(Ebook PDF) Assessment in Early Childhood Education 7Th Edition
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a dual-language sample of 2,099 children (half English speakers and a half Span- vii
ish speakers) to norm the Learning Accomplishment Profile-Diagnostic Edition.
Additionally, Dr. Hardin completed studies investigating the referral, evaluation, about the
and placement of preschool children with disabilities who are English Language authors
Learners and is currently developing a family report questionnaire on preschool
language development in English and Spanish. Dr. Hardin has conducted re-
search and professional development activities with professionals and Spanish-
speaking families in North Carolina, Guatemala, and the Yucatan Peninsula of
Mexico. She was the Co-Principal Investigator of three international studies in-
vestigating the reliability and validity of the ACEI Global Guidelines Assessment
in multiple countries across the world. Dr. Hardin has served on the Board of
Directors for the Association of Childhood Education International and cur-
rently participates in two initiatives spearheaded by UNICEF to improve services
for young children in inclusive early childhood settings worldwide.
Brief Contents
PReFACe iii
ABoUt the AUthoRS vi
GloSSARY 283
index 288
viii
Contents
PReFACe iii
ABoUt the AUthoRS vi
review QueStionS 22
SuggeSted activitieS 23
Key termS 23
Selected organizationS 23
referenceS 23
ix
x ChAPteR 2
contents
How Infants and Young Children
Should Be Assessed 28
The Principles of Assessment that Should Be Used with Young
Children 29
General Principles for Assessment for All Students 29
Principles of Assessment for Young Children 32
How Infants and Young Children Are Assessed 34
Elements of a Comprehensive System of Assessment for
Children of All Ages 37
Components of an Assessment System for Infants and Toddlers 38
Elements of an Assessment System for Young Children 40
Using Assessment Results for Instruction and to Evaluate the
Instructional Program 43
Using Assessment Results to Plan for Instruction 43
Using Assessment Results to Report Progress 43
Using Assessment Results to Evaluate the Instructional Program 43
Environmental Assessment 44
How the Assessment Process Should Be Implemented During the School
Year with School-Age Children 45
Preassessment 45
Ongoing Assessment 45
Assessment at the End of Instructional Cycles 46
Challenges in Addressing and Assessing for Standards 46
Common Core Standards in Preschool Programs 48
Guidelines for Working with Young Children in an Assessment Setting 49
Summary 50
review QueStionS 50
Key termS 51
Selected organizationS 51
referenceS 51
review QueStionS 77
Key termS 77
Selected organizationS 77
referenceS 77
ChAPteR 4
referenceS 107
referenceS 127
ChAPteR 6
Observation 129
Purposes of Observation 129
Understanding Children’s Behavior 130
Evaluating Children’s Development 130
Evaluating Learning Progress 136
Types of Observation 138 xiii
Anecdotal Record 138
Running Record 139 contents
Time Sampling 142
Event Sampling 144
Checklists and Rating Scales 145
Observations and Technology 147
Benefits and Disadvantages of Using Technology for Observations 147
Observing Development 148
Physical Development 148
Social and Emotional Development 149
Cognitive Development 150
Language Development 152
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Observation for Assessment 153
Observation Guidelines 154
Determining the Observation Site 154
Observer Behaviors During the Observation Visit 154
Ethics During the Observation Visit 155
Avoiding Personal Bias 155
Summary 156
referenceS 157
ChAPteR 7
referenceS 185
ChAPteR 8
Teacher-Designed Assessment
Strategies 187
Purposes of Teacher-Designed Assessments and Tests 188
Types of Assessments Used with Preschool and Primary-Grade
Children 190
Developing Quality Teacher-Designed Assessments 194
Concrete Tasks for Preschool 194
Tests for Primary-Grade Children 195
How Tests Are Designed and Used 195
Steps in Test Design 196
Determining Instructional Objectives 196
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Teacher-Designed Assessments 208
Summary 211
referenceS 212
ChAPteR 9 xv
Performance-Based Assessment contents
Strategies 213
Understanding Performance Assessment 213
Authentic Learning and Assessment 214
Interrelated Nature of Performance-Based Assessments 215
Purposes for Performance-Based Assessment 217
Types of Performance-Based Assessments 218
Interviews 218
Contracts 219
Directed Assignments 220
Games 221
Work Samples 222
Projects 223
Portfolios 223
Classification and Organization of Performance
Assessments 223
The Role of Observation 224
The Role of Documentation 225
The Role of Rubrics 226
Standards and Performance-Based Assessment 227
Connecting Standards to Authentic Learning 227
Connecting Standards to Performance Assessment 228
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Performance-Based
Assessment 230
Advantages of Using Performance-Based Assessment 230
Disadvantages of Using Performance-Based Assessment 231
Summary 234
referenceS 235
referenceS 265
ChAPteR 11
Communicating with
Families 267
Family-Professional Partnerships that Promote Children’s
Development and Learning 268
Strategies for Establishing and Maintaining Family–Professional
Partnerships that Benefit Children 270
Establishing Relationships with Families 270
Using Professional Ethics in School-Family Partnerships 272
Assessment Roles of Families of Children with Disabilities 273
Involving All Parents in the Assessment Process 273
Conducting Effective Parent Conferences 275
Types of Parent Conferences 275
Preparing for Family Conferences 276
Conducting Family Conferences 277
Role of Parents in the Screening and Assessment Process 278
Summary 280
referenceS 281
GloSSARY 283
index 288
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Chapter 1
An Overview
of Assessment in
Early Childhood
Suzanne Clouzeau/Pearson
Chapter Objectives
As a result of reading this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain the purposes of assessment in early childhood.
2. Describe the history of tests and measurements in early childhood.
3. Discuss issues and trends in assessing all young children.
What Is Assessment?
What do we need to know about all the diverse children found in services for infant
and young children from all kinds of families, cultures, and languages? The study
of individuals for measurement purposes begins before birth with assessment of
fetal growth and development. At birth and throughout infancy and early child-
hood, various methods of measurement are used to evaluate the child’s growth and
development. Before a young child enters a preschool program, he or she is measured
through medical examinations. Children are also measured through observations of
developmental milestones, such as saying the first word or walking independently,
by parents and other family members. Children might also be screened or evaluated
for an early childhood program or service. Assessment is really a process. A current
definition describes the assessment process as: “Assessment is the process of gather-
ing information about children from several forms of evidence, then organizing and
interpreting that information” (McAfee, Leong, & Bodrova, 2004, p. 3).
Assessment of children from birth through the preschool years is different from
assessment of older people. Not only can young children not yet write or read, but
the assessment of young, developing children also presents different challenges
that influence the choice of measurement strategy, or how to measure or assess the
children. Assessment methods must be matched with the level of mental, social,
and physical development at each stage. Developmental change in young children
is rapid, and there is a need to assess whether development is progressing normally.
If development is not normal, the measurement and evaluation procedures used are
important in making decisions regarding appropriate intervention services during
infancy and the preschool years.
The term assessment can have different meanings when used with different age
groups. An infant or toddler can be assessed to determine instructional needs in
Early Head Start programs or to determine eligibility for early intervention services,
for example. A preschool child may be assessed to determine school readiness or
special education needs. A school-age child may be assessed to understand his or her
academic achievement and/or whether the child is ready for the next grade level.
Check Your Understanding 1.1
Click here to gauge your understanding of concepts in this section.
Purposes of Assessment
Watch this video to
see a brief explanation Assessment is used for various purposes. An evaluation may be conducted to
of assessment by two assess a young child’s development overall or in a specific developmental
professionals. (www.youtube.com/ domain such as language or mathematics. Evaluations usually include mul-
watch?v=lQyEJN6TbSk) tiple sources of assessment. When we need to learn more, we may assess the
child by asking her or him to describe what she or he has achieved. For example, a 3
first-grade teacher may use measurement techniques to determine what reading skills
have been mastered and what weaknesses exist that indicate a need for additional Chapter 1
instruction. An Overview
Assessment strategies may be used for diagnosis. Just as a medical doctor of Assessment in
conducts a physical examination of a child to diagnose an illness, psychologists, Early Childhood
teachers, and other adults who work with children can conduct an informal or for-
mal assessment to diagnose a developmental delay or causes for poor performance
in learning, as well as to identify strengths. Assessment for this purpose may be
one part of the initial evaluation process, which may also include observation, a
review of medical records, and information from parents to identify their concerns,
priorities, and resources.
If medical problems, birth defects, or developmental delays in motor, language,
cognitive, or social development are discovered during the early, critical periods of
development, steps can be taken to correct, minimize, or remediate them before the
child enters school. For many developmental deficits or differences, the earlier they
are detected and the earlier intervention is planned, the more likely the child will be
able to overcome them or compensate for them. For example, if a serious hearing
deficit is identified early, the child can learn other methods of communicating and
acquiring information.
Assessment of young children is also used for placement—to place them in
infant or early childhood programs or to provide special services. To ensure that a
child receives the best services, careful screening followed by more extensive testing
and observation may be conducted before selecting the combination of interven-
tion programs and other services that will best serve the child.
Program planning is another purpose of assessment. After children have been
identified and evaluated for an intervention program or service, assessment results
can be used in planning the individualized programs that will serve them. These
programs, in turn, can be evaluated to determine their effectiveness.
J ulio, who is 2 years old, was born prematurely. He did not have regular checkups
during his first year, but his mother took him to a community clinic when he had
a cold and fever at about 9 months of age. When the doctor noticed that Julio did not
react to normal sounds in the examining room, she stood behind him and clapped
her hands near each ear. Because Julio did not turn toward the clapping sounds, the
doctor suspected that he had a hearing loss. She arranged for Julio to be examined
by an audiologist at an eye, ear, nose, and throat clinic.
Julio was found to have a significant hearing loss in both ears. He was fitted with
hearing aids and is attending a special program twice a week for children with hearing
deficits. Therapists in the program are teaching Julio to speak. They are also teaching
his mother how to make Julio aware of his surroundings and help him to develop a
vocabulary. Had Julio not received intervention services at an early age, he might have
entered school with severe cognitive and learning deficits that would have put him
at a higher risk for failing to learn.
4 Besides identifying and correcting developmental problems, assessment of
very young children is conducted for other purposes. One purpose is research.
Chapter 1 Researchers study young children to better understand their behavior or to measure
An Overview the appropriateness of the experiences that are provided for them.
of Assessment in How were these assessment strategies developed? In the next section, we describe
Early Childhood how certain movements or factors, especially during the past century, have affected the
development of testing instruments, procedures, and other measurement techniques
that are used with infants and young children.
Check Your Understanding 1.2
Click here to gauge your understanding of concepts in this section.
Standardized Tests
Standardized testing also began around 1900. When colleges and universities in the
East sought applicants from other areas of the nation in the 1920s, they found the
high school transcripts of these students difficult to evaluate. The Scholastic Aptitude
Test (SAT) was established to permit fairer comparisons of applicants seeking admis-
sion (Cronbach, 1990).
As public schools expanded to offer 12 years of education, a similar phenom-
enon occurred. To determine the level and pace of instruction and the grouping
of students without regard for socioeconomic class, objective tests were developed
(Gardner, 1961). These tests grew out of the need to sort, select, or otherwise make
decisions about both children and adults.
The first efforts to design tests were informal. When a psychologist, researcher,
or physician needed a method to observe a behavior, he or she developed a
6 procedure to meet those needs. This procedure was often adopted by others with the
same needs. When many people wanted to use a particular measurement strategy
Chapter 1 or test, the developer prepared printed copies for sale. As the demand for tests grew,
An Overview textbook publishers and firms specializing in test development and production also
of Assessment in began to create and sell tests (Cronbach, 1990).
Early Childhood American psychologists built on the work of Binet and Simon in developing
the intelligence measures described earlier. Binet’s instrument, revised by Terman
at Stanford University, came to be known as the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale.
Other Americans, particularly educators, welcomed the opportunity to use precise
measurements to evaluate learning. Edward Thorndike and his students designed
measures to evaluate achievement in reading, mathematics, spelling, and language
ability (Weber, 1984). Because of the work of Terman and Thorndike, testing soon
became a science (Scherer, 1999). By 1918, more than 100 standardized tests had
been designed to measure school achievement (Monroe, 1918).
The Industrial Revolution in the 1800s was a major influence in the develop-
ment of standardized tests. School-age children were taken out of factories and
farms to attend school. Standardized tests made it possible to assess the new, large
numbers of students. The SAT and ACT college entrance exams became the most
prevalent standardized tests used to assess college eligibility. The SAT was founded
in 1926. It remained largely unchanged until 2005, when a writing section was
added. The ACT was developed to compete with the SAT in 1959. The ACT assesses
accumulated knowledge. Both tests are widely used today (Fletcher, 2009).
After World War II, the demand for dependable and technically refined tests
grew, and people of all ages came to be tested. As individuals and institutions
selected and developed their own tests, the use of testing became more centralized.
Statewide tests were administered in schools, and tests were increasingly used at the
national level.
The expanded use of tests resulted in the establishment of giant corporations that
could assemble the resources to develop, publish, score, and report the results of testing
to a large clientele. Centralization improved the quality of tests and the establishment
of standards for test design. As individual researchers and teams of psychologists con-
tinue to design instruments to meet current needs, the high quality of these newer tests
can be attributed to the improvements and refinements made over the years and to the
increased knowledge of test design and validation (Cronbach, 1990).
Check Your Understanding 1.4
Click here to gauge your understanding of concepts in this section.
— Mutta kirjasto…
— Kyllä.
— Ennen ja jälkeen.
— Ja yksin?
— Sitä en usko.
— En valehtele koskaan.
Minä punastuin.
— Se ei ole samaa.
— Tietysti.
Marie Lamirault, kokonaan mustissa, pisti ovesta sisään hienot
kasvonsa, joita ujo hymy kirkasti.
— En tiedä.
— En muista.
— Marie Lamirault.
— On.
*****
Antoine Genesvrier'tanne.»
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