment
Moment = F × distance from pivot Example 2
(The larger the distance the larger the
moment, even when applying the same
size of force)

Example 1
Calculate the moment of the 50N force
The diagram shows 2 dogs balanced
being applied 0.15m from the nut.
on a uniform beam. The weight of one
dog is known, but that of the other is
unknown. Find this unknown weight.

Solution
F¡d¡ = F¢d¢
F¡×1.2m = 110N×2.2m
Solution
F¡=(110N×2.2m)÷1.2m=201.7N
Moment = F × distance
= 50N × 0.15m
Exercise 2
= 7.5 Nm
1. For the balanced beam below:

3. Principle of Moments
The diagram shows 2 forces being
balanced about the pivot.
Find the unknown force, W.

2. The diagram shows a crane which is

loading containers onto a ship.

The principle of moments states that for

a system of forces to be balanced
the total clockwise moment must
be equal to the total anticlockwise
moment. Calculate the moment of the container.
 25 / 117

K.H. Exam Prep

P1.6: Energy, Work and Power
Jan 13, 2025, 1:01 PM

P1.6 (a): Energy Example 2

When a resistor (or energy conversion
Energy may be found in different forms. device) like an electric bulb changes
For example as: electrical energy into light and heat,
● Kinetic energy in moving objects, work is done.
● Gravitational potential energy in Electrical —> light + heat
objects at some height above
ground level,
● Chemical in food released by
respiration, or in fuels released by
burning,
● Elastic (strain), nuclear,
electrostatic and internal Energy Conservation
(thermal). The principle of energy conservation
states that energy within a closed
system remains constant over time.
Work-energy Relationship
When energy changes from one form to This means that energy can change
another, work is done. forms, such as from kinetic to potential
energy or from thermal to mechanical
Example 1 energy, but the total amount of
Dropping a ball from a height above a energy in the system remains
surface changes its energy from unchanged.
gravitational potential energy to kinetic
energy. So work is done. Example 1
During a flood a tree trunk of mass 100
Gravitational potential —> kinetic kg falls down a waterfall. The waterfall
is 5 m high.
 26 / 117

State, for the tree trunk: Example 3

a) The energy it has when it is still The speed of the tree trunk of mass
at the top of the waterfall. 100kg after falling from a height of 5m
b) The energy it has when it from the top of the waterfall is found
reaches the bottom of the by:
waterfall. ● Finding its p.e. when it was at
the top of the waterfall (like we
Solution found it to be 5000J in Example
a) Potential energy (P.E.) 2).
b) Kinetic energy (K.E.) ● Using the principle of energy
conservation:
Calculating Potential Energy
P.E. = mgh P.E. at the top = K.E. at the bottom

Where: K.E. = ½mv²

● m is mass 5000 = ½ × 100 × v²
● g is gravitational field strength Making v² the subject of the formula:
● h is the height that an object v² = (5000÷100)×2
moves v² = 250
(Finding square root on both sides)
Example 2 v = √250
The potential energy of the tree trunk of = 15.8 m/s
mass 100kg when it is 5m above the
bottom of the waterfall is: Example 4
How much kinetic energy does an
P.E. = mgh 810-kg race car have when it is
= 100 × 10 × 5 travelling with a velocity of 65m/s?
= 5000 Joules
Solution
Calculating Kinetic Energy k.e. = ½mv²
K.E. = ½mv² = ½×810×(65)²
= 1 700 000 J
Where:
● m is mass
● v is the speed of a moving object

This formula can help us to find the

speed of the tree trunk as it reaches the
bottom of the waterfall.
 27 / 117

Exercise 1 4.1 A 2 kg ball is moving with a speed of

1.1 Define work done by explaining how 3 m/s. Calculate its kinetic energy.
it relates to energy transfer. 4.2 A car of mass 800 kg is moving at
1.2 State the SI unit of energy and 20 m/s. Find its kinetic energy.
work.
5.1 A stone of mass 5 kg is lifted to a
2.1 List two different forms of energy height of 10 m. Calculate its potential
and give an example of each. energy.
2.2 Distinguish between kinetic energy 5.2 An object weighing 50 N is raised to
and potential energy. a height of 6 m. Calculate its
gravitational potential energy.
3.1 A ball is dropped from a certain
height. Describe the energy conversions 6.1 A roller coaster of mass 500 kg is at
taking place during its fall. rest at the top of a hill 20 m high.
3.2 State the principle of conservation of Assuming no energy is lost to friction,
energy. calculate:
a) Its potential energy at the top.
b) Its speed at the bottom of the hill.
 28 / 117

ENERGY RESOURCES K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
Apr 29, 2024, 10:29 PM
Generating electricity
A teacher demonstrates electromagnetic induction using the apparatus shown.

The teacher pulls the magnet down until one end is inside the coil. The teacher then
releases the magnet. The magnet moves up and down repeatedly. As it moves, one end
of the magnet enters and leaves the coil.

Observation
● As the magnet moves downward, the needle of the millivoltmeter moves (one
way; e.g. to the right).
● As the magnet is pulled upward out of the coil by the spring, the needle moves
another way (e.g. to the left).

Explanation
This is because as the magnet moves its magnetic field is cut across by the coil, first in
one direction, and then in the opposite direction. The deflection of the needle shows
the presence of an induced e.m.f. or a current flowing in the coil. This explains the
principle of electromagnetic induction.

What is very important with this principle is that the coil and the magnet should
move with respect to each other.
 29 / 117

Ways of changing mechanical energy to electricity

1- The diagram below shows how falling or flowing water from a high altitude dam
can be used to move a turbine connected to the generator by a shaft.

- the water in the dam has gravitational

potential energy;
- so it flows down,
- and turns the turbine attached to the
generator by a shaft.

2- Another way of causing the magnet to move near the coil to generate electricity is by
using wind instead of water to turn the turbines.

3- A third way is to burn fossil fuels to produce steam from a large boiler which can
blow on the turbines, causing them to turn and generate electricity. Alternatively, the
steam can be produced by using nuclear energy or geothermal energy.

The table that follows shows the different energy resources from which useful energy
can be obtained or electricity can be generated. The table also classifies them as either
renewable or non-renewable, and highlights the impact of each on the environment.
30 / 117
31 / 117
 32 / 117

411 Fig. 4.1 represents a hydroelectric system for generating electrical energy.

reservoir
pipe

power
station

water

Fig. 4.1

(a) Describe how the power station uses the water in the reservoir to generate electrical energy.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................. [3]

(b) State three advantages of generating electrical energy using a hydroelectric system
compared with using a coal-fired power station.

1. ...............................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

2. ...............................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

3. ...............................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[3]

© UCLES 2018 0625/32/F/M/18

 33 / 117

42 Nuclear power stations produce a useful form of energy. Fig. 4.1 shows part of a nuclear reactor.

control rod steam to drive turbines

concrete casing

fuel rod
cold water from turbines

pump

Fig. 4.1

(a) State the name of the process that releases energy in the nuclear reactor.

...............................................................................................................................................[1]

(b) Suggest a suitable radioactive material used for the fuel rods.

...............................................................................................................................................[1]

(c) Below are four statements that describe the operation of a nuclear power station.
They are not in the correct order.

J The generator produces electricity.

K The energy is used to boil water.

L The nuclei split, releasing energy.

M The steam drives a turbine.

Place the statements in the correct order.

[3]

(d) The nuclear reactor is contained in a very thick concrete casing. Suggest why.

...................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................[2]

© UCLES 2017 0625/32/F/M/17

 34 / 117

(e) Suggest one advantage and one disadvantage of a nuclear power station compared with a
wind turbine.

advantage .................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

disadvantage ............................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................
[2]

(f) Wind turbines use a renewable source of energy.

State the name of another renewable source of energy.

...............................................................................................................................................[1]

[Total: 10]

© UCLES 2017 0625/32/F/M/17 [Turn over

 35 / 117

10

53 Fig. 5.1 shows a wave-powered generator. It generates electricity from the movement of sea
waves.

chamber turbine and

generator

air

incoming waves

waves make
water rise
and fall

Fig. 5.1

(a) The sentences below describe how the wave-powered generator works.

A Air is pushed through the turbine, making it spin.

B Water rises and falls in the chamber.
C The turbine turns a generator.
D The generator produces electrical energy.
E Waves travel towards the chamber.

Write letters in the boxes below to arrange the sentences in the correct order. The first one is
done for you.

[3]

© UCLES 2016 0625/32/F/M/16

 36 / 117

P2.1: Thermal Properties K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
Jan 21, 2025, 9:55 PM

P2.1 (a): Particulate Nature of ● A substance can change from one

Matter state to another as a result of
heating, or as a result of
cooling.
● The diagram below shows the
different changes of state.

● Matter is made up of
particles, which are always
moving.
● There are 3 states of matter
which differ in terms of:
○ Arrangement of particles;
meaning, the (size of)
spaces between the
A- Describing Melting
particles;
1. When a solid is heated, the
○ Movement of particles
kinetic energy of its particles
○ And the forces between
increases.
the particles.
2. So they vibrate faster and with
greater force.
Here are their differences
3. The forces between them
Solid Liquid Gas
become weaker, and the
Arrangeme Closely Close Far apart spaces between them
nt of packed in together
particles regular become larger.
pattern

Movement Vibrating Can slide Moving B- Describing Evaporation

of particles about past one freely
fixed another 1. When a liquid is heated, the
positions
kinetic energy of its particles
Forces Strong Moderate Weak or increases.
between negligible
particles 2. So they move faster and with
greater force.
Describing Change of State Using 3. The forces between them
Particle Kinetic Theory become weaker, and the
 37 / 117

spaces between them 3. When a substance changes from a

become larger. liquid to a gas, the process is called:
A. Freezing.
C- Describing Condensation B. Sublimation.
1. When a gas is cooled, its particles C. Evaporation.
lose some of their kinetic energy. D. Condensation.
2. So they move more slowly.
3. The forces between them Practical/Application Question
become stronger, and the 4. A student observes the following
spaces between them during an experiment:
become smaller. ● A beaker of water is heated until
it boils.
D- Explaining Freezing ● The water vapour is cooled,
1. When a liquid is cooled, its forming droplets on a cold
particles lose some of their surface.
kinetic energy. a) Identify the two changes of state
2. So they move more slowly. observed.
3. The forces between them …………………………….…………………………
become stronger, and the …………………………….…………………………
spaces between them b) Explain these changes in terms of the
become smaller. kinetic theory.
…………………………….…………………………
Exercise 1 …………………………….…………………………
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following best describes P2.1 (b): Thermal Expansion of
the particles in a solid? Solids, Liquids and Gases
A) Closely packed and vibrating in Showing thermal expansion in solids
fixed positions. This experiment uses the ball and ring
B) Far apart and moving randomly in apparatus:
all directions.
C) Closely packed and moving past
one another.
D) Far apart and stationary.
2. What happens to the kinetic energy
of particles during condensation?
A) It increases.
B) It decreases.
C) It remains constant.
D) It fluctuates.
 38 / 117

Observations Showing thermal expansion in gas

● Before heating, the ball easily
passes through the ring.
● After heating, the ball gets
stuck in the ring, showing that
heating it caused it to increase in
size.

A bottle fitted with a deflated balloon is

Conclusion
placed in a hot water bath.
When solids are heated they expand,
and when cooled they contract.
Observation
After heating, the balloon gets inflated
(or filled with air), showing that its
Showing thermal expansion in liquids
volume has increased.
This experiment uses coloured water
so that its level before and after heating
Conclusion
may easily be visible.
When gases are heated they expand,
and when cooled they contract.

In general:
When materials (solids, liquids and
gases) are heated they expand, and
when cooled they contract.

Explaining Thermal Expansion

The water is allowed to rise along a ● According to the kinetic
thin glass tube so that changes in its particle theory the molecules of
height (h) may easily be visible. solids and liquids are in constant
vibration.
Observation ● When heated they vibrate
After heating, the water level rises up faster and force each other a
the glass tube, showing that its little further apart.
volume has increased. ● Expansion results, and this is
greater for liquids than for solids;
Conclusion gases expand even more
When liquids are heated they expand, because their molecules are
and when cooled they contract. held together by very weak
forces.
 39 / 117

Exercise 2 contact points (as shown in a and

1. A metal ball and a ring are provided. b, respectively).
At room temperature, the ball just
passes through the ring.
i. What do you observe after heating the
metal ball, and what does this show?
ii. Explain why this happens.

2. A glass flask is filled with water, and

the water level is marked at room
temperature. The flask is then heated. ○ The bimetallic strip
a) Describe what happens to the consists of two thin strips
water level. of different metals coupled
b) State one way to make the together.
results of this experiment easily ○ When heated the
observable. metals expand at
different rates, causing
Applications and Consequences the bimetallic strip to
Thermal expansion has several everyday bend.
applications and consequences:
a) Applications
● Construction: Bridges and
railway tracks have gaps to
accommodate expansion, ○ Under normal temperature
preventing buckling in hot the bimetallic strip
weather. remains straight,
allowing the contacts
to touch and complete
the circuit.
○ When the temperature is
too high, the bimetallic
strip bends and opens
● Thermostats: Bimetallic strips in the contact points and
thermostats bend with stops current from
temperature changes, flowing.
regulating heating and cooling ● Thermometers: Liquid-in-glass
systems, by closing and opening thermometers use expanding
liquids to measure temperature.
 40 / 117

● Power Lines: Installed with 3. Arrange the following substances

slack, power lines can sag in according to their order of
heat, preventing breakage due to expansion, starting with the one
expansion. which expands the most when
the same amount of heat is
applied to all three: vinegar,
oxygen and copper.
4. The two diagrams show how the
molecules in a solid behaved with
and without heating.

b) Consequences
● Buckling Structures: Excessive
heat can cause metal structures
to buckle without proper a) Which diagram shows the
expansion joints. behaviour after heating?
b) What differences does it
show from the one before
heating?
c) In which of the 3 states of
matter is the material most
likely to be in? How is it
● Overflows: Gasoline can
shown by the diagrams?
overflow from tanks when
heated, as it expands more than
5. In an experiment to show the
the container.
expansion of liquids when
heated:
Exercise 3 a. Why is a colored liquid
1. Which physical property do used instead of normal
liquid-in-glass thermometers use water?
to measure temperature? b. Why is a narrow glass tube
2. Describe one situation where used in the setup?
thermal expansion could cause a 6. Explain how a bimetallic strip is
problem. How is this problem used in a thermostat switch to
addressed in engineering or regulate the temperature of an
construction? electric iron.
 41 / 117

P2.1 (c): Measurement of Experiment

Temperature To demonstrate relationship between
amount of expansion and the amount of
heat applied

● The first diagram shows a

coloured liquid in a flask under a
● The level of the liquid along the
normal temperature.
glass tube is marked when heat
● The second diagram shows heat
is first applied.
being initially applied to the flask.
● Then the heat is applied and the
The flask expands before the
height (h) is recorded after every
liquid, becoming larger and
minute.
causing the level of the liquid to
● Next, the graph of h against time
go down.
or heat applied is drawn. This
● The third diagram shows the heat
graph will be a straight line,
being steadily applied to the
showing that the thermal
flask. The more the heat being
expansion, h, is directly
applied the bigger the expansion.
proportional to time (or heat
In other words, thermal
applied).
expansion is directly
proportional to the change in
temperature.
● Measurement of temperature
using a liquid-in-glass
thermometer applies this physical
property called thermal
expansion (in which thermal
expansion is directly proportional
to change in temperature).
 42 / 117

Exercise 4 level of the liquid easy to see when

1. Which of the following physical taking temperature readings. A
properties of liquids varies with liquid-in-glass thermometer uses
temperature? thermal expansion for measuring
a) Density temperature, meaning the thermal
b) Volume expansion is directly proportional to
c) Viscosity change in temperature.
d) All of the above
Identifying the Fixed Points
2. Why is a coloured liquid used in the
experiment to show the relationship
between temperature and thermal
expansion?

3. A height (h) vs time graph was drawn

to show the movement of the liquid
along the narrow glass tube. Which
feature of the graph shows that
temperature is directly proportional to
The above is an experiment in which a
the amount of thermal expansion?
liquid-in-glass thermometer is first
placed in crushed melting ice, and then
4. When a flask containing the coloured
in boiling water.
liquid is first heated, the level of the
● When the thermometer is kept in
liquid drops slightly before rising.
melting ice, the level of the liquid
Explain this behaviour.
drops until it stops at a fixed
point. This lower fixed point is
known as the melting point of
pure water, and it is 0°C.
● When the thermometer is next
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
placed above boiling water, the
The diagram shows a liquid-in-glass
level of the liquid rises until it
thermometer with a scale ranging from
stops at a fixed point. This upper
-10°C to 110°C.
fixed point is known as the
boiling point of pure water, and
it is 100°C.
● If the water is impure (or mixed
with other substances) it will melt
It contains a coloured liquid such as
at a temperature that is lower
mercury or alcohol. This is to make the
 43 / 117

than 0°C; and it will boil at b) K=°C+273

temperatures slightly above =(0)+273
100°C (for example, from 103°C =273 K
to 105°C). c) K=°C+273
=(100)+273
Absolute Zero =373 K
According to the kinetic particle theory:
● Matter is made of particles; This is how the information from the
● And the particles are always above calculations can be shown on a
moving. °C scale thermometer placed next to a
Kelvin scale thermometer.
Even when water is frozen, its molecules
still vibrate because they have some
kinetic energy.
But there is a temperature at which
all molecules stop moving.
Everything becomes still. In other
words, there is absolute zero
movement.
● This temperature is -273°C.
● To align with the idea of absolute
zero movement, -273°C is also
called 0 Kelvins or simply 0 K.
Explaining the Sensitivity of a
● So to change from °C to K or vice
Thermometer
versa, we can use the formula
Sensitivity refers to how small a change
K=°C+273
in temperature the thermometer can
detect and show. A highly sensitive
thermometer can detect very small
temperature changes, making it useful
Example
in precise applications like medical or
1. Change to Kelvins:
laboratory use. For example, a
a) -273°C
thermometer with high sensitivity might
b) 0°C
be able to detect a temperature change
c) 100°C
of 0.1°C or even less.
● Making the capillary tube
Solution
narrower increases the
a) K=°C+273
sensitivity of the
=(-273)+273
thermometer.
=0 K
 44 / 117

● This is because when the

thermometer has a narrower
capillary tube, the same
expansion is able to move a
larger distance than along a wide
capillary tube.

● It consists of 2 wires made from

dissimilar metals; for example
copper (orange) and iron (blue).
● The wires are joined to form 2
junctions, one labelled hot
(orange) and the other labelled
cold (blue).
● The 2 junctions are each
Explaining the Range of a
connected to a voltmeter.
Thermometer
Range refers to the minimum and
b) Action
maximum temperatures that the
● When the hot and cold junctions
thermometer can measure. It defines
are at different temperatures, a
the span of temperatures the
voltage is generated between the
thermometer is capable of reading. For
two metals due to the
example, a clinical thermometer typically
thermoelectric effect.
has a range of 35°C to 42°C
● The generated voltage is
(temperatures around the normal body
proportional to the temperature
temperature of 37°C), while a laboratory
difference between the hot and
thermometer might have a broader
cold junctions.
range, such as -10°C to 110°C.

c) Use
Thermocouple Thermometer
● Thermocouples are widely used
a) Structure
for high-temperature
This is a simplified structure of a
measurements like in the furnace
thermocouple thermometer.
or engines or where
temperatures quickly vary. This is
because:
○ They can withstand
extreme temperatures,
often ranging from -200°C
 45 / 117

to over 2000°C, depending (b) Fig. 4.2 shows the same

on the metal combination. thermometer used to measure the
○ Thermocouples respond temperature TX of liquid X.
quickly to changes in
temperature; meaning,
they are highly sensitive.

Exercise 5
1. Convert the following temperatures to
Kelvins:
a) 24°C
b) -10°C
c) 300°C With the setup in Fig. 4.2, the voltmeter
d) 0°C reading is Vnew=1.7 mV. Calculate the
temperature of liquid X measured by the
2. When water boils over a range of thermometer (when the reference
temperatures which are slightly above temperature Tref=20°C).
the normal fixed point of 100°C, what
does that show about the water? Equation: [TX=Tref+((Vnew÷Vold)×100)]

3. Fig. 4.1 shows a thermometer.

temperature
= ........................... [2]

(c) Suggest, with a reason, an

application for which this type of
The voltmeter reading is Vold=5.4 mV.
thermometer is more suitable than a
(a) State the name of this type of
liquid-inglass thermometer.
thermometer.
...........................................................
...........................................................
...................................................... [2]
...................................................... [1]
 46 / 117

P2.1 (d): Thermal Capacity

● The behaviour of 3 materials:

copper, aluminium and water
when heated is observed. How ● Measure the mass (m) of the
much heat energy is required to metal block using an electronic
raise the temperature of 1 kg scale.
of each material by 1 °C? ● Insert a thermometer into the
● 4200 J of heat energy is required metal block and connect it to the
to raise the temperature of 1 kg heater.
of water by 1 °C. ● Switch on the heater and
● So, according to the above measure the electrical energy
diagram, how much heat energy supplied to the block using the
is required to raise the formula:
temperature of 1 kg of aluminium
by 1 °C? Q=V×I×t
● Between aluminium, copper and
water, it can be seen that 1 kg of ● Record the initial and final
water absorbs more energy temperatures (T¡ and T¢) of the
before its temperature can metal block.
rise by 1 °C. In other words, ● Calculate the specific heat
water has a high thermal capacity, c, using the formula:
capacity.
● That makes it suitable for cooling
car engines.
The Reason For Lagging
Experiment Lagging means the metal block is
● To find specific heat capacity, c, covered with an insulator to reduce heat
of a solid block. loss to the surroundings.
● Set up the apparatus as shown
below:
 47 / 117

Calculating Energy Transferred b) Alcohol

● We use the formula: c) Ice
d) Aluminium
thermal energy transferred = mc∆T e) Concrete
Or
Q = mc(T¢-T¡)
Change of State
During a change of state like melting or
boiling temperature remains
constant, and it is seen by a flat graph.

Example
A 2.5 kg glass block at 25 °C, was
heated to 27 °C, by connecting it to an
Definitions
electric heater. Calculate the amount of
1. Latent Heat of Fusion: The
energy absorbed by the glass block.
heat energy required to change
1 kg of a substance from
Solution
solid to liquid without changing
From the specific heat capacity chart:
its temperature.
c = 700 J/kg°C (for glass)
2. Latent Heat of Vaporisation:
So:
The heat energy required to
Q = mc(T¢-T¡)
change 1 kg of a substance
= 2.5 × 700 (27-25)
from liquid to gas without
= 3500 J
changing its temperature.
Exercise 6
Calculating Latent Heat
Calculate the amount of energy that
● The heat of transformation (that
would be absorbed if, instead of glass,
is, for changing from one state of
the block was made of:
a) Water
 48 / 117

matter to another) per unit mass Solution

is called the latent heat (L). Convert mass to kilograms
● It is measured in J/Kg. m = (250/1000) = 0.25 kg

Q = mL (Equation)
7,500=0.25×L (Substitution)
(7,500/0.25)=L (division by 0.25)
L=30,000 J/kg or 3×10t J/kg

Exercise 7
1. How much heat energy is required to
completely vaporize 2 kg of water at
Example
100°C?
1. A 0.5 kg block of ice at 0°C melts
(The specific latent heat of vaporization
completely. If the specific latent heat of
of water is 2.26×10v J/kg).
fusion of ice is 3.34×10u J/kg, calculate
the heat energy required.
2. If 4.52 MJ of energy is used to
condense 3.5 kg of steam at 100°C,
Solution
calculate the specific latent heat of
Q = mL = 0.5×3.34×10u = 167,000 J
vaporization of the steam.
(MJ means megajoules or 10v J).
2. A 250 g piece of wax requires 7,500 J
of energy to melt. Calculate the specific
latent heat of fusion of the wax.
 49 / 117

K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
P2.2: Transfer of Thermal Energy
Jan 23, 2025, 12:25 PM

P2.2 (a): Conduction Experiment

● To distinguish between good and
The diagram shows a cooking pot with poor conductors of heat.
parts made from different materials.

● 3 rods of the same size, but

made from different materials are
being heated equally on one end.
● The body of the pot is made from
● The other end of each rod has a
metals such as copper or
nail stuck with vaseline or candle
stainless steel.
wax.
○ This is because metals
allow heat (from the
Observations
stove) to pass through
● The nail on the copper rod falls
and cook food.
first.
○ So metals are called
● The nail on the iron rod falls
good conductors of
next.
heat.
● The nail on the glass rod remains
● The handle is made from plastic
stuck.
or wood.
○ This is so that the plastic
Conclusion
or wood prevents heat
● Copper allows heat to pass
from passing through it,
through it the fastest, followed by
and burning our hands.
iron (in this experiment). So the
○ So plastic and wood are
vaseline or wax melts, causing
examples of poor heat
the nails to fall.
conductors. They are
● Glass prevents heat from passing
also called insulators.
through it. That is why the nail
● Heat travels through solid
remains on it without falling.
materials by a process (or
method) called conduction.
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● Therefore, metals are good

conductors of heat, while
nonmetals are poor
conductors of heat.

Explaining Conduction in All Solids

● What happens to the
particles during conduction?
● (By particles we mean atoms or
molecules).
● Here is the explanation:
● Several metal tacks are stuck
with candle wax along a metal
rod.
● The metal rod is heated on one
end.

Observations
● The metal tacks fall one after the
other, starting with those nearest
Explaining Conduction in Metals the source of heat.
● Why are metals better conductors ● So as the heat moves along the
of heat? metal rod, it melts the wax,
● Here is the explanation: causing the tacks to fall until
fewer and fewer remain
farthest from the flame.

Conclusion
Heat travels from the heated to the cold
end of the metal rod.

Lagging of Water Pipes

Wrapping water pipes with an
insulator like plastic or a piece of cloth
Experiment in order to prevent the water in the
● To show that heat flows through pipes from freezing in winter is an
a conductor from the heated end example of lagging.
to the cold end.
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Lagging in Cavity Walls 2. Thermal energy is transferred by

conduction in a metal bar.
Which statement is not correct?
A) Fast vibrating ions leave the
surface.
B) Free moving electrons carry
thermal energy through the bar.
● Some houses have walls C) Ions vibrate and strike
consisting of 2 layers of bricks, neighbouring ions to make them
and a cavity (or space) between vibrate.
them. D) Ions vibrate but do not change
● The air trapped in the cavity position.
is an insulator. So it reduces
heat loss by conduction from 3. Metals are good thermal conductors.
the house to the Insulators are poor thermal conductors.
surroundings. Which description of the mechanism of
● This keeps the house warm in thermal conductivity is correct?
winter, reducing the costs of A) In insulators, conduction takes
warming the house as less fuel or place by electron transfer and
electricity is used. molecular vibrations.
● Fur and foam also work well as B) In insulators, conduction takes
insulators because: place by electron transfer only.
○ Fur has a lot of trapped air C) In metals, conduction takes place
within its fibres, foam has by electron transfer and
many pockets of trapped molecular vibrations.
air. D) In metals, conduction takes place
by electron transfer only.
Exercise 1
1. Which statement describes thermal 4. A rod is made half of glass and half of
conduction in a metal by electrons? copper. Four pins A, B, C and D are
A) Atoms and electrons move freely attached to the rod by wax.
throughout the metal.
B) Atoms and electrons vibrate
about their fixed positions only.
C) Electrons move freely throughout
the metal.
D) Electrons remain attached to
atoms.
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The rod is heated in the centre as B) Free electrons transfer energy

shown. The pins fall off when the wax from the hotter end to the cooler
melts. Which pin falls off first? end.
C) Molecules of copper move from
5. A student suggests some uses for the cooler end to the hotter end.
containers made from good thermal D) Molecules of copper move from
conductors and containers made from the hotter end to the cooler end.
poor thermal conductors. In which row
are both suggested uses correct? 8. Two identical copper cans are filled
with boiling water.

6. An experiment is set up to find out

which metal is the best conductor of
heat. Balls are stuck with wax to rods One can is insulated with wool.
made from different metals, as shown in The temperature of the water in each
diagram 1. can is taken every minute for several
minutes.
Graphs of the results are plotted.
Which graph shows the results
obtained?

The rods are heated at one end. Some

of the balls fall off, leaving some as
shown in diagram 2. Which labelled
metal is the best conductor of heat?

7. One end of a copper rod is heated.

What is one method by which thermal
energy is transferred in the copper rod?
A) Free electrons transfer energy
from the cooler end to the heater
end.
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P2.2 (b): Convection ● A purple crystal of potassium

permanganate is placed at the
Experiment bottom of a beaker containing
● To show that water is a poor cold water.
conductor of heat. ● The bottom of the beaker is
heated with a Bunsen burner
flame.

Observation
● The path of the heated water
molecules is traced by the purple
streaks from the bottom to the
top of the beaker.

Explaining Convection
When heated, the liquid molecules at
● Ice is kept at the bottom of a test the bottom:
tube containing cold water. 1. Expand,
● The water at the top of the test 2. Become lighter (or less dense)
tube is heated until it boils. 3. And rise to the top.
● Observation: The ice remains
unmelted, showing that heat is Day to day Applications of
unable to travel from the Convection
boiling water at the top to
the cold water at the bottom.
● Conclusion: This shows that
water is a poor conductor of
heat.

Experiment
● To illustrate convection in fluids.
1- Fig. 1-14 shows the formation of a
purple sea breeze during the day:
streaks ● It is hotter on land, so the
rising
warmer air molecules rise.
● They are then replaced by cooler
flame
air molecules from the nearby
sea.
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2- Fig. 1-15 shows the formation of the

land breeze at night:
● It is hotter over the sea than on
land. So the hotter air molecules
rise, and they are replaced by
cooler air molecules from the
land.

3- Heating elements of kettles and

geysers are at the bottom.
● The cool air molecules at the top
become more dense, and fall to
● The water molecules at the
the bottom. Then they are
bottom rise, and they are
replaced by warmer neighbouring
replaced by cooler neighbouring
molecules.
molecules. This goes on until all
the water is hot.
Exercise 2
1. A Liquid is heated in a beaker.
4- Heaters are placed at the bottom of a
room.

The density of the liquid changes as its

temperature increases. This causes
energy to be transferred throughout the
● The air molecules at the bottom
liquid. How does the density change and
of the room get heated, expand,
what is this energy transfer process?
become less dense and rise to
the top. Then they are replaced
by cooler neighbouring
molecules.

5- Cooling units or compartments in

fridges are positioned at the top.
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2. A cupboard is placed in front of a A) Heat energy always travels

heater. Air can move through the gap upwards.
under the cupboard. B) Hot water is more dense than
cold water.
C) Metal gauze does not allow heat
to pass through.
D) Water is a poor conductor of
heat.
5. The diagram shows an
air-conditioning unit on the wall of a
Which row describes the temperature, room. The unit draws in warm air from
and the direction of movement, of the the room and releases cold air into the
air in the gap? room.

3. Which row shows how heating

What happens to the cold air, and why?
changes the density of air, and the
name of the method of energy transfer
caused by this density change?

6. A heater is to be fitted in a room to

warm the air throughout the room. The
4. Ice is trapped by a metal gauze at the diagram shows two possible positions to
bottom of a test tube containing water. fit the heater, P and Q.

The water is heated strongly at the top,

but the ice only melts very slowly. Which position is better and why?
Why does the ice melt so slowly?
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Radiation is the method by which

energy from the sun reaches the earth,
even though there is an empty space or
vacuum between them. It is described
mainly by 2 terms:
1. Absorption
2. And emission.

P2.2 (c): Radiation Experiment

● To show that black materials are
The diagram below shows 3 ways by
better absorbers of heat (from a
which heat travels from a fire to the
heat source) than shiny
surroundings.
materials.

● Two metal plates made from the

same material are placed an
1. Conduction: the heat energy is equal distance from a heat
transferred by direct contact with source.
a solid whose particles are made ● A coin is stuck with candle wax at
to vibrate vigorously. the back of each metal plate.
2. Convection: the heat is ● The only difference is that the
transferred by the movement of face of one plate is painted black
the air molecules due to their while the other is left shiny.
changing densities.
3. Radiation: the heat is Observation
transferred by an electromagnetic ● The wax on the black plate melts
wave, without a need for a first, causing the coin to drop.
medium or particles to be
present. This means that the Conclusion
energy can be transferred even Black materials are better absorbers
through a vacuum. of heat than shiny.
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Some experiments use thermometers The Work of a Vacuum Flask

instead of coins. ● Keeping liquids hot for longer by
reducing heat loss to the
surrounding.

The Parts of a Vacuum Flask

The thermometer on the black surface

records a higher temperature.

Experiment
● To show that black materials are How a Vacuum Flask Works
also better emitters of heat than 1. Its double glass wall slows
shiny. down heat loss by conduction
because it is a poor conductor of
heat.
2. The silvered surfaces reduce
heat loss by radiation because
they are poor absorbers and
emitters.
● A Leslie Cube has its faces 3. The vacuum between the waters
painted with different colours; for reduces heat loss by conduction
example, black and shiny. or convection (because they need
● It is filled with boiling water, and a medium to pass through).
an infrared detector is placed an 4. The cork or plastic stopper
equal distance from each face. reduces heat loss by both
● The detector records a higher conduction and convection (or
radiation from the black side. evaporation).
● Therefore, black materials are
better emitters of heat (or
infrared radiation) than shiny.
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Exercise 3 3. A student uses a double-walled glass

1. Two identical metal plates are vessel to contain a hot liquid.
painted, one matt (dull) white and the
other matt black. These are placed at
equal distances from a radiant heater as
shown. The heater is turned on for five
minutes.

What reduces the heat loss by

radiation?
A) a vacuum in the space between
the walls
B) painting surface Q black
C) painting surface R black
Which metal plate absorbs more energy D) painting surface S silver
and which plate emits more energy in
this time? 4. Four metal cans are identical except
for the colour and the texture of their
outer surfaces. 100 cm³ of water at
70°C is poured into each can. Which
cools the most rapidly?

2. A silver cup is filled with boiling water

from a kettle. A man touches the
5. Water at the top of a hot-water tank
outside surface of the cup and finds that
is heated and the water becomes hot.
it is extremely hot. Why is the surface
No water enters or leaves the tank.
so hot?
A) Convection takes place in the
boiling water.
B) Silver is a good conductor of
heat.
C) The boiling water gives out latent
heat.
D) The shiny surface is a good
emitter of infra-red radiation.
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Water at the bottom of the tank stays C) The shiny side radiates more
cold for some time. Why is this? heat.
A) Cold water at the top of the tank D) The shiny side is cooling down
falls to the bottom. faster than the black side.
B) Hot water at the bottom of the
tank rises to the top. 8. The heat from the hot water in a
C) Water is a poor conductor of metal radiator passes through the metal
heat. and then spreads around the room.
D) The insulation is a poor
conductor of heat. What are the main processes by which
the heat is transferred through the
6. Density changes are responsible for radiator and then spread around the
which method of thermal energy room?
transfer?
A) conduction only
B) convection only
C) radiation only
D) conduction, convection and
radiation

7. The diagram shows a thick copper 9. The diagram shows a vacuum flask
plate that is very hot. One side is black, and an enlarged view of a section
the other is shiny. A student places her through the flask wall.
hands the same distance from each side
as shown.

Her left hand feels warmer than her

The main reason for the silvering is to
right hand. Which statement is the
reduce heat transfer by
correct conclusion from the experiment?
A) conduction only.
A) The black side is hotter than the
B) radiation only.
shiny one.
C) conduction and convection.
B) The black side radiates more
D) convection and radiation.
heat.
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P3.1: General Wave Properties

A wave can be produced by carrying out ● One end of the spring is tied to a
any of the following 3 experiments: fixed position.
i) With Ropes ● The other end is held in one
hand, and is pulled.
● When it is released, it vibrates
forward and backwards,
horizontally.

A wave in which wave motion is parallel

● End B of a rope is tied to a fixed to the particle motion is called a
position (like the leg of a desk). longitudinal wave.
● End A is held in a hand, and
thrown up and down. iii) With a Ripple Tank
● Energy is transferred from the
hand at A, through the rope, to
B.
● The wave motion is horizontal
(from A to B), but the particles in
the rope only move up and down,
without having to move from A to
B.

So a wave is the transfer of energy from ● The ripple tank is actually a

one point to another, without the shallow transparent tray that is
transfer of matter (or particles). filled with water.
● An electric motor causes a paddle
When the wave motion and the particle to vibrate in the water.
motion are perpendicular to each other, ● As a result, ripples travel from
the wave is called a transverse wave. one end of the tank to the
other.
ii) With Springs ● When these ripples are observed
under a light (or illumination),
they produce a pattern of
alternating dark and bright
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lines on the screen below the position and the highest point on the
tank. wave).

Parts of a Wave

iii) Wavelength (λ)

Wavelength is the distance travelled by
a complete wave or cycle. (For example,
it can be the distance measured in
metres between two consecutive
crests/hollows.)
i) Wavefront
The diagram below shows a group of
The wavelength of a wave produced by
waves produced by the same source.
a ripple tank can be determined by
measuring the distance between any 2
successive dark lines (or any 2
successive bright lines).

The waves are in phase, meaning they iv) Frequency (f)

all reach their highest points together,
their lowest points together, and so on.
Definition
A line that joins similar points of waves
which are in phase is called a
wavefront.

Wave 1 and wave 2 above have the

(For example, in the above diagram the
same amplitude, but wave 2
blue lines are wavefronts joining the
completes its cycles faster. We say
highest points of the waves. It is also
wave 2 has a higher frequency than
possible for wavefronts to join the
wave 1.
lowest points, or any other set of similar
points.)
Frequency is the number of complete
cycles or waves per second, measured
ii) Amplitude
in Hertz. 2 Hz means 2 cycles are
Amplitude is the largest displacement
completed in 1 sec.
(or the distance between the rest
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Exercise 1 Solution
1- The diagram shows a water wave in a v = fλ = 5 × 8 = 40 cm/s {"Hz" means
ripple tank. "/s"}
Or
v = fλ = 5 × (8÷100) = 0.4 m/s
(8 cm is divided by 100 to change it to
m)

Exercise 2
a) Name the parts of the wave 1- A tuning fork produces a longitudinal
represented by: A, B and C. wave of frequency 440 Hz. The wave
b) What type of wave is this? Give a travels through air with a speed of 330
reason for your answer. m/s.
(a) Explain what is meant by a
2- Define the following, and state their longitudinal wave.
units: ...........................................................
a) wavelength b) frequency ...................................................... [1]

The Wave Equation (b) Calculate the wavelength of the

The speed (v) of a wave is the product wave.
of its frequency (f) and its wavelength
(λ). wavelength = ........................ m [2]
speed = frequency × wavelength
or 2- Fig. 4.1 shows ripples travelling
v = fλ across the surface of a lake.

Example
A wave travelling along the surface of
water has a wavelength of 8 cm and a
frequency of 5 Hz. (a) What property of the ripples means
Calculate the speed of the water wave, that a transverse wave motion is
in both cm/s and m/s. formed?
...........................................................
speed = ................................. cm/s ...........................................................
speed………............................ m/s ...................................................... [2]
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(b) The frequency of the wave is 3Hz. barrier (or block) placed at an
On Fig. 4.1, mark a distance which angle to the direction of wave
shows how far the ripples travel in 1 motion.
second, and explain how you obtain ● The wave then gets bent
your answer. downward, away from the barrier.
........................................................... This process is called reflection.
...........................................................
........................................................... P3.2: Light
...................................................... [3] Law of Reflection

3- A sound wave has a frequency of

250Hz.
(i) The speed of sound in air is 325m/s.
Calculate the wavelength of the wave in
air. ● The normal is the line (or plane)
that makes 90° with the reflector
wavelength = ........................ m [2] (or barrier).
● Law of reflection: i° = r°
4- An object that is dipping into a lake
vibrates 120 times in 1.0 minute, Refraction of Water
producing ripples of wavelength 25 cm. When a wave travels from deep water to
shallow water its speed decreases.
Calculate the speed of these ripples.
As a result, its wavelength also
[3] decreases.

Reflection of Water Waves

If the water wave approaches shallow

water at an angle (as shown below), the
● The above diagram shows a change in speed causes the wave to
water wave, formed by a ripple bend.
tank, approaching a wooden
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The image of the mountain seems to be

under water, which acts as a mirror.

Characteristics of the image

The image of an object formed in a
plane mirror has the following
The bending of a wave due to a change characteristics:
in speed when the wave moves from 1. The image is inverted — that
one medium (e.g. deep water) to means that it is upside down (or
another (e.g. shallow water) is called the right appears as if it is the
refraction. left, and the left appears as if it is
the right).
Exercise 3 2. Image distance from the
Fig. 3.1 shows parallel wavefronts of a mirror = object distance from
light wave in ice. The wavefronts are the mirror.
incident on a boundary with air. 3. The object size = the image size.
4. The image is virtual — if the
mountain would move away, its
image would also disappear
completely with it.

(i) draw the wavefronts of the wave that Image diagrams

passes into the air
(ii) draw arrows to show the direction of
travel of the refracted wave.

Light
Reflection of Light

A snow capped mountain and its image The 2 diagrams each show the path of a
in the water are shown: ray of light leaving a torch, and being
reflected by a plane mirror.

Two types of reflection

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Regular reflection occurs when light b) The lines going from the mirror to the
rays hit a smooth polished surface, from image are dotted, meaning light only
which they are reflected in a single appears to be going there, without
actually going.
uniform direction, resulting in the
formation of a clear picture.
Refraction of Light
A ray of light approaches a rectangular
Diffuse reflection occurs when light
glass block at an angle.
rays hit a rough surface, from which
they scatter in different directions,
without forming a clear image.

Tracing the Path of a Ray of Light

The diagram below shows two rays of
light coming from an object, O.
a) Continue the two rays and add
further lines to the diagram to
show how an image is formed by ● Instead of passing through the
a plane mirror. glass block in a straight path, the
b) The image in a plane mirror is a light appears to be bent.
virtual image. How can you tell ● This is the refraction of light as it
this from the diagram? passes from one medium (air) to
another medium (glass).
● The path of the ray of light can
be traced on a sheet of paper.

Answer
a) Here is how it is done: ● The angle between the normal
and the incident ray is called the
angle of incidence, i.
● The angle between the normal
and the refracted ray is called the
angle of refraction, r.

image
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Refraction is the reason why a pencil Example

appears to be bent when placed in a The figure shows a ray of light incident
transparent glass of water. on a glass block and the refracted ray in
the block.

(a) State the values of

i) the angle of incidence,
ii) the angle of refraction.
● This is because when a ray of (b) Calculate the refractive index of the
light travels from air to water, its glass.
speed decreases. refractive index =
● As a result, it changes its ................................................ [3]
direction. So its path to the eye
is bent. Solution
a) i) i = 46° ii) r = 28°
Refractive Index b) n = sin i/sin r
When light travels from air to water it = (sin 46)/(sin 28)
gets bent. Similarly, when it travels from = 1.53
air to glass it also gets bent; even from
air to plastic, from air to diamond, etc. Graph of i vs r
A ray of light from a ray box was
The densest of these materials will beamed toward a rectangular glass
bend a ray of light more than the block at an angle of incidence, i =
other materials. 20.0°. The angle of refraction, r =
13.2°.
We can calculate the power of a
material to bend a ray of light by finding The angles of incidence were then
what is called refractive index, n. varied, and each time, the
corresponding angle of refraction is
refractive index = sin i/sin r recorded, as shown in the table below.
 67 / 117

Table 1

● As the beam enters the prism, it

is refracted because it passes
from air to glass.
From the above table, two types of
● Again, as it emerges from the
graphs can be drawn:
prism, it is refracted because it is
● sin r vs sin i (which is a straight
passing from glass (a more dense
line graph)
material) to air (a less dense
● r vs i (which is a curved graph)
material).
● This shows light as consisting of
seven different colours, also
known as the light spectrum,
namely:
○ red
○ orange
○ yellow
○ green
○ blue
Exercise 4 ○ indigo
Use Table 1 above to plot a graph of ○ violet
angle of incidence vs angle of refraction.
Dispersion of Light An easy way to remember the order in
The diagram below shows a beam of which these colours follow each other is
light passing through a triangular glass by writing ROY G BIV, where each letter
prism. represents the first letter of each of the
7 colours.
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Exercise 5 Some waves move across the surface of

1- A ray of light passes from air into a the water.
transparent plastic block as shown. (a) (i) Mark on the diagram, between A
and B, one wavelength of the waves.
[1]
(ii) Explain why the wavelength of the
waves changes as the waves go across
the pool from B to C.
[2]
(a) (i) On the diagram, label the angle (b) The wavelength of the waves
of incidence with the letter i and angle between A and B is 12 cm. They move
of refraction with the letter r. across the pool at a speed of 90 cm/s.
(ii) State how you would use these Calculate the frequency of these waves.
angles to determine the refractive index Show your working.
of the plastic.
...........................................................
...................................................... [1] frequency………………...[2]
(iii) Complete the figure to show the ray
of light after it has left the plastic block. (c) When the pool is perfectly calm, a
[1] boy observes that an image of a lamp is
(b) A second ray of light is incident on formed as shown in Fig. 2.2.
the block with an angle of incidence of
64°. The angle of refraction is 40°.

Calculate the refractive index of the

plastic.
refractive index =
................................................ [2]

(i) On Fig. 2.2, draw a ray from the

2- Fig. 2.1 shows a side view of a
lamp to the boy’s eye to show how the
shallow pool.
image is formed.

[2]

A breeze blows and ripples form. The

appearance of the side view of the
surface of the pool is shown in Fig. 2.3.
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Thin Converging Lens

The picture below shows a beam

of parallel light rays approaching a
convex lens from the left.

(ii) Explain why a single image of the

lamp is no longer seen. Draw suitable
rays on Fig. 2.3 to help with your
explanation.

[3]

3- Fig. 8.1 shows a ray of light incident

on a glass block. The rays are made to converge on
one point by the lens.

The place where the light rays are

made to meet by the lens is called
the focal point (F).
The angle of incidence is 64°.
Focal length (f) — this is the
(a) On Fig. 8.1, draw the path of the ray distance between the middle of
of light as it passes through and leaves the lens and the focal point. It can
the block. be measured with a ruler.
[2]
(b) The glass block has a refractive
index,
n = 1.48.

Calculate the value of the angle of

refraction. Show your working.
[3]

angle of refraction =
....................................................... °
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Experiment
● To measure the focal length
of a thin converging lens.
● A thin convex lens is placed
between a lit candle and a
small white screen.

● The position of the lens is

adjusted until a sharp clear
image of the candle is
formed on the screen.
● The distance d₀ between the
Some books use u for d₀ and v for
object (or candle) and the
di; for example:
lens is measured using a
metre rule.
● Then the distance di
between the image and the
lens is also measured.
● The focal length is
calculated using the formula:

Example
Convex lens as a magnifying glass
In one experiment the distance di
The diagram below shows a lens
between the screen and the lens
being used as a magnifying
is 3 cm, and the distance d₀
glass; meaning, it is used to
between the object and the lens is
enlarge the writing on the page of
2 cm. Calculate the focal length f
a book.
of the lens.
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the lens, it is bent parallel to

the principal axis.

Exercise 6
1- The teacher gives a student an
unfinished diagram to show the
rays of light as they leave the
The page is the object. What is candle (of height 1 cm) which is 3
seen in the lens is the image, cm from the lens.
which is bigger than the object.
The rays pass through the lens (of
Ray Diagrams focal length f=2 cm) and form an
We can trace the path of light from image.
the object, through the lens and
onto the image by drawing any 2
of the following 3 rays.

(i) On the Fig., draw a horizontal

line from point C, the candle
flame, to the lens, then continue it
to pass through the point F¹.

● Ray 1 is red: It is parallel to (ii) Draw a straight line from point

the principal axis until it C through the centre of the lens,
reaches the lens. Then it is meeting line (i) on the opposite
bent so that it passes side of the lens.
through F¹. Label point X, where lines (i) and
● Ray 2 is blue: It passes (ii) meet.
unbent through the middle of
the lens. (iii) Draw a vertical line from X to
● Ray 3 is green: It passes the line AB, cutting AB at Y.
through F. When it reaches
 72 / 117

The different positions of the Summary

object
Depending on the position of the
object with respect to the focal
length of the lens, different images
can be formed.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Notice that for the lens to be used This is a group of related
as a magnifying glass, the object transverse waves having the
must be placed between F and 2F. speed of light (3 00 000 000 m/s
or just 3×10⁸ m/s).
Then the image will be: Starting from the highest
● Larger than the object; frequency to the lowest, they are:
● Virtual ● gamma rays,
● and upright. ● x-rays,
● ultraviolet radiation,
● light,
● infrared radiation
● and radio waves (namely:
○ microwave,
○ TV
○ and radio).
 73 / 117

Properties of e.m. waves When dealing with x-rays, care

1. They are transverse in must be taken to avoid
nature, overexposure.
2. they travel at the speed of
light Exercise 7
3. and they can travel through Fig. 5.1 shows some regions of
a vacuum (empty space). the electromagnetic spectrum,
arranged in order of increasing
Uses of e.m. waves wavelength.
- radio waves: in transferring radio
and TV signals or messages;
- microwaves: in satellite television
and telephones;
- infrared: in electrical appliances,
remote controllers for televisions (a) Name the type of
and intruder alarms; electromagnetic wave found in the
- x-rays: in medicine to take region that is not labelled.
pictures of internal organs like .................................................. [1]
bones and lungs, and in security (b) State the speed in a vacuum of
to detect hidden weapons like electromagnetic waves.
guns. ......................................... m/s [1]
(c) Which of the regions shown in
Safety precautions Fig. 5.1 refers to waves of the
When dealing with radioactive highest frequency?
materials which produce gamma .................................................. [1]
rays, the following safeguards (d) Electromagnetic waves are
must be obeyed: transverse waves. Explain the
- handle with tongs; meaning of transverse.
- wear protective clothing; .......................................................
- avoid overexposure; .......................................................
- and store the materials in lead .................................................. [2]
boxes.
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2- Fig. 3.1 shows components in

the electromagnetic spectrum in
order of decreasing frequency.

(i) State the speed of the radio

waves as they travel through the
Two components have not been air.
named. speed = ............................ m/ s [1]

(a) Complete Fig. 3.1 by adding (ii) Explain what is meant by the
the names of these components. frequency is 27MHz.
[2] .......................................................
(b) Define the frequency of a .......................................................
wave. .................................................. [2]
.................................................. [1]
(c) State the speed of these waves (iii) Calculate the wavelength of
in a vacuum. these radio waves.
speed = ……………….……m/s [1] [2]
(d) State one property, other than
speed, that all electromagnetic P3.3: Sound
waves have in common.
The diagram shows an experiment
.................................................. [1]
in which one end of a ruler is
pushed down (or displaced) and
3- The Fig. shows a girl operating
then released.
a radio-controlled car.
The transmitter emits radio waves
that are detected by the model car.
The frequency of the radio waves
is 27MHz.
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It then vibrates, and produces a The wavelength of a sound wave

sound. When it stops vibrating, the is the distance between two
sound also stops being produced. successive compressions or two
successive rarefactions.
Conclusion 1
● Sound is produced by
vibrating objects.

Sound as a Longitudinal Wave

When the ruler is pushed down,
Sound needs a material to pass
the air particles below it are
through
compressed (meaning, they
The Fig. shows an electric bell that
come closer together).
is suspended in a glass bell-jar.
When the ruler is released, and
The bell can be seen to be
moves up, these air particles are
vibrating, and its sound is heard.
decompressed (meaning, they
move further apart).

As the ruler goes down again, it

causes another compression of air
particles. As it moves up, it causes
another decompression or
rarefaction.
As the vacuum pump slowly
removes air from the bell-jar, the
Conclusion 2
sound is slowly reduced until it
● Sound travels as a series of
completely disappears.
compressions and
rarefactions which are in the
Conclusion 3
same direction as the
● At first, the sound travels
displacement.
through the air particles in
● Therefore, sound is a
the bell-jar, through the
longitudinal wave because
glass, and through the air
the wave motion is in the
outside the bell-jar, until it
same direction as the
reaches our ears.
displacement.
 76 / 117

● But when the air has been

sucked out of the bell-jar,
the sound is unable to
move through the empty
space. Therefore, pitch is dependent on
● Therefore, sound needs a frequency.
material to pass through.
Range of Audible Frequencies
Amplitude The human ear can only detect
In the experiment where the ruler sound waves having frequencies
was displaced in order to produce between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. A
a sound wave, we are going to sound with a frequency above
study the effect of amplitude on 20,000 Hz is known as
the loudness of the sound ultrasound.
produced.
Exercise 8
1- The science class is studying
sound waves. It is a stormy day. A
student sees a lightning flash over
a hill some distance away and
When the ruler is pushed down a
starts a timer.
bit, and then released, it produces
a small sound. But the bigger the
When he hears the thunder made
displacement (or amplitude), the
by the lightning flash, he stops the
bigger the loudness.
timer.

Pitch
The Fig. shows the dial of the
A loose guitar string produces a
timer he used, which is graduated
dull (or low pitched) sound, that
in seconds.
has a low frequency. A tight string
produces a high pitched sound,
that has a high frequency.
 77 / 117

(i) Read the timer dial. How long (b) What can he do to the rubber
does the sound of thunder take to band to make it produce a sound
travel from the hills to the with higher:
classroom? i) loudness;
………………….s [1] ii) pitch?
(ii) The speed of sound at room
temperature is 340 m/s. 3- Line 1 of Fig. 4.4 shows a wave
a teacher produced with a signal
Calculate the distance from the hill generator.
to the classroom.

distance = .……………….. m [1]

2- A student experiments with a

rubber band. She stretches it
between two retort stands and
notices that it produces a sound
when she plucks it. (i) The teacher increases the
frequency of the wave produced
The apparatus is shown in Fig. by the signal generator.
3.1. On line 2 of Fig. 4.4, draw a wave
that has a higher frequency than
the wave in line 1.
[1]
(ii) The teacher returns to the
original frequency and now
increases the loudness of the
(a) Explain why the sound is sound made by the signal
produced. generator.

....................................................... On line 3 of Fig. 4.4, draw a wave

....................................................... which has the same frequency as
.................................................. [2] the wave on line 1 but makes a
louder sound.
[2]
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Speed of sound in different media accurate than a single

Sound travels fastest in solids, measurement.
then liquids and slowest in air.
Exercise 9
Measuring speed of sound in air 1- A sound wave has a frequency
● An observer, with a stop of 250 Hz.
watch, stands on one end of (i) The speed of sound in air is 325
a field (flat piece of land). m/s. Calculate the wavelength of
● A shooter, with a pistol (a the wave in air.
small gun), stands on the
other end. wavelength = ........................ m [2]

(ii) The sound wave passes from

air into steel. State what happens
to the speed and to the
wavelength of the wave.
speed
.......................................................
● The shooter shoots the gun
wavelength
into the air. When the
.................................................. [2]
observer sees the smoke, he
starts the time. After a while,
2- A sound wave is emitted
when he hears the sound of
downwards from a ship. The
the gun, he stops the timer.
sound wave is reflected from the
● Next, they measure the
seabed and is detected as it
distance between them with
arrives back at the ship. See Fig.
a measuring tape. Then they
4.1.
divide the distance by the
time the sound took, in order
to find its speed.
● They can repeat the
experiment a few times, add
the speeds, and find their
average, which will be more
 79 / 117

The time between emitting the (b) Suggest why sound waves
sound wave and detecting it back cannot move from the Earth to the
at the ship is 0.25s. The seabed is Moon.
180 m below the ship. .......................................................
.......................................................
(a) Show by calculations that the .................................................. [2]
speed of sound in seawater is
1440 m/s.
[2]
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P4.1: Simple Phenomena of Magnetism K.H. Exam Prep

53743131/67752626
Jan 30, 2025, 10:20 PM

Properties of Magnets Experiment 1

1. Attractive Property 3 Magnets ● To show the attractive property of
attract ferromagnetic materials magnets.
● The north pole of one magnet is
like iron, cobalt, nickel and their
placed next to the south pole of
alloys (like steel which is an alloy another magnet.
of iron). ● Both magnets are covered with a
white sheet of paper, and iron
filings are sprinkled over the
paper.

2. Repulsive Properties 3 Like

magnetic poles repel each other
and unlike magnetic poles attract
each other.
● The above pattern is observed
when there is attraction between
the poles of the magnets.

Experiment 2
● The iron filings make the pattern
3. Directive Property 3 A freely shown below between similar
suspended magnet always points poles (e.g. north and north, or
south and south).
in a north-south direction.

● The iron filings show repulsion.

 81 / 117

Exercise 1 What does this show about the bars and

1- A steel ball on a horizontal wooden why?
table rolls near the north pole of a bar
magnet that is lying on the table.
What it shows Why
Which diagram shows the most likely
path of the ball, as seen from above the A only one of the two magnets
table? bars is a always attract
magnet each other

B only one of the induced

bars is a magnetism in the
magnet other bar makes
it repel

C they are both there must be

magnets like poles facing
each other
2- The ends of three metal rods are D they are both there must be
tested by holding end Q of rod 1 close magnets opposite poles
to the others in turn. facing each other

4- Three steel bars look alike, but two

are magnetised and one is
unmagnetised.
The results are as follows. End Q:
- attracts end R, Explain how you would decide which bar
- attracts end S, is unmagnetised, without using any
- attracts end T, additional equipment.
- repels end U. ...........................................................
Which of the metal rods is a magnet? ...........................................................
A) rod 1 only ...................................................... [2]
B) rod 1 and rod 2 only
C) rod 1 and rod 3 only
D) rod 3 only Methods of Magnetisation

3- Two metal bars are held together. At A piece of magnetic material like iron or
least one of the bars is a magnet. The steel can be turned into a magnet in any
bars repel each other. of the following 3 ways:
 82 / 117

a) Induction 4 when an iron nail is

near enough to be attracted to a
magnet, it also attracts other iron nails.
This shows that the iron nail acts as a
magnet by being close to a magnet.
In other words, it is an induced magnet.

When i) the switch is closed, ii) current

flows in the coil, and iii) the iron nail
is magnetized. That is why it will be able
to attract some money clips.
However, when the magnet is removed
When i) the switch is opened, ii) current
the iron nail loses its magnetism, and
stops flowing in the coil, and iii) the iron
the iron nails it had attracted fall down.
nail loses its magnetism. That is why the
So induced magnetism is an example of
money clips fall down. This type of
temporary magnetism.
magnet is called an electromagnet, and
it is another example of a temporary
b) Stroking
magnet.

Magnetic Properties of Iron and

Steel
Iron can be magnetized quite quickly,
but it also loses its magnetism
quickly too. It is therefore said to be
c) Using an Electromagnetic Coil magnetically soft.
Wind a coil of insulated wire around an
iron nail, and connect the ends of the Steel on the other hand is slow to be
coil to an electric cell (or battery). magnetized, but it keeps its
magnetism longer. It is therefore said
to be magnetically hard.
 83 / 117

The Design and Use of Permanent

Magnets and Electromagnets
A permanent magnet is made of steel
because of its ability to keep
magnetism for a long time.

Permanent magnets are usually used in

radio speakers, electric motors, keeping
doors of fridges tightly closed, etc. (a) (i) State what happens to the iron
rod when switch S is closed.
Some devices, however, need ...........................................................
magnetism only for short periods of .......................................................[1]
time. The magnetism should be there
only when it is needed. Otherwise, it is When switch S is closed, some of the
switched off. pieces of metal are attracted to the iron
rod and stick to it.
This is how electromagnets are
designed. When the circuit is closed,
current flows through the coil, and the The other pieces of metal stay on the
iron core inside it is magnetized. But bench.
immediately the switch is opened, the (ii) Explain why some of the pieces of
magnetism is lost. metal are attracted to the iron rod and
some are not attracted.
Examples of devices that use an ...........................................................
electromagnet ...........................................................
1- A crane for picking iron pieces in a ......................................................[2]
scrapyard.
2- An electric buzzer or electric bell. (b) In a separate experiment, a magnet
is used to pick up two metal pins as
Exercise 2 shown in Fig. 10.2.
1- Fig. 10.1 shows an iron rod with a
coil of wire wrapped around it. The coil
is attached to a power supply. A mixture
of small pieces of different types of
metal are on the bench near the iron
rod.
The pins hang at an angle to each other.
Explain why the pins do not hang
vertically.
 84 / 117

...........................................................
...........................................................
...................................................... [3]

2- Fig. 2.1 shows an electromagnetic Next, raise your right hand with fingers
relay switch. pointing up like the blue arrow next to
the + side of the coil.

Then wrap your fingers around the coil

as shown below.

Your thumb will be pointing in the

a) (i) Explain why the contacts close direction of the north pole of the
when switch S is closed. magnetic field near the coil.
...........................................................
........................................................... Exchanging the Terminals of the
.......................................................[3] Battery
Reversing the polarity of the battery
(ii) Explain why soft iron, not steel, is would cause the current to be reversed.
used for the core. Then the north pole of the
........................................................... electromagnet would also be reversed.
...........................................................
...................................................... [2]
Exercise 3
The figure below shows two rods of iron
Determining the poles of an inside a coil of wire.
electromagnet
First, determine the direction of current
flowing in the coil, which is usually from
+ terminal to - terminal.
 85 / 117

(a) Suggest and explain what happens Drawing the Pattern of Field Lines
to the rods when the current in the Around a Bar Magnet
circuit is switched on. Magnetic lines of force can be drawn
........................................................... using a plotting compass and small
........................................................... pencil dots as shown below.
.......................................................[3]

(b) The current in the coil is now

reversed. Suggest and explain what
happens to the rods.
...........................................................
...........................................................
...................................................... [2] Or as shown below.

5- Demagnetizing a Permanent
Magnet
Exercise 4
1- Four plotting compasses are placed in
the magnetic field of two identical bar
magnets as shown in the diagram.

Which compass is shown pointing in the

wrong direction?
A magnet can be destroyed by slowly
pulling it out of a coil through
which an alternating current (a.c.)
flows backwards, forwards, backwards,
forwards… and so on. The a.c. produces
a rapidly changing magnetic field which 2- A student uses three small plotting
throws the atoms in the magnet out of compasses to investigate the magnetic
line. field around a bar magnet.

Which diagram shows the directions in

which the compass needles point?
 86 / 117

D) One end of a compass needle is

repelled by it.

6- A permanent magnet can be

demagnetised by using a solenoid and
switching the current on then off.
Which diagram shows the most effective
method of producing demagnetisation?
3- Which materials are suitable for
making a permanent magnet and the
core of an electromagnet?

4- An experiment was carried out using

four rods made of different materials.
These were placed, in turn, in a coil of
wire.
7- (a) A student investigates magnetic
and non-magnetic materials. He tests
coil of wire

four metal bars labelled A, B, C and D.

rod
His observations are shown in the figure
below.
A large direct current was passed
through the coil for a few seconds and
was then switched off. As a result one of
the rods was permanently magnetised
by this experiment. Which material?

A glass B iron C plastic D steel

5- Which of the following proves that a

piece of metal is already a magnet? Identify each bar using words or
A) A magnet is attracted to it. phrases from the list. You may use each
B) Both ends of a compass needle are word or phrase once, more than once or
attracted to it. not at all.
C) Copper wire is attracted to it.
 87 / 117

aluminum, soft iron, a permanent One rod is made of iron, the other of
magnet steel.
A ........................................................
B ........................................................
C ........................................................
D ........................................................

(b) On the figure below, draw the

pattern and direction of the magnetic
field around the magnet. You should
draw at least six field lines. Explain the following observations that
are made with this equipment.
(i) After S is closed, the metal rods roll
away from each other.
.......................................................[3]

(ii) After some time S is then opened.

11- Two metal rods, A and B, of the The rods roll towards each other.
same size are placed inside a solenoid, ...................................................... [2]
as shown in the figure below. The
solenoid is connected to a battery
through a switch S.
 88 / 117

Electrostatics (or Static Electricity) ● During the rubbing there is a

a) The production of electrostatic transfer of charge from one
charges material to the other. This
makes the materials to have
If you rub a balloon against your unbalanced charges.
clothes it will stick to the wall. This ● A material with more negative
balloon will then deflect a stream of charges is said to be negatively
water from a tap, or pick up small charged, while the one with
pieces of paper. Why? more positive charges is said to
be positively charged.

If two charged objects are brought close

to each other:
● A negative charge will repel
another negative charge.
● A positive charge will repel
another positive charge.
● A negative charge and a positive
These things happen because of what is charge will attract.
called an electrostatic charge. The
balloon is said to be charged.

Explaining why materials get

charged
● Each material consists of an
equal number of positive (+)
charges and negative (-) charges,
We say that like charges repel, and
which balance (or cancel out)
unlike charges attract.
each other. The material will be
said to be neutral.
 89 / 117

Exercise 5
Three charged balls, P, Q and R, are
suspended by insulated threads. Ball P
is negatively charged.

Step 2 4 a piece of wire connected

between the second object and the
ground allows electrons to escape into
the ground

Step 3 4 the second object is now

Methods of Charging an Object positively charged
● By rubbing (also called by
friction).
● By induction (which is shown
below).

Charging by induction (in 4 steps)

Step 1 4 an object with a large Step 4 4 the positive charge get evenly
negative charge is brought near an distributed all over the object
uncharged object, causing its charges to
be separated.
 90 / 117

Exercise 6 When an uncharged object is

1- When a perspex rod is rubbed on a
woollen cloth, the rod acquires negative
electric charge.
a) What type of charge does the cloth
acquire?
...........................................................
...................................................... [1]
b) What can you say about the amounts
of charge on the two objects?
...........................................................
...................................................... [1]
c) If you had two perspex rods charged
in this way, how would you show that brought near the top of the
they have electric charges of the same electroscope, the electroscope remains
sign? uncharged (shown by its metal leaves
........................................................... being close together).
...................................................... [2]
But when a charged object is brought
2(a) What kind of charge would you near the top of the electroscope, the
expect to find on an electron, and in leaves of the electroscope deflect
which units would you measure its (spread apart). The bigger the
strength? deflection, the bigger the charge.
...........................................................
...................................................... [2] c) Conductors and insulators
(b) If a charged balloon is held next to Some materials retain (or hold onto)
an uncharged piece of paper, the paper charge longer than others.
and the balloon will attract each other.
Use the idea of charging by induction Insulators are materials that are more
to explain this. likely to retain charge. Examples are all
........................................................... nonmetals, except graphite (the
...................................................... [3] carbon form that makes leads of
pencils).
b) Detection of charge
An instrument that can be used to Conductors are more likely to allow
detect the presence of charge on an charge to pass through them. All
object is the electroscope. metals are good conductors of charge.
 91 / 117

d) Everyday applications of electrostatics 3) Other everyday electrostatics

Because insulators readily hold Sometimes people feel a small shock
onto charge, it can build up in them when they touch a car door. This is
due to friction. Then a spark will form, because the car has become charged by
followed by a sound, when the charge friction as it has been moving along.
jumps from one material to another.
You might sometimes hear the crackle
Examples of electrostatic release of of sparks as you remove a piece of
charge clothing, or feel a small shock when you
1) Lightning 4 during a thunderstorm touch a door handle.
the friction between the air and the
cloud causes a large buildup of charge Exercise 7
in the cloud. This charge may jump onto 1- Explain what is meant by 8earthing9.
the earth in the form of a large spark ...........................................................
followed by the sound of thunder. ...................................................... [2]
2- Why are fuel tanks at the filling
Lightning strikes can be dangerous. To stations earthed?
reduce the risk of lightning dangers, lots ...........................................................
of high buildings have a lightning ...................................................... [2]
conductor attached to them. The 3- How would an electroscope help you
lightning conductor safely transfers the to detect whether or not a plastic ruler
excess charge into the ground. is charged?
...........................................................
2) Fuel in cars and planes ...................................................... [2]
Fuel pipes at the filling station are 4- What is the difference between
earthed. This means that a metal wire electrical conductors and insulators?
is connected between the pipe and the ...........................................................
ground, in order to safely transfer ...................................................... [2]
excess charge into the ground.

This reduces the risk of a spark being

produced by a build-up of charge due to
the friction of the fuel moving in the
pipe, which could accidentally set the
fuel on fire.
 92 / 117

Current Electricity The cell (or battery) is a source of

electrical energy. Its work is to push
Current electricity and electrostatics are charge (or electrons) around the circuit.
similar in that both involve electrical
charge. The bulb is an example of a resistor (a
device that changes electrical energy
They are different in that: into other forms of energy, like light,
● Static electricity involves charge heat, sound and so on).
that accumulates (or builds up) in
one place (usually on an Here is a list of some other circuit
insulator). components and their symbols. (More
● Current electricity involves will come later):
charge that flows through a
material (usually a conductor).
Examples are: when we light a
torch, listen to the radio, or use
any device that uses a battery or
a generator.

a) Circuit Symbols
The following circuit shows a light bulb
connected to an electrical cell through a
switch and some connecting wires.

b) What is Current?
Current is the rate at which charge
flows around a circuit.

Current = charge ÷ time or I = q/t

Below, the same circuit is shown, using or q=It
circuit symbols.
The current can be measured using an
instrument called an ammeter. The
units of current are amperes (A) or
amps for short. Small currents are
measured in milliamps (mA).

1 mA = (1/1000) A = 0.001 A.
 93 / 117

Below is a digital ammeter. c) What Drives Charge?

The battery provides the force that
pushes (or drives) electrons around the
circuit. This force is known as
electromotive force (or just e.m.f. or
voltage), and it is measured in units
called volts (V).

Definition (What is e.m.f.?)

E.m.f. is the total work done (or total
energy used) by a unit of charge as it
moves round a complete circuit.
Another type of ammeter is connected
to the circuit below. The instrument used for measuring the
voltage across a component is the
voltmeter. It is connected in parallel.

Remember that it measures current. In

other words, it measures the amount of
charge passing where the ammeter is
connected per second.

d) Conventional Current and Electron

Current = charge ÷ time or I = q/t
Flow
The symbolic representation of the
In a circuit electrons flow from where
above circuit is shown below.
they are more concentrated to where
they are less concentrated.

That means they actually flow from the

negative terminal of the battery to the
positive. This is called the direction of
electron flow.
 94 / 117

3- Which of the following describes the

e.m.f. of a cell?

But scientists have agreed that

current flows from positive to
negative. They call it the
conventional direction of current. It
is this direction that we normally use.

Exercise 8
1- Which diagram shows the correct
way to connect a resistor R, an ammeter
A, and a voltmeter V in one circuit?

8- Fig. 8.1 shows a circuit diagram.

2- A circuit is set up with a gap between

two terminals X and Y. The four strips of
material shown in the diagram are
connected in turn across the gap.

The power supply has a fixed e.m.f. of

4.0 V.
(a) 1. Draw an arrow between P and S
to show the direction of the
Which strip completes the circuit so that conventional current in the circuit.
the lamp lights?
 95 / 117

2. Draw an arrow between Q and R to Summary

show the direction of the movement of ● Internal resistance works like
electrons in the circuit. friction in that it opposes the flow
(1) of electrons through the battery.
● It is this internal resistance that
(b) On Fig. 8.1, draw a voltmeter to decreases the potential difference
measure the potential difference across (p.d.) between the terminals of a
the lamp. battery until it is flat (having 0
[2] p.d.).
● P.d., just like e.m.f., is measured
Potential Difference (p.d.) in volts, using a voltmeter.
A battery has both a negative terminal
and a positive terminal. The negative A Reminder
terminal is where electrons are highly A resistor is any device that changes
concentrated while the positive terminal electrical energy into other forms of
is where they are less concentrated. energy. For example, a light bulb
changes electrical energy to light; a
So one terminal is said to have a high heater that changes electrical energy to
potential, and the other a low heat, etc.
potential.
Exercise 9
The potential difference (p.d.) between 1- A student wishes to measure the
the terminals of a battery (or any other electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a battery
two points on the circuit) can be and the potential difference (p.d.) across
measured with a voltmeter. Just like a resistor.
e.m.f., the units of p.d. are volts.
She has the resistor, the battery and
When the battery is new, or fully some connecting wires.
charged, the p.d. between its What else does she need?
terminals is largest. As the battery is
being used this p.d. decreases until
the battery is flat.

This is because everytime the battery is

in use, some of its energy is lost in
overcoming the battery's internal
resistance.
 96 / 117

Resistance When the switch is closed, current flows

Resistance is calculated as the ratio of through the circuit, causing the bulb to
voltage (across a component) to the light. This current will show on the
current (flowing through it). In other ammeter (A). At the same time, the
words: voltage across the bulb will show on the
voltmeter (V).

Both the voltage and current are

recorded in a table like the one below.

Example
Calculate the resistance of a conductor Voltage/V Current/A
connected to a 12-volt source that has a
First time 5 1.0
current of 2.0A flowing through it.
Second time 10 2.0

Third time

Fourth time

1. Suppose for the first time, V = 5V

and I = 1.0A (as recorded in the
table).
2. Next, the variable resistor is
Describing an experiment for
adjusted (just like when you
finding resistance
increase the volume of a radio).
A circuit is connected as shown below.
The current will increase, for
example to 2.0A. The voltage
that goes together with that
current is also recorded.
3. Step 2 will be repeated several
times until we have several pairs
of corresponding voltage and
current values.
 97 / 117

Finally (this is the important part)

When a graph of voltage against current
is drawn it will be seen to make a
straight line, as shown below.

Calculate the resistance of:

a) X b) Y

Changing the size of a resistance

wire
Suppose the resistance of a 3cm wire is
Ohm's Law
5Ω. What will be the effect of using a
A resistor whose voltage vs current
6cm wire of the same diameter (or
graph is a straight line is said to obey
cross-sectional area)?
Ohm's law. Sometimes it is called an
● Since new length ÷ old length =
ohmic resistor.
6÷3 = 2, resistance also
becomes 5×2 = 10Ω.
The gradient of this graph will give the
● In other words, resistance is
resistance of the lamp. So
directly proportional to
R = gradient
resistance.
= (V¢-V¡)/(I¢-I¡)
Suppose a certain wire has a
= (10-5)/(2.0-1.0)
cross-sectional area of 8 units. What will
= 5÷1
be the effect of doubling the
= 5Ω (or 5 ohms)
cross-sectional while keeping the
length the same?
Exercise 10
● A larger cross-sectional area
The graph below shows the V/I
means the electrons have a
characteristic graphs for two resistors X
larger space to pass through
and Y.
more easily; meaning there is
less resistance.
 98 / 117

Exercise 11 5- The table shows the voltage and

1- A student uses a length of wire as a current ratings for four electric heaters.
resistor. He discovers that the resistance Which heater has the least resistance?
of the wire is too small.
To be certain of making a resistor of
higher value, he should use a piece of
wire that is
A) longer and thicker.
B) longer and thinner.
C) shorter and thicker.
6- The circuit shows a current I in a
D) shorter and thinner.
resistor of resistance R.

2- In the circuit shown, the brightness

of the lamp can be altered by changing
the resistance of the variable resistor, R.

Which line gives possible values of I and

R?
This is because varying the resistance
changes...
A) the current flowing in the circuit.
B) the electromotive force (e.m.f) of the
battery.
C) the resistance of the bulb.
D) the temperature of the battery.

4- When the potential difference (p.d.)

across a piece of resistance wire is
changed, the current through the wire
also changes.
The temperature of the wire is kept the
same. Which graph shows how the p.d.
and current are related?
 99 / 117

Calculating the combined Exercise 12

resistance 1- The diagram shows a 2Ω resistor and
The figure shows two resistors a 6Ω resistor connected in series to a 4V
connected in series with a 9 volt supply. battery.

It is possible to replace both resistors a) Calculate the combined

with one (1.5 + 3 =) 4.5Ω resistor. resistance, R, of the two
(We added because the resistors are in resistors.
series with each other.) So: b) By applying Ohm's Law, or
otherwise, calculate the amount
Rtotal = R¡+R¢+... of current flowing in the circuit.
c) Calculate the voltage across each
Next, we can use Ohm's Law to resistor.
calculate the current in the circuit, like
this: 2- Fig. 2.1 shows a circuit diagram,
with a battery of e.m.f. of 6.0V and a
I = V÷R = 9÷4.5 = 2A resistance wire of length 0.5m
connected across AB. There is a current
Finally, a series connection of resistors of 2.4A in the circuit.
acts as a potential divider, dividing
the voltage in the ratio of the
resistances; e.g.

1.5Ω:3Ω:4.5Ω
__ : __ : 9V

(i) Across the 3Ω resistor, we cross

multiply to get
(a) Calculate the resistance of the
(3×9)/4.5 = 6V
resistance wire.

(ii) Across the 1.5Ω resistor, we cross

multiply to get
resistance = …………. [2]
(1.5×9)/4.5 = 3V
 100 / 117

(b) Calculate the power output from the (b) The sliding contact is moved to point
battery. (Use P = IV) D. The reading on the voltmeter is now
3.0V.

power = …………..[2] Show that the resistance of the section

CD of the variable resistor is 24Ω. You
(c) (i) The wire is replaced with a wire may assume that the current through
of the same material and the same the circuit remains the same.
diameter but of length 1.5m.
Calculate the resistance of this longer ………………[1]
wire.
4- Fig. 4.1 shows a battery for a mobile
telephone.
resistance = …………[1]

3- Fig. 3.1 shows an electric circuit. The

e.m.f. of the battery is 6.0V. The total
resistance of the variable resistor 48Ω.

The battery has an e.m.f. of 3.7 V. When

fully charged the battery can provide a
steady current of 0.020 A for 51 hours.
(a) Explain what is meant by the term
e.m.f.
a) (i) Calculate the current measured by .......................................................[1]
the ammeter.
(b) (i) Calculate the power of the
current = …..……..[2] battery when it supplies a current of
(ii) When the sliding contact is at point 0.020 A. (Use P=VI)
B the voltmeter reading is 4.5V.
Calculate the value of the resistance of power = ……………..[2]
the section of the variable resistor BC.
(ii) Calculate the charge which will flow
through the circuit if there is a steady
resistance = ………….[2] current of 0.020 A for 51 hours.
(Remember: q=I×t)
 101 / 117

(a) The table below shows the readings

charge = ……………..[2] on voltmeters A and B.

(iii) Calculate the energy the battery will

supply in this time. (Use E=VIt)

energy = …………….[2] Complete the table to show the reading

on voltmeter C.
(c) Mobile telephones send signals by
use of microwaves. Describe the nature (b) The current through RA is 0.40 A.
of microwaves. Find the current through:
........................................................... (i) RB (ii) RC
...........................................................
........................................................... (c) Suggest which of the three resistors
...................................................... [2] has the biggest resistance. Support your
answer.
Summary ...........................................................
In a series connection of resistors: ...................................................... [2]
● Rtotal = R¡+R¢+...
● Voltage is divided in the ratio of 2- The diagram shows a battery
resistances, and connected to two identical resistors.
Vtotal = V¡+V¢+... Three ammeters M¡, M¢ and M£ are
● If we know the current at one connected in the circuit.
point on the circuit, it will be the
same at every other point or Itotal
= I¡ = I¢ = …

Exercise 13
1- Below is a diagram of a circuit in Meter M¡ reads 1.0 A.
which there is a battery of e.m.f. 9.0 V, What are the readings on M¢ and M£?
three resistors and three voltmeters A, B M¢ reads…….……..A
and C. M£ reads……….…..A

3- A current flows in two resistors

connected in series as shown. A¡ and A¢
are the readings on the ammeters. V¡
and V¢ are the readings on the
voltmeters.
 102 / 117

...................................................... [1]

(d) the current in the 8Ω resistor,

Which of the following correctly ...................................................... [1]

describes the ammeter and the
voltmeter readings? (e) the amount of charge passing
through the battery in 1 minute (or 60
seconds),

................................. [2]

(f) the p.d. across the 4Ω resistor.

4- Three different resistors, of resistance

...................................................... [1]
2Ω, 4Ω and 8Ω, are connected in series
with a 12 volt supply as shown.

Calculate

(a) the combined resistance of the

resistors,

...................................................... [1]

(b) the current in the battery,

.................................... [2]

(c) the current in the 2Ω resistor,

 103 / 117

Electromagnetic Effects Factors affecting the size of the

(a) Electromagnetic Induction induced e.m.f.
The figure below shows an experiment This is how to increase the induced
where a magnet is placed near a coil of e.m.f.:
wire. The voltmeter (or sensitive meter) ● Speed: move either the magnet
is shown at the beginning of the or the coil faster.
experiment. ● More turns: increase the number
of turns on the coil.
● Use a stronger magnet.

How an induced e.m.f. opposes the

change causing it
● The induced e.m.f. across the coil
causes a current to flow in that
1. When the magnet is moved from coil.
position Y to position X, the ● The current then causes the coil
voltmeter needle is seen to move to act like a magnet, with a north
to one direction (either to the left pole and a south pole.
or right). ● When the north pole of the bar
2. But when the magnet is moved magnet enters the coil on one
from position Y to position X, the end, it will produce a north
voltmeter needle is seen to move pole that repels (or opposes)
(or deflects) to the opposite it at that end.
direction to that in (1) above.

The above experiment is showing what

is known as the principle of
electromagnetic induction. This is
what it says…

If a changing magnetic field cuts a

closed loop (or coil) of wire, it will
produce an e.m.f. in that coil. (The
deflection of the sensitive meter is what b) a.c. generator
shows the presence of the induced An a.c. generator is a source of
e.m.f.) alternating current electricity. It is
unlike the battery which is a source of
direct current (d.c.) electricity.
 104 / 117

Direct current means the two battery through two turns.

terminals are fixed. The + keeps on
being where it has always been. The 3
remains where it has always been.

Alternating current, on the other hand,

means the terminals keep on
exchanging positions.
Exercise 13
c) Rotating-coil generator The figure below shows an a.c.
Here is a diagram of the a.c. generator, generator.
and how it works:

The output from the generator is

connected to a resistor and a cathode
ray oscilloscope (c.r.o.).
The a.c. generator consists of a
rectangular coil of wire that rotates (a) (i) Name part A.
between the poles of a permanent ................................. [1]
magnet.
(ii) Name part B.
The ends of the coil are connected to ................................. [1]
two slip rings (P and Q) which are in
contact with some carbon brushes.
(b) The generator works by
The carbon brushes are linked to the electromagnetic induction.
output terminals of the generator.
Explain how this produces a current in
When the side of the coil marked AB the output circuit.
moves up, it causes current to flow from ...........................................................
P(+) to Q(3). Then when CD moves up, ...........................................................
current flows in the opposite direction ...........................................................
(from Q(+) to P(3)).
...................................................... [3]
d) Graph of a.c. electricity
This shows how the output voltage of
the generator varies as the coil rotates
 105 / 117

e) d.c. motor
The figure below shows a simple d.c.
motor.

Transformer 1 is for increasing the

voltage of the electricity generated at
the power station. It is called the
step-up transformer.

Remember the importance of

How it works
transferring electricity at high voltages
● The current passing through the
and low currents is to avoid
coil causes it to be an
overheating of cables (or power
electromagnet.
lines).
● When the north pole of the coil is
● Overheating increases resistance
next to the north pole of the
in the cables.
permanent magnet, there is a
● As a result, there would be a loss
repulsion, causing a half-turn
of electrical energy that would be
of the coil.
used to overcome the increased
● There is a part called the
resistance.
commutator that gives the coil
enough momentum to rotate just
Transformer 2 is for decreasing the
beyond its vertical position.
voltage to where it is safe to use in
● It also helps the terminals of
homes. It is called a step-down
the coil to be reversed,
transformer.
causing a reversal of poles of the
magnet, and another repulsion.
Construction of a transformer
The diagram below shows a transformer.
Increasing speed of the motor
It has both an input (or primary) circuit
● By increasing the current;
and an output (or secondary) circuit.
● By increasing the number of
turns on the coil.

f) Transformer
The diagram below shows the use of
transformers in the transmission of
electrical energy.
 106 / 117

In this case the input is connected to a 3- The diagram shows a coil in a

240 V supply. The output is connected magnetic field.
to a load (or lamp) rated at 12V. Since
the input is bigger than the output, this
is a step-down transformer.
When the coil is part of an a.c.
generator, what must be connected
How it works directly to X and Y?
● An alternating current in the A) a.c. supply B) carbon brushes
primary coil produces a C) slip rings D) soft-iron core
changing magnetic field in the
iron core linking the two circuits. Efficiency
● This changing magnetic field When electrical wires are overheated
induces an e.m.f. in the (usually to a high current and low
secondary coil. voltage combination), energy is lost in
overcoming the increased
In this example, there is a component resistance in the wires.
labelled P. It is a diode, whose work is
to rectify the current (meaning to A transformer that loses some of its
change it from a.c. to d.c.). energy like this, is said to be less than
100% efficient. 100% efficiency
A step-up transformer has more simply means, without loss.
turns in the secondary coil than in the The turns ratio equation
primary. A transformer changes voltage
according to this equation:
Exercise 14
1- What is the main function of a basic
iron-cored transformer?

This equation has four quantities.

Knowing 3 of them can help us find the
2- Which statement about the action of fourth.
a transformer is correct?
Example
There are 2000 turns in the secondary
coil of a transformer and 500 turns in
the primary coil. An alternating voltage
of 240 V is applied across the primary
 107 / 117

coil. What is the voltage across the Example

secondary coil? The transformer is used to operate a
12V, 3A lamp from a 240V mains supply.
Answer There are 6000 turns on the primary coil
We are looking for VS. of the transformer.
VS/VP = NS/NP
VS/240 = 2000/500
VS = 240 × (2000/500) = 960V

Exercise 15
a) Calculate the turns ratio required to
step the voltage down from 55 000 V to
(a) Calculate the number of turns on the
250 V. Show your working.
secondary coil.
primary turns : secondary turns

…………….. [2]
b) A transformer is described as 100%
efficient. Explain what is meant by this
(b) Assuming the transformer is 100%
statement.
efficient, calculate the current in the
primary coil.
Power ratio
According to the law of conservation of
[2]
energy:
Answer
Input energy = output energy
(b) VPIP = VSIS
Or
240×IP = 12×3
Ein = Eout
IP = (12×3)/240 = 0.15 A
(E/t)in = (E/t)out
Or
Exercise 16
Pin = Pout
The diagram shows a transformer which
is 100 % efficient.
Resulting in:
The primary current is 0.5 A.
VPIP = VSIS

This equation has four quantities.

Knowing 3 of them can help us find the
fourth.
 108 / 117

(a) What will be the secondary (c) What kind of transformer is this?
current? (d) What would be the effect of
(b) If there are 200 turns in the connecting the 40V power supply
secondary coil, find the number to the secondary circuit?
of turns in the primary.
 109 / 117

Atomic Physics and Radioactivity K.H. Exam Prep

Jan 30, 2025, 11:26 PM

5.0 Introduction (ii) Radioactivity: what does it

(i) Review of Atomic Structure mean?
- The diagram below shows the different In chemistry, we study chemical
parts of an atom. reactions. These reactions are the result
of losing, gaining or sharing of
outermost shell ELECTRONS. In atomic
physics something different happens.

Because of an unstable NUCLEUS, an

atom releases some "nuclear" energy
which causes the air molecules around it
to be ionized (or to lose electrons).
Label each part, and state where in the
atom it is found.

- Complete the table below, showing the

3 subatomic particles, their relative
charges and masses.
Ionization of air molecules means the
Subatomic Relative Relative energy from an unstable nucleus
Particle Charge Mass removes electrons from molecules of the
surrounding air molecules.
electron

neutron 0 1 Radioactivity is the release of

energy from the nucleus of an
proton
unstable atom.

- Define the term isotope. 5.1 Detection of Radioactivity

……………………………………………… (i) Background radiation
……………………………………………… Energy from radioactive materials is all
…………………………………………..… around us. For example, sources of this
……………………………………………… radioactivity are rocks, air, living things
……………………………………………… and even cosmic bodies like the stars
……………………………………………… and other planets.
 110 / 117

The energy from radioactive (iii) The 3 types of nuclear emission

materials that is always around us When energy is released from an
is called background radiation. unstable nucleus it can be in any of the
following 3 forms:
(ii) Detectors of radiation ● Alpha radiation — in which 2
(a) Because radiation causes air protons and 2 neutrons are
molecules to be ionized, the released from the unstable
electroscope which is used for nucleus.
detecting the presence of charge ● Beta radiation — in which a
can also be used for the high speed electron (also called
detection of radiation. When a high energy electron) is released.
radioactive source comes near a ● Gamma — in which an
charged electroscope, the air is electromagnetic wave is released.
ionized, and starts to conduct
electricity. This means that the Exercise 1
charge can "leak" away, the 1. Name any 2 sources of
electroscope discharges and the background radiation.
gold leaf falls. (In short, when ………………………………………………
radiation is present a charged ………………………………………………
electroscope will discharge.) ………………………………………………
………………………………………………
2. What causes these materials to
be radioactive?
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
………………………………………………
3. (a) Describe how the ionization of
(b) Another method for detecting air molecules takes place.
radiation is using photographic ………………………………………………
film which is darkened when ………………………………………………
exposed to radiation. ………………………………………………
(c) Another detector of radiation is ………………………………………………
the Geiger-Muller tube. When (b) Which of the detectors of
radiation is present, the GM-tube radiation makes use of ionization?
produces a clicking sound and ………………………………………………
also records a reading on its ………………………………………………
screen (or ratemeter). ………………………………………………
………………………………………………
 111 / 117

(c) How can the GM-tube alert us ● Relative penetration power: the
about the presence of radiation in lowest (it can be stopped with a
a rock by the side of the road? few cm of air or by a thin sheet
……………………………………………… of paper).
………………………………………………
……………………………………………… (ii) Beta particle (β)
4. (a) List any 2 types of nuclear ● Nature (what is it?): it is a high
emissions. speed electron.
……………………………………………… ● Relative ionization effect (ability
……………………………………………… to ionize air molecules): weak.
……………………………………………… ● Relative penetration power:
(b) Why are they called "nuclear" higher than that of alpha
emissions? particles (it can be stopped by a
……………………………………………… few mm of aluminium).
………………………………………………
……………………………………………… (iii) Gamma rays (γ)
● Nature (what is it?): it is an
electromagnetic wave, having
5.2 Characteristics of the 3 kinds of the speed of light.
emission ● Relative ionization effect (ability
to ionize air molecules): very
weak.
● Relative penetration power: the
highest (it can be stopped by a
few cm of lead).

Exercise 2
Fig. 7.1 shows an experiment to
(i) Alpha particle (α)
measure the activity of an isotope of
● Nature (what is it?): it is a
protactinium which decays by emission
helium nucleus, consisting of 2
of beta-particles.
protons and 2 neutrons. (So it
has a mass number of 4, and 0
electrons).
● Relative ionization effect: strong
(it is able to ionize the largest
number of air molecules). (i) Name a suitable detector.
...........................................................
.......................................................[1]
 112 / 117

(ii) Explain why this method could not Exercise 3

be used for a liquid that emits 1- Fig. 8.1 shows the apparatus used to
alpha-particles. compare the penetration of different
........................................................... radioactive emissions.
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
.......................................................[2]
Table 8.1 shows the count obtained in 2
minutes using different sources, with
different absorbers.
Behaviour in a magnetic field

lead box: to prevent

(a) (i) State, with reasons, the type or
radiation from types of radiation emitted by the
krypton-85 source.
spreading in all

directions

...........................................................
● Beta particles are deflected ...........................................................
fastest in a magnetic field. This is ...........................................................
because they have a smaller ...........................................................
mass. ...........................................................
● Alpha particles take longer than .......................................................[3]
beta to be deflected due to their ii) State, with reasons, the type or types
larger mass. of radiation emitted by the
● Also, beta and alpha are americium-240 source.
deflected in opposite directions ...........................................................
because they have opposite ...........................................................
charges. ...........................................................
● Gamma passes undeflected. This ...........................................................
is because it is a wave, without ...........................................................
mass and without charge. .......................................................[3]
 113 / 117

2 (a) When demonstrating the deflection the following case, radium-226 is the
of α-particles a very much stronger parent nucleus and radon-222 is the
magnet is needed than with the daughter nucleus.
³-particles. The deflection is very much
less and it is in the opposite direction. Example 1

(i) What does the small deflection and

the need for a stronger magnet suggest
about the mass of the α-particles
compared with that of ³-particles?
...........................................................
.......................................................[1] Notice that the sum of the mass
(ii) What does the deflection in the numbers on the right must be equal to
opposite direction tell us about the the mass number on the left.
α-particles compared with ³-particles? mass numbers: 226=222+4.
........................................................... Also, proton numbers must be equal.
........................................................... proton numbers: 88=86+2.
...........................................................
........................................................... So alpha decay reduces mass number
........................................................... by 4 and proton number by 2.
.......................................................[2]
(iii) Explain why ´-radiation cannot be Example 2
deflected however strong a magnetic Uranium-238 is converted to thorium by
field is applied releasing an alpha particle (or helium
........................................................... nucleus). So thorium is the daughter
.......................................................[1] nucleus in this case.

5.3: Radioactive decay and half-life

When an unstable nucleus gives out
radiation, it may undergo radioactive Notice that the sum of the mass
decay (meaning, its composition may numbers on the right must be equal to
change). This can be represented in a the mass number on the left.
decay equation. mass numbers: 238=234+4.
Also, proton numbers must be equal.
Alpha Decay proton numbers: 92=90+2.
A large unstable nucleus releases a
helium nucleus (2 protons + 2
neutrons, without electrons) and
another smaller (daughter) nucleus. In
 114 / 117

Exercise 4 Radioactive decay is a random

Complete the following decay equations: process
When making popcorn over a fire, it is
Beta Decay impossible to predict which corn will pop
Sometimes an unstable nucleus releases next. In the same way, when
a high speed (or high energy electron), radioactive atoms decay it is
also known as a beta particle. As a impossible to predict which atom
result, a new daughter nucleus is will decay next. This behaviour is
formed. called randomness.

Example 3 Half-life
We saw that radium can decay into
radon atoms. Suppose we start an
experiment with 100 radium atoms, and
The electron has a charge of -1 and 0 measure the time for 50% of them
mass. Just like in the case of alpha to decay. If that time is 7 days, we will
decay, the mass numbers and the say the half-life of radium is 7 days. Or
proton numbers must be balanced. if that time is 60 seconds, we will say
the half-life of radium is 60 seconds;
mass numbers: 234=0+234 etc.
proton numbers: 90=-1+91
So half-life is the time taken for half the
Thorium is the parent nucleus, and the number of atoms to decay, or for the
isotope of protactinium is the daughter count rate to decrease by half.
nucleus.

Exercise 5
Complete the equation to show the beta
decay of Neon-23.
 115 / 117

Calculating half-life, using tables Example 2

A sample of radioactive substance X has
Example 1 an initial activity of 240 Bq. If the
A sample consists of 36.0 µg of half-life of X is 3 years, what will its
radon-220. After a period of 21 minutes activity be after 12 years?
only 4.5 µg of radon-220 remained.
Solution
Calculate the half-life of radon-220. half-life = total time ÷ n
Show your working. Or
[3] n = total time ÷ half-life
Or
Solution n = 12/3 = 4 half-lives
Amount remaining Number of
(µg) half-lives So amount remaining = 240 × (½)⁴
(number of times = 240 × 1/16
we've divided by = 15 Bq
2) Or
36.0 × (½)⁰ = 0
36.0 We should divide 240 Bq by 2 again and
again 4 times.
36.0 × (½)¹ = 1
18.0 Amount remaining Number of
half-lives
36.0 × (½)² = 2
9.0 240 0

36.0 × (½)³ = 3 120 1

4.5
60 2
36.0 × (½)n n
30 3

We got from 36.0 to 4.5 by dividing by 15 4

2 a total of 3 times. That means we
have 3 half-lives.
So
1 half-life = total time ÷ number of
half-lives
= 21÷3 = 7 minutes
 116 / 117

Exercise 6 light nuclei combine together releasing

1- A sample of a radioactive substance large amounts of energy.
contains 200 undecayed atoms. How
many will remain undecayed after 2
half-lives?

2- The half-life of radioisotope Y is 10

days. A sample gives an initial count
rate of 440 counts per second. What will Energy of a nuclear reaction obeys
be the count rate after 30 days? E = mc²; where c is the speed of light.

3- Radioisotope Z has a half-life of 2000

years. How long will it take the activity
of a sample of Z to decrease to ⅛ of its
initial value?

Half-life from decay curves (or

graphs)
The graph shows how a certain isotope
5.5 Safety Precautions
decays over time.
Dangers of ionization energy
When ionizing radiation interacts with
cells of living things, it can cause
damage to the cells and genetic material
(or DNA). This damage can result in the
death of the cell or potentially harmful
changes in the DNA.
We can use this graph to find the
half-life of this radioactive isotope. Handling and storage of radioactive
materials
First, divide the total count rate by 2. So As a safety precaution, to avoid
16,000÷2=8,000, which overexposure to radiation:
corresponds to 8 days. Therefore, 1. Radioactive materials must be
half-life = 8 days. handled with tongs. This
increases the distance from the
5.4 Fusion and fission radioactive source, reducing its
Fission is the splitting of a heavy, effect.
unstable nucleus into two lighter nuclei, 2. Lead coated clothing must be
and fusion is the process where two worn.
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3. Radioactive materials should be Exercise 7

stored in lead boxes. 1- Care must be taken when handling or
4. Radiation workers wear film storing radioactive materials.
badges, which are devices that (i) State one precaution which must be
monitor the amount of radiation used when handling radioactive
they are being exposed to. materials.
5. Radiotherapists use lead lined ...........................................................
syringes, and stand behind .......................................................[1]
lead screens. (ii) State one precaution which must be
used when storing radioactive materials.
...........................................................
.......................................................[1]