CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Where,
A – Ammeter
V – Voltmeter
Bt – Battery
Rh – Rheostat
K – Key
R1 & R2 – Resistance

1
EXPT NO: MARKS
OHM’S LAW
DATE: /5

AIM:

To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

An unknown resistance coil or a resistance wire, an ammeter, battery, rheostat, key,Voltmeter

and battery eliminator.

THEORY:

Ohm’s law states that the electric current(I) flowing through the conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (V) across its ends provided that the physical conditions
like temperature, etc. of the conductor remains the same.

FORMULA:

V∞I

V
= R (Constant)(Resistance of conductor)
I

Where V – Potential difference (in volt)

I – Current (in Ampere)
R – Resistance (in Ohm)

PROCEDURE:

➢ Arrange the apparatus according to the circuit diagram

➢ Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and tight. Take
care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity.
➢ Determine the zero error and least count of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.
➢ Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current.

2
OBSERVATIONS:

Range of the given ammeter =.................... A /mA.

Least count of the given ammeter = .................... A /mA.

Range of the given voltmeter = .....................V.

Least count of the given voltmeter = .....................V.

Mean value of V/I from observations, R = ..................... Ω.

OBSERVATION FROM GRAPH:

Slope of I vs V graph = ...........

R from graph = 1/ slope = .............. Ω.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

VOLTAGE ‘V’ CURRENT ‘I’ RESISTANCE R = V/I

S.NO
(in volts) (in amperes) (in ohms)

R = __________________ Ω

3
 ➢ Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and voltmeter
are showing deflections properly.

➢ Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter.

➢ Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.

➢ Take atleast five readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually.

➢ Plot a graph with V along x-axis and I along y-axis.

➢ The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm's law.

➢ Determine the slope of the V-I graph. The reciprocal of the slope gives resistance of the
wire.

Precautions :

• All the electrical connections must be neat and tight.

• Voltmeter and Ammeter must be of proper range.

• The key should be inserted only while taking readings.

INFERENCE:

4
GRAPH:

5
RESULT:

It is found that the ratio of V/I is a constant and hence Ohm’s law is verified.

The resistance of the given coil is ____________

6
RESISTANCE IN SERIES -CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Where,
A – Ammeter
V – Voltmeter
Bt – Battery
Rh – Rheostat
RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL -CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: K – Key
R1 & R2-Resistance

7
EXPT NO: RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND MARKS
DATE: PARALLEL /5

AIM:
To find the resultant resistance of the two resistors connected in series and in parallel.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Two resistors, an ammeter, battery, rheostat, key, voltmeter and battery eliminator.

THEORY:

1. When the resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is
R s = R1 + R 2
2. When the resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance
R1 R2
Rp =
R1 +R2
FORMULA:
V∞I

V
= R (Constant)(Resistance of conductor)
I
Where V – Potential difference (in volt)
I – Current (in Ampere)
R – Resistance (in Ohm)

PROCEDURE:
➢ The values of R1 and R2 are found independently.
➢ Arrange the apparatus according to the circuit diagram
➢ R1 and R2 are connected in series and in turn connected to an ammeter, voltmeter, battery,
rheostat according to the circuit diagram.
➢ All connections must be neat and tight. Take care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter
with their correct polarity.
➢ Determine the zero error and least count of the ammeter and voltmeter and record them.

8
OBSERVATIONS:

Range of the given ammeter =.................... A /mA.

Least count of the given ammeter = .................... A /mA.

Range of the given voltmeter = .....................V.

Least count of the given voltmeter = .....................V.

Mean value of V/I from observations, R = ..................... Ω.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

RESISTANCE IN SERIES: PRACTICAL VALUE

VOLTAGE ‘V’ CURRENT ‘I’ RESISTANCE R = V/I

S.NO
(in volts) (in amperes) (in ohms)

R = __________________ Ω

9
 ➢ Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current.

➢ Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and voltmeter
are showing deflections properly.

➢ Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter.

➢ Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.

➢ The result is verified with known values R1 and R2.

➢ Equivalent resistance found in the experiment is compared with the equivalent resistance
that was calculated.

➢ Take atleast six sets of readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually.

➢ Repeat the above steps by connecting R1 and R2 in parallel.

PRECAUTIONS:

• All the electrical connections must be neat and tight.

• Voltmeter and Ammeter must be of proper range.

➢ The key should be inserted only while taking readings.

INFERENCE:

10
OBSERVATIONS:

Range of the given ammeter =.................... A /mA.

Least count of the given ammeter = ..................... A /mA.

Range of the given voltmeter = .......................V.

Least count of the given voltmeter = .......................V.

Mean value of V/I from observations, R = ....................... Ω.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL: PRACTICAL VALUE

VOLTAGE ‘V’ CURRENT ‘I’ RESISTANCE R = V/I

S.NO
(in volts) (in amperes) (in ohms)

R = _________________ Ω

Resistance in parallel: Theoretical value

11
RESULT:

1. The combination of two resistors when connected in series is _______________.

2. The combination of two resistors when connected in parallel is _______________.

12
REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB:

13
EXPT NO: MARKS
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB
DATE: /5

AIM:

To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles
of incidence and measure the angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the result.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A rectangular glass slab, white paper, a wooden slab, board pins, bell pins and a protractor.

THEORY:

The laws of refraction of light states that

➢ The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane

➢ The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of refraction is a constant

µ = sin i/sin r = constant

PROCEDURE:

➢ Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board with drawing pins. Place the given glass
slab nearly in the middle of the sheet.

➢ Mark the boundary of the glass slab with a sharp pencil and label it as PQRS after
removing the slab from its position.

➢ On the line PQ mark a point E and draw a normal N1EN2 at it. Draw a line AE making
angle AEN1 with the normal. The angle should neither too small nor too large (say about
40 degree).

➢ Now place the glass slab again on its boundary PQRS and fix two pins A and B vertically
about 10 cm apart on the line AE (say points A and B).

➢ Look through the glass slab along the plane of the paper from the side SR and move your,
head until the images of the two pins A and B are seen clearly. Closing your one eye

14
DIAGRAM OF REFRACTION THROUGH GLASS SLAB - EXPERIMENTAL

15
 adjust the position of your head in such a way that the images of the pins A and B lie in
the same straight line.

➢ Fix two other pins C and D vertically in such a way that the images of the pins A and B
and pins C and D, all these four, lie in the same straight line. Ensure that the feet of the
pins (not their heads) lie in the same straight line.

➢ Remove the slab and also the pins from the board and encircle the pin-pricks on the
paper, with a sharp pencil.

➢ Join the points D and C and produce the line DC towards the slab so that it meets the
boundary line RS at the point F. Join the points e and F. Thus for the incident ray
represented by line AE, the refracted ray and the emergent ray are represented by EF and
FD respectively.

➢ On the line RS draw a normal N1'FN2' at point F. Now, with a protractor, measure angle
AEN1, angle FEN2 and angle DFN2' labelled as angle i, angle r and angle e respectively.

➢ Extend AE to the other side of the glass slab with dotted line. Note the deviation made by
it with the emergent ray, FD.

PRECAUTIONS:

➢ Drawing board should be made of soft wood.

➢ The pins should be fixed in vertical position.

➢ The base of all the pins (on the paper) should be placed in a straight line.

➢ Keep your eyes along the plane of paper and in line while observing the image and fixing
the pins.

➢ For incident ray, the angle of incidence must lie between 30° and 60°.

16
17
INFERENCE:

RESULT:

At the point of incidence, the incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to the air-glass
interface, all lie in the plane of paper.

The angle of emergence and angle of incidence are equal.

The lateral displacement is ______________

18
EXPT NO: FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MARKS

DATE: MIRROR AND CONVEX LENS /5

AIM:
To find the focal length of the given concave mirror and convex lens by distant-object method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Concave mirror, convex lens, lens holder, meter scale, an object and white screen.

THEORY:

➢ Focal length is defined as the distance between the pole and the focus of a mirror.

➢ Focal length of a lens is the distance between optic centre and focus.

➢ When object is at infinity, in front of mirror/ lens, the image is formed at focus.

PROCEDURE:

➢ The given concave mirror is mounted on a mirror holder.

➢ The mirror is faced towards a distant object.

➢ The reflected image of the object is obtained on a white screen.

➢ The position of the screen is adjusted to get a sharp image.

➢ The distance between the mirror and the screen is measured.

➢ This distance will be equal to the focal length of the mirror.

➢ Repeat the experiment using the given convex lens.

PRECAUTIONS:

➢ Fix the mirror/ lens vertically in the lens holder.

➢ The base of the mirror/lens stand and white screen should be in line with the measuring
scale.

20
RAY DIAGRAM OF FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

OBSERVATION:

DISTANCE BETWEEN CONCAVE

S. NO DISTANT OBJECT
MIRROR AND SCREEN (in cm)

F1 =

F2 =

F3 =

The focal length of the given concave mirror = (F1 + F2 + F3)/3 = ______________

19
RAY DIAGRAM OF FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS:

OBSERVATION:

DISTANCE BETWEEN CONVEX

S. NO DISTANT OBJECT
MIRROR AND SCREEN (in cm)

F1 =

F2 =

F3 =

The focal length of the given concave mirror = (F1 + F2 + F3)/3 = ______________

21
 ➢ Record the position of the mirror/lens and screen only when a well-defined sharp image
is formed.

INFERENCE:

RESULT:

1.The focal length of the given concave mirror = (F1 + F2 + F3)/3 = ______________cm

2.The focal length of the given convex lens = (F1 + F2 + F3)/3 = _______________cm

22
EXPT NO: MARKS
CONVEX LENS
DATE: /5

AIM:

To find the image distance for varying object distances in case of a convex lens and draw the
corresponding ray diagrams to show the nature of the image.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A convex lens, a lens holder, a white screen, a metre scale and an illuminated object.

THEORY:

➢ Light rays when refracted through a convex lens obey the laws of refraction.

➢ The formation of the images by a convex lens can be studied by drawing ray diagrams.

PROCEDURE:

➢ Place the convex lens in the holder and determine the approximate focal length by
distant-object method.

➢ Place the lens and the holder at a distance beyond 2f from the light source.

➢ Adjust the position of the screen such that a clear, distinct and diminished image is
formed on the screen.

➢ Measure the distance between the lens and the object as well as the lens and the screen.
Record the measurements as ‘u’ and ‘v’.

➢ Place the lens and holder at a distance of 2f from the light source.

➢ Adjust the screen to get a clear same size image.

➢ Measure and record the object distance and image distance.

➢ Place the lens and the holder between f and 2f from the light source.

24
➢ Adjust the screen to get a clear and enlarged image.

➢ Note the object position and image position.

➢ Draw the ray diagrams for all these positions.

26
RAY DIAGRAMS:

23
RESULT:

The image formations by convex lens are studied and the ray diagrams are drawn.

25
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROULGH PRISM

27
EXPT NO: MARKS
PRISM
DATE: /5

AIM:

To trace the path of a light ray through a glass prism.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

A drawing board, glass prism, white sheet of paper, drawing pins pencil and scale

PROCEDURE:

1. White sheet of paper is fixed on the drawing board with the help of pins
2. The prism is placed on the paper and its outline ABC is drawn with a sharp pencil.
3. A line perpendicular to AB is drawn using protractor.
4. From the normal an angle of 30 degrees is measured and a line DE is drawn as the
incident ray.
5. Two pins X and Y are fixed on the line DE.
6. Looking through the side AC two more pins X’ and Y’ are fixed so that all the four pins
are in the straight line.
7. The pins X’ and Y’ are removed and a line FG is drawn through it to meet the line DE
8. The line EF is the refracted ray and FG is the emergent ray.

28
29
RESULT:

The path of a light ray through a glass prism was traced.

30
31
EXPT NO: MARKS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
DATE: /5

AIM:
To study the different types of chemical reactions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED :

Test tubes, test tube holder, burner, iron fillings, copper sulphate solution, barium chloride
solution, sodium sulphate solution, calcium oxide, ferrous sulphate crystals (Iron II sulphate) and
water.
PROCEDURE:

S.No Experiment Observation Inference

Take a test tube and When water is added to When quick lime is added to water
a spatula of quick the test tube , the bottom it forms slaked lime. A lot of heat
lime (calcium oxide) of the test tube becomes is also released during the reaction
and add few ml of warm (exothermic). This makes the
1
water reaction mixture warm. This is a
combination reaction.

Take a dry test tube Ferrous sulphate crystals Ferrous sulphate crystals loses
and add few crystals are green in colour. On water of crystallisation on heating
ferrous sulphate into heating the green colour and then decomposes to form Iron
it. Heat the test tube slowly changes to white II oxide, sulphur dioxide and
sulphur trioxide. This is a
and note the colour and on prolonged heating
2
of crystals before it turns into brownish decomposition reaction.
and after heating the solid. We can also smell
test tubes. sulphur dioxide gas
coming out of the test
tube

32
33
 S.No Experiment Observation Inference

Take a test tube and The colour of the blue The iron being more reactive than
add few ml of copper copper sulphate solution copper displaces copper from its
sulphate solution to fades away when iron solution. This is a displacement
it. Add some iron fillings were added into reaction.
3.
filling into the it. Brown deposit of
solution. copper can be seen
above the iron filling.

Take a few ml of A white precipitate of This reaction is a double

sodium sulphate barium sulphate is displacement reaction where a
solution (colourless) obtained. white precipitate of barium
in a test tube and add sulphate is produced along with
4. few ml of barium sodium chloride.
chloride solution
(colourless) to it.

RESULT:

Various steps of chemical reaction were studied and classified as follows:

1. Action of calcium oxide with water - Combination reaction.
2. Heating of ferrous sulphate crystals- Decomposition reaction .
3. Reaction between copper sulphate solution and iron filling- Displacement reaction.
4. Reaction between barium chloride solution and sodium sulphate solution -Double
displacement reaction.

34
S.NO SAMPLE SOLUTION COLOUR VALUE NATURE

DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC
1
ACID

DILUTE SODIUM HYDROXIDE

2
SOLUTION

3 DILUTE ETHANOIC ACID

4 LEMON JUICE

DILUTE SODIUM HYDROGEN

5
CARBONATE SOLUTION

6 WATER

CONCENTRATED
7
HYDROCHLORIC ACID

35
EXPT NO: MARKS
pH VALUE
DATE: /5

AIM:

To determine the pH value for the given sample solutions.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Watch glass, dropper,pH paper, dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide solution,
dilute ethanoic acid(acetic acid), lemon juice (citric acid), water, dilute sodium hydrogen
carbonate solution.

THEORY:

1. pH value indicates the acidity or alkalinity of the given solution

2. Its value ranges from 0-14
3. For an acidic solution the pH value is less than 7
4. For an alkaline solution the pH value is greater than 7
5. For a neutral solution the pH value is 7

PROCEDURE:

1. Take a piece of pH paper in a dry watch glass.

2. Add 2 or 3 drops of dil. Hydrochloric acid on the pH paper.
3. Note the colour change of the pH paper and with those of the pH chart.
4. Tabulate the colour of the pH paper and enter the approximate pH value in the tabular
column.
5. Repeat the same procedure for the other samples.

RESULT:
pH values of the given solutions were identified using a pH paper and a pH chart.

36
S.NO METAL CuSO4 ZnSO4 FeSO4 Al2 (SO4)3

1
Al
2
Zn
3
Fe
4
Cu

37
EXPT NO: MARKS
REACTIVITY OF METALS
DATE: /5

AIM:

To determine the relative reactivity of metals like zinc, copper, aluminium and iron and to
arrange them in the decreasing order of their reactivity.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Copper sulphate solution, zinc sulphate solution, iron II sulphate solution, iron fillings,
aluminium powder,aluminium sulphate solution, copper turnings and test tubes.

PROCEDURE:

S.NO EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Take aluminium powder

in four test tubes and add
the following test tubes
respectively

a. Zinc Sulphate A mild effervescence is Displacement takes place.

solution observed.

b. Iron II sulphate A mild effervescence is Displacement takes place.

solution observed.
1 Displacement takes place.
c. Copper sulphate A mild reaction is
observed and
solution
decolourisation takes
place. Solution is
decolourised and brown
particles are seen.
d. Aluminium Sulphate No reaction takes place. Nodisplacement takes place.
solution

38
39
S.NO EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
Take zinc dust in four
test tubes and add the
following chemicals to
each of the test tube
respectively.
a. Zinc Sulphate
solution
No reaction is seen. No Displacement takes place.
b. Iron II sulphate
2 solution
A mild reaction is Displacement takes place.
observed and
c. Copper sulphate decolourisation of the
solution solution takes place.
Displacement takes place.
d. Aluminium Sulphate Solution is decolourised.
solution
No Displacement takes place.
No reaction is seen.
Take iron filling in four
test tubes and add the
following chemicals to
each of the test tube
respectively.
a. Zinc Sulphate No reaction is seen. No Displacement takes place.
solution
3
b. Iron II sulphate No reaction is seen. No Displacement takes place.
solution

c. Copper sulphate Reddish brown is Displacement takes place.

solution observed and solution
gets decolourised
.
d. Aluminium Sulphate No reaction is seen. No Displacement takes place.
solution

40
41
S.NO EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE
Take copper turnings in
four test tubes and add
the following chemicals
to each of the test tube
respectively.
e. Zinc Sulphate No reaction is seen. No displacement takes
solution
place.
4
f. Iron II sulphate No reaction is seen. No displacement takes
solution place.

g. Copper sulphate
solution No reaction is seen. No displacement takes
place.

h. Aluminium Sulphate
No reaction is seen. No Displacement takes
solution
place.

RESULT:
Metals are arranged decreasing order of the reactivity as Al>Zn>Fe>Cu..

42
43
EXPT NO: MARKS
REACTION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID AND
DATE: SODIUM HYDROXIDE /5

AIM:

To carry out reactions of dilute hydrochloric acid with

(a) Litmus paper (blue and red) (b) Zinc metal (c) Solid sodium carbonate.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Litmus solution, zinc dust, solid sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide solution, hydrochloric
acid, test tubes, test tube holder.

THEORY

Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus red indicating acid nature.

It reacts with zinc metal to give zinc chloride with evolution of hydrogen gas
Zn +2HCl------->ZnCl2 +H2
It reacts with sodium carbonate to form carbon dioxide gas.
Na2CO3+ 2HCl 2NaCl+H2O+ CO2
Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium chloride and water.
Sodium chloride is a strong alkaline and hence neutralization reaction takes place between
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
NaOH+ HCl NaCl+ H2O
Phenolphthalein is an indicator and it remains colourless in an acidic medium.

PROCEDURE:

S.NO EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Take a few ml of red litmus Hydrochloric acid turns Hydrochloric acid is
solution and blue litmus blue litmus red. of acidic nature and
solution in 2 test tubes A and B has pH value less
add hydrochloric acid to both. than 7.

44
45
 S.NO EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Take some zinc dust in a test A colourless gas is The gas evolved is
tube and add a few ml of evolved which burns hydrogen.
hydrochloric acid to it. with a pop sound.

Take a small quantity of solid A colourless gas is The gas evolved is

sodium carbonate in a test tube evolved and the burning carbon dioxide and it
and add dil. Hydrochloric acid splinter is extinguished. does not support
to it. Introduce a burning combustion.
splinter into the test tube.

Take a few ml of sodium The pink colour of the Hydrochloric acid is

hydroxide in a test tube and add solution disappears and acidic in nature and
2 drops of phenolphthalein and the solution becomes gets neutralised by
then add a few ml of dil. colourless on adding sodium hydroxide.
Hydrochloric acid to it. hydrochloric acid.

2. AIM:
To carry out the reaction of sodium hydroxide with
(i) litmus solution (red and blue) (ii) zinc metal (iii) solid sodium carbonate
(iv) phenolphthalein indicator.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Zinc metal, solid sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide solution, phenolphthalein, test tube,
test tube holder.

THEORY:

Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkaline that turns red litmus blue. It reacts with zinc metal to

46
47
form sodium zincate and hydrogen gas

Zn+ 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2

(sodium zincate)
Phenolphthalein is an indicator which turns pink in alkaline medium.

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Take a small quantity of sodium The test tube in which red Sodium hydroxide is
hydroxide in test tubes A and B. litmus is added turns blue basic in nature and
Add few drops of red litmus to A has pH value more
and blue litmus to B than 7

Take zinc dust in a test tube and A colourless gas is evolved zinc reacts with
sodium hydroxide solution to it. which burns with a pop sound. sodium hydroxide
solution and the gas
evolved is hydrogen

Take a small amount of solid No reaction takes place Both sodium

sodium carbonate and add sodium hydroxide and
hydroxide solution to it sodium carbonate
were basic in nature
and hence do not
react

Take a few ml of sodium in a test Solution turns pink in colour Phenolphthalein is an

tube and add 2 drops of indicator which turns
phenolphthalein to it pink in alkaline
medium

RESULT:

Reactions of Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide were studied.

48
49
EXPT NO: MARKS
ACETIC ACID
DATE: /5

AIM:
To study the physical and chemical properties of Acetic acid.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Acetic acid, test tubes, blue litmus paper, Sodium hydrogen carbonate,test tube holder and zinc
dust.

THEORY:

Acetic acid is an organic acid written as CH3COOH.Its functional group is carboxylic acid
O

group [- C-OH]. Acetic acid contains only one carboxylic acid group and hence it is called a
monocarboxylic acid group.The carboxylic acid ionises to give hydrogen ions which are
responsible for its acidic nature

PROCEDURE:

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

1. Take small amount of acetic It is colourless Acetic acid is a colourless

acid in a test tube. Note its liquid and has pungent smell
colour and odour.

2. Take small amount of acetic Acetic acid dissolves in It forms a homogeneous

acid in a test tube and add water mixture or solution with
water to it. water

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: Blue litmus turns red This indicates the property of
1. Take few ml of acetic acid acid

and dip a strip of blue

litmus paper into it

50
51
2. Take acetic acid in a test A brisk effervescence is Acetic acid reacts with
tube and add Sodium observed due to the evolution Sodium hydrogen carbonateto
hydrogen carbonate into of colourless gas. Burning release Carbon dioxide gas.
it. Introduce the burning candle is extinguished Carbon dioxide does not
candle at the mouth of the support combustion.
test tube

3. Take few pieces of zinc Brisk effervescence due to The gas liberated is
in a test tube and add evolution of colourless gas is hydrogen.
concentrated acetic acid seen, which burns with a pop
to it. Close the test tube sound.
with your thumb till you
feel the pressure of the
gas and remove your
thumb. Bring a burning
splinter close to the
mouth of the test tube.

RESULT:
Properties of acetic acid were studied.

52
53
EXPT NO: MARKS
HARD WATER AND SOFT WATER
DATE: /5

AIM:
To distinguish between hard and soft water.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Test tube, soap solution, tap water, and distilled water.

PROCEDURE:

EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Take distilled water in a test tube A. Add Lather is formed It is soft water
soap solution to it and shake it well.

Take well water or tap water in a test tube No lather is formed It is hard water
B, add soap solution to it and shake it well

RESULT:

Test tube A contains soft water and test tube B contains hard water.

54
55
EXPT NO: MARKS
SAPONIFICATION REACTION
DATE: /5

AIM:
To study saponification reaction for preparation of soap.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Castor oil or coconut oil, sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, beaker, evaporating dish, glass
rod , distilled water and salt solution.

THEORY:

The alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats to make soap is called saponification.

Fat or oil + NaOH soap + glycerol

(sodium salt of fatty acid) (alcohol)

PROCEDURE:

➢ Half fill a beaker with tap water and boil it.

➢ Take a few ml of castor oil and a few ml of concentrated sodium hydroxide solution in an
evaporating dish and place it on the top of the beaker.

➢ Stir the mixture for 10 to 15 min.

➢ Now add saturated salt solution to the evaporating dish and stir it.

➢ Remove the dish from hot beaker and cool it for some time.

➢ A layer of soap is formed on the surface.

RESULT:

Saponification reaction is studied.

56
57
EXPT NO: MARKS
TEMPORARY LEAF MOUNT
DATE: /5

AIM:
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to observe stomata.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Spinach leaf, forceps, watch glass, distilled water, dropper, safranin solution, brush,
blotting paper, glass slide, cover slip, dissecting needle, glycerine and compound microscope.

Procedure:

1. Pluck a fresh leaf from the spinach plant.

2. Fold the leaf and carefully tear along the bruised area of the lower side of the leaf.
3. We can see a colourless narrow border along the torn edge.
4. Carefully pull out the thin membranous transparent layer from the lower epidermis using
a forceps.
5. Put the epidermis into a watch glass containing distilled water.
6. Take few drops of Safranin solution using a dropper and transfer this into another watch
glass.
7. Using a brush transfer the epidermis into the watch glass containing the Safranin solution.
8. Keep the epidermis for 30 sec in the Safranin solution to stain the peel.
9. To remove excess stain sticking to the peel, place it again in the watch glass containing
water.
10. Place the peel onto a clean glass slide using the brush.
11. Take a few drops of glycerine using a dropper and pour this on the peel.
12. Using a needle, place a cover slip over the epidermis gently.
13. Drain out the excess glycerine using a blotting paper.
14. Take the glass slide and place it on the stage of the compound microscope.
15. Examine the slide through the lens of the compound microscope.

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Observation:
Clear structure of the stomata is seen.
1. Stomata: A tiny opening found on the ventral surface of the leaf.
2. Each stomata contains two bean shaped guard cells which enclose a tiny opening called
stomatal pore.
3. The guard cells are modified epidermal cells containing chloroplast.
4. The guard cells control the opening and closing of the stoma.
5. When they absorb water they become turgid and stoma opens.
6. When the guard cells lose water they become flaccid and stoma closes.
7. Exchange of gases during respiration and photosynthesis takes place through stoma, other
than transpiration.

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EXPT NO: MARKS
RESPIRATION (IN PLANTS)
DATE: /5

AIM:
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Spatula, germinating gram seeds, conical flask, measuring cylinder,small test tube with
KOH,cotton thread, cork,water, rubber stopper with bent delivery tube and vaseline.

PROCEDURE:
1. Using a spatula, place about 200 gms germinating bean seeds in a conical flask.
2. Pour 4ml of potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution into a measuring cylinder.
3. Transfer the KOH solution from the measuring cylinder into a small test tube.
4. Tie a cotton thread around the neck of the test tube.
5. Suspend the test tube in the conical flask above the germinating seeds.
6. Close the mouth of the conical flask with a cork.
7. Insert one end of a delivery tube into the conical flask through the cork and dip the
other in a beaker containing water.
8. Take some Vaseline with your finger and apply this on the cork to make the apparatus
air tight.
9. The initial level of water in the bent tube is noted.
10. Keep the apparatus undisturbed for two hours.
11. The final level of the water is noted in the bent tube.

OBSERVATION:
After two hours, you will see that the level of water has risen in the delivery tube at the end
dipped in the beaker of water.

INFERENCE: The germinating seeds in the conical flask release CO2 during respiration,
which is absorbed by the KOH solution kept in the small test tube. This creates a partial
vacuum in the flask that forces the water up the delivery tube. Thus, it proves that germinating
seeds produce carbon dioxide during respiration.

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Experiment to show that CO2 is given out during respiration

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EXPT NO: BINARY FISSION IN AMOEBA AND MARKS

DATE: BUDDING IN YEAST /5

AIM:

To study using the prepared slides;

Binary fission in Amoeba.
Budding in Yeast.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Permanent or prepared slides of;

1.Binary fission in Amoeba
2.Budding in yeast
3.Compound microscope

OBSERVATION:

BINARY FISSION IN AMOEBA

Amoeba is a shapeless tiny unicellular organism that has a porous cell membrane which
encloses the cell organelles and cytoplasm. Amoeba reproduces by the common asexual
reproduction method called binary fission. After replicating its genetic material through mitotic
division, the cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is also equally
partitioned; therefore the daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and the parent cell.
In this process, the nucleus of the Amoeba first divides to form two daughter nuclei by the
process of Karyokinesis. After the nucleus has divided into two, the process of Cytokinesis takes
place in which the cytoplasm in the mother cell divides into two daughter cells. This leads to the
formation of the two daughter Amoebae cell having a nucleus and its own cell organelles.

Karyokinesis is the process of the division of the nucleus. It corresponds to the separation of
the daughter chromosomes into two daughter nuclei. Karyokinesis is usually followed by
Cytokinesis.

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Binary fission in Amoeba

Budding in Yeast

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Budding in Yeast
Yeast are unicellular (some are multicellular) eukaryotic micro-organisms belonging to the
kingdom fungi. Yeast size can vary greatly depending on the species, typically measuring 3-4
µm in diameter. Most yeasts reproduce asexually by an asymmetric division process called
budding. First it produces a small protuberance on the parent cell that grows to a full size and
forms a bud. The nucleus of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the
daughter cell. The bud detaches from the mother’s body by forming a constriction at the base.
Budding will repeat to form a chain of bud cells. The daughter cell produced during the budding
process is generally smaller than the mother cell.

CONCLUSION:
The given slides is one that shows the asexual reproduction process of Binary fission and
Budding in Yeast.

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EXPT NO: MARKS
PARTS OF A DICOT SEED
DATE: /5

AIM:
To identify the different parts of an embryo of dicot seeds – Gram seeds.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Gram seeds, forceps, needle and brush, distilled water and compound microscope.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take some gram seeds and put them in a beaker containing distilled water.
2. Soak the gram seeds overnight.
3. Take one seed from the beaker using a forceps and place it in a watch glass.
4. Remove the seed coat of the gram seed, using the forceps and the needle.
5. Pick the seed using the forceps and place it on the stage plate of the compound
microscope.
6. Separate the two cotyledons of the gram seed using the forceps and the needle.
7. Observe the seed through the compound microscope.

OBSERVATION:

• Gram seeds are round in shape.

• We can easily identify a scar called hilum.
• A micropyle can be observed on the gram seed through which the seed imbibes water.
• The gram seed contains two thick fleshy cotyledons that are foods storage organs.
• We can observe a plumule on the gram seed which gives rise to the first true leaves
• The radicle is the embryonic root inside the seed which grows downward in the soil.
• Above the radicle we can see an embryonic stem or hypocotyl.
• Since two cotyledons are seen in gram seeds, they are dicot seeds.

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