ISSN: 2993-5377

Research Article Open Access Journal of Applied Science and Technology

Design of Submerged Air-Intake for UAV Application

Kishan Tanna1*, Niyati Shah2, Mr. Vinay Kumar Bommoju3

*1
Graduate Student
Aeronautical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel *Corresponding Author
Institute of Technology, Vasad, Anand, India Kishan Tanna, Aeronautical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Institute of Technology, Vasad, Anand, India.
2
Assistant Professor
Aeronautical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Submitted: 2023, July 20; Accepted: 2023, Aug 10: Published: 2023, Aug 21
Institute of Technology, Vasad, Anand, India

Manager - Aerodynamics
3

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Nashik.

Citation: Tanna, K., Shah, N., Bommoju, V. K. (2023). Design of Submerged Air-Intake for UAV Application. OA J Applied Sci Tech-
nol, 1(2), 89-103.

Abstract
The design approach and performance analysis of a custom s-duct submerged inlet are presented in this paper for a stealth subsonic
swept-back Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). The UAV must provide good efficiency in a wider range of operating conditions. The duct
is designed in such a way that it is the best compromise between the fuselage-engine framework and should provide maximum pressure
recovery. Important geometric parameters of the s-duct inlet consist of a length-to-engine diameter ratio of 5.18, an offset-to-length
ratio of 0.12, and an area ratio of 1.89. A review of fundamental concepts and the design process is presented to provide a foundation
for future design iterations. METACOMP CFD++ software has been used to analyze the inlet design performance. Pressure recovery
and circumferential total pressure distortion are used to analyze inlet performance at zero incidence angle.

Keywords: Submerged Air Intake; S-Duct Designing; Computational Fluid Dynamics; Inlet Design Aerodynamics, Pressure Recovery,
Total Pressure Distortion; Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

1. Introduction from external aerodynamic design in the fundamental sense that

The design of intakes for high-performance Unmanned Aerial Ve- inlets must operate constantly in separated flow regimes, whereas
hicles (UAVs) is a complex task, as these vehicles combine the external aerodynamic design frequently employs flow separation
characteristics of high-performance agile aircrafts on one hand and as a limit of operation. In consideration of the entire mission pro-
missiles with air-breathing propulsion on the other. Several con- file, an efficient intake design efficiently balances the delivery of
flicting targets have to be accomplished, such as good efficiency, in clean airflow to the engine with the consequence of external drag
terms of high-pressure recovery and low-pressure distortion, low on the aircraft. To achieve supersonic flight, an engine implanted
drag, and high margins of stability. The above-mentioned char- inside the fuselage was required to reduce rapid increases in drag
acteristics should be maintained throughout a wide range of op- during transonic flight. The key parameters of concern after World
erating conditions, such as different flight Mach numbers, angles War II were the study behavior of shock waves, shock interactions,
of incidence, sideslip, and engine thrust, while, at the same time, pressure recovery, and dynamic distortion. In the late 1970s, the
cost, and complexity should be maintained as low as possible. An swirling flow on compressor surge issue was identified. An effec-
S-Duct is a form of air intake located in the aircraft's upper or tive intake design often depends on balancing the requirements of
lower rear. This design makes a shorter fin and a rudder closer to the internal and external flow fields [1]. Apart from the experimen-
the longitudinal axis possible. Separated flow and complex shock tal work, the CFD analysis of S-duct inlets has been performed and
boundary layer interactions, sometimes unstable, will be present reported in the literature. These studies focused on the effects of
throughout a wide range of flying conditions due to the S-type centerline curvature, length, offset, flow turning angle, cross-sec-
shape of the intakes. Furthermore, all of the foregoing should be tional shape, incidence angle, and boundary layer ingestion on
evaluated in the context of the airflow interactions between the fu- pressure recovery and flow distortion at the Aerodynamic Interface
selage, wing, intake, and engine. Inlet aerodynamic design differs Plane (AIP). Time-variant flow behavior in diffusing s-duct inlets

OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 89

has also been predicted using higher-order computational models. 3-D RANS equations and a k-based SST model were employed
by to evaluate the effects of varying cross-sectional shapes on the
To evaluate the impacts of centerline curvature and transitioning RAE-M2129 intake geometry [8]. Cross-sections with upper-half
cross-sections in complex inlet designs, employed a parabolic semi-circular and lower-half semi-circular shapes were studied in
three-dimensional Navier-Stokes CFD system. The centerline off- a total of 21 test cases that varied the aspect ratio. Pressure recov-
set and the thickness of the boundary layer at the diffuser entrance ery and distortion were used as performance indicators. The study
were found to be the main causes of distortion at the AIP [2]. It used a flight Mach number of 0.21 at zero angle of attack and a
was discovered that the transition of diffuser cross-sections had a huge mass flow ratio of 23.245. The results revealed that the up-
secondary influence on the overall pressure loss in the intake. The per-half semi-circular shapes performed best, whereas the circular
effect of flow turning angles and aspect ratio for s- s-shaped rect- case performed worst. A computational study on engine surge was
angular diffusers was investigated by using CFD tools [3]. It was also done to evaluate the RAE-M2129 inlet's performance, but no
observed that flow homogeneity diminished and cross-flow veloc- experimental data were available for validation [9,10].
ities rose with the increase in flow turning angles from 15°/15°,
22.5°/22.5°, 45°/45° to 90°/90°. used Reynolds-Averaged Navi- In this work, a specific type of S-Duct with a rectangular intake
er–Stokes (RANS) simulations with several turbulence models to and a circular outlet for a UAV is presented. High-performance
evaluate the RAE-M2129 inlet's performance at various pitch and UAVs require the adoption of a jet engine to achieve a high sub-
yaw angles [4]. The positive angles of yaw revealed a reduction sonic maximum speed. The objective of this work is to design a
in inlet distortion and an increase in pressure recovery because S-duct intake for a maximum flight Mach Number 0.85 at 6000 m,
of the reduced influence of offset. Negative yaw angles amplified for a specified engine mass flow rate M˙ of 6.65 kg/s. It was also a
the effect of offset, resulting in decreased inlet performance. Four mandate to maintain the design Mach number at the compressor’s
flush-mounted S-duct inlet geometries were evaluated for perfor- face Me at 0.318. CFD analysis is carried out to find the pressure
mance using experimental and computational techniques by for a recovery and total pressure distortion for the aforementioned re-
variety of Mach values and with significant amounts of boundary quirements.
layer ingestion [5]. Mach numbers from 0.25 to 0.83 were used for
the tests. To depict the computational model, steady-state RANS 2. Air Intake System Design Procedure
equations were solved, and k-Shear Stress Transport (SST) was 2.1 Inlet design
employed to simulate turbulence. Results showed that particular- Turbojet engines are incapable of efficient operation unless the air
ly at low Mach number regions, pressure recovery generally re- entering them is slowed to a speed of about Mach 0.3-0.4. This is
duced and distortion increased with increasing Mach number.The to keep the tip speed of the compressor blades below sonic speed
effects of inlet offset on the performance of an s-duct diffuser with relative to the incoming air. Slowing down the incoming air is the
a 90°/90° turn were studied by [6]. The inlet’s cross-sectional ge- primary purpose of an inlet system. The installed performance of
ometry was lofted between a rectangular inlet and a semi-circular a jet engine greatly depends upon the air-inlet system. The type
outlet. According to the findings, higher input offset resulted in and geometry of the inlet and inlet duct will determine the pres-
lower pressure recovery and increased flow non-uniformity at the sure loss and distortion of the air supplied to the engine, which
exit. To analyze an S-duct intake developed for a UAV application, will affect the installed thrust and fuel consumption. As the UAVs
employed RANS equations and a SST two-equation turbulence are designed to have stealth characteristics, minimum exposure of
model [7]. The inlet used Gerlach area shaping to create a loft be- components outside the fuselage body is a concern for the design.
tween a rectangular cross-section with rounded corners and a cir- Therefore, a NACA flush inlet is chosen to provide air to the en-
cular cross-section at the AIP. The bespoke s-duct was engineered gine. The size of the NACA duct is calculated based on the max-
for a free-stream Mach number of 0.85 at 6,000 meters and a mass imum mass flow rate required by the engine. Table 1 represents
flow rate of 1.38 kg per second. The inlet was designed with an the coordinates to design a customized NACA flush inlet based on
offset equal to two times the engine face diameter, an area ratio of different mass flow rate requirements. The lengths x, y, w, and L
1.782, and a length-to-engine face diameter ratio ranging from 0.8 are depicted in Fig. 1: -
to 1.7. Due to frictional losses, the nearly doubling of input length
resulted in a 1.5 percent drop in pressure recovery; nevertheless,
there was an extra benefit in terms of flow distortion at the AIP.

OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 90

 maximum mass flow rate required by the engine. Table 1 represents the coordinates to
design a customized NACA flush inlet based on different mass flow rate requirements.
The lengths x, y, w, and L are depicted in Fig. 1: -

the total height of the duct from the fuselage reference line comes out to be 128.62 mm.
The rampCoordinates
Table 1: NACA of the NACA submerged intake 1:was chosen
Duct to be 7°. Hence 2012)the length (L1) of
the total heightDuct of the duct from (Raymer, 2012) Figure
the fuselage reference NACA
line comes Geometry
out to (Raymer,
be 128.62 mm.
Table 1:
The ratio between the area
the NACA
engine NACA
Duct duct area
comes
and Coordinates
throat was out to
(Raymer,
kept be 1047.526
to be of mm.
nor axisFigure
2012) 1:This
10 mm. length
NACA is total
Duct
Therefore, the derivedheightwith
Geometry theduct
of the help of
from
The ramp of the NACA submerged intake was chosen to be 7°. Hence the length (L1)mm.
1.89. The engine has an inner radius of 142.993 mm hence the area the fuselage reference line comes out to be 128.62
of The ramp
of the fan(Raymer,
face 2012)the Eq. 1.
theis NACA
64236.1 mm . Therefore, theto
area
beat1047.526
the throat mm.
of theThis
NACA submerged intake was chosen to be 7°.
of Hence the
2
duct comes out length is derived with the help
comes out to be 33924 mm . The width-to-height ratio (w/h) of the
2
length (L1) of the NACA duct comes out to be 1047.526 mm. This
thewas
rectangular inlet Eq.kept
1. to 2.65 based on the fuselage diameter. length is derived with the help of the Eq. 1.
The inlet The
lip profile has anLelliptical
ratio between 1=128.62/tan
theleading
engine (7°)
area
edge withand throat
a semi-mi- area was kept to be 1.89. The engine has (1)
2
an inner radius of 142.993 mm hence the area of the fan face is 64236.1 mm .
L1=128.62/tan (7°) (1)
Therefore, the area at the throat comes out to be 33924 mm2. The width-to-height ratio
(w/h) of the rectangular inlet was kept to 2.65 based on the fuselage diameter. The inlet
lip profile has an elliptical leading edge with a semi-minor axis of 10 mm. Therefore,

Figure 2: Geometry Sketch

Based on the above data, Fig. 3 represents the CAD model of the NACA Duct:
Figure 2: Geometry Sketch
Based on the above data, Fig. 3 represents the CAD model of the NACA Duct:
Figure 2: Geometry Sketch
Based on the above data, Fig. 3 represents the CAD model of the NACA Duct:

OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 91

 Based on the above data, Fig. 3 represents the CAD model of the NACA Duct:

The lip is inclined downwards at an angle of 2° with reference to the horizontal axis
depicted in
The lip is inclined downwards at an angle of 2° with reference to the horizontal axis as
Fig. 4, and Fig. 5.
Figure 3: NACA Duct
depicted in
The lip is inclined downwards at an angle of 2° with reference to the horizontal axis as depicted in
Fig. 4, andFig. 4, and Fig. 5.
Fig. 5.
Figure 3: NACA Duct

Figure 4: Inlet Lip Geometry

Figure 4: Inlet Lip Geometry
Figure 4: Inlet Lip Geometry

Figure 5: CAD Model of the inlet lip

Figure 5: CAD Model of the inlet lip

Figure
OA J Applied 5: CAD
Sci Technol, 2023 Model of the inlet lip Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 92
a. S-Duct Design

a. S-Duct Design
The S-Duct is made to fit the engine's diameter and the geometry of the exist
a. S-Duct Designit simple to convert the desired inlet length and offset
centerline to andefinition.
curvature S-DuctSince
centerline.
the circles in the illustrated
The S-Duct is made to fit the engine's diameter and the geometry design are all the same size, the radius of curvature changes where
it simple
of the existing fuselage.toThe
convert
duct in the
this desired
model is inlet lengtha and
built around theoffset
circulartoarcs
anoverlap.
S-DuctThis centerline.
geometric parameterization has the
reference curve we'll refer to as the centerline. As seen in Fig. 6, advantage that Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 make it simple to convert the de-
the intersection of two circular arcs serves as the foundation for the sired inlet length and offset to an S-Duct centerline.

Figure 6: Centre Spline Geometry

L = 2RsinƟ (2)
H = 2 [1 – cosƟ] (3)

Figure 6: Centre Spline Geometry

Figure 6: Centre Spline Geometry
Figure 6: Centre Spline Geometry
L = 2RsinƟ (2)
H = 2 [1 – cosƟ] These centerline relationships are further illustrated in Fig. 7 (3)
L = 2RsinƟ (2)
These centerline relationships are further illustrated in Fig. 7
H = 2 [1 – cosƟ] (3)

These centerline relationships are further illustrated in Fig. 7

These centerline relationships are further illustrated in Fig. 7

Figure 7: Definition of S-Duct Centerline Curvature

Figure 7: Definition of S-Duct Centerline Curvature
There are a range of combinations of circle radius and arc that is a rectangular cross-section, which corresponds to the inlet of
satisfy each constraint of inlet length and offset, however only one the S- Duct. The last profile is a circular cross-section, which cor-
combination of R and Ɵ exists such thatThere are a range
both constraints of
are met. combinations
responds to theof circleface.
engine’s radius
The and arcto that
reason satisfy
choose each constrai
a rectangular
Along the centerline, several lofting profiles are constructed, at cross-section at the throat is to keep the vertical height of the duct
planes normal to the curve. Their positions are non-dimensionally as low as possible. The horizontal separation of secondary vortices
defined as a fraction of the curve’s length. In Fig. 8, five such pro- that this structure can give (as will be shown in the next sections)
files are plotted, of which the first and the last correspond to 0 and is another factor in the decision to choose a rectangular cross-sec-
100 percent of the centerline length respectively. The first profile tion since this results in a more uniform flow field at the com-
Figure 7: Definition of S-Duct Centerline Curvature
OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 93
Figure 7: Definition of S-Duct Centerline Curvature
There are a range of combinations of circle radius and arc that satisfy each constraint of

There are a range of combinations of circle radius and arc that satisfy each constraint of
 Gerlach area shaping focuses on a range of cross-sections to efficiently lower the
transverse pressure gradient and generation of secondary flow by increasing the outer
wall velocity and decreasing the inner wall velocity at the first turn. A similar
procedure
pressor's face. The Gerlachis adopted
Area Shapingfor Method
the second
is used bend
to plot ofent
theandS-Duct;
generation however,
of secondary as flow
the by
bend is in the outer wall
increasing
each of these profiles. To materialize Gerlach area shaping for the velocity and decreasing the inner wall velocity at the first turn. A
opposite
duct and provide direction,
a smooth the narrowing
and controllable is applied
area variation between atsimilar
the inner wall.is This
procedure adopted is for
shown in Fig.
the second bend8,of the S-Duct;
the throat and
whereengine
theface, three additional
adopted profiles are
cross-section defined
at the in (t),
throat however, as the
engine bend
face is in
(e), opposite
and direction,
positions 2-4theare
narrowing is ap-
planes normal to the centerline. These profiles correspond to 2, 3, plied at the inner wall. This is shown in Fig. 8, where the adopted
presented
and, 4; their to provided
positions are illustrateas the Gerlach
a fraction Area
of the Shaping
centerline done while
cross-section designing
at the throat (t), the duct:
engine face (e), and positions 2-4
curve’s length. The Gerlach area shaping focuses on a range of are presented to illustrate the Gerlach Area Shaping done while
cross-sections to efficiently lower the transverse pressure gradi- designing the duct:

Geometric Value
Figure 8: Gerlach Area Geometry
Parameter
Having the cross-sectional areas specified at the throat, the capture smooth
Ae 64236.1 mm2 diffusion) between the throat and engine face plane. This
plane, and Figure
the engine face plane, the cross-sectional
8: Gerlach Area Geometry areas of the area variation is shown in the form of area ratios, with respect to
main duct in the intermediate positions,
At A2, A3, and A4,
33923.659the
respec- mm throat
2 area At, while the resulting area ratios are summarized
tively, canHaving the cross-sectional areas specified at the throat, and
be specified supposing a smooth variation of area (a in Table 2 the represented
capture plane,
in Fig.and
9. the engine
A2/ At 1.16
A3/ AtGeometric 1.44
Parameter Value
Ae 64236.1 mm2
A4/ AtAt 1.72 33923.659 mm2
Ae/ AtA2/ At 1.89 1.16
A3/ At 1.44
A4/ At 1.72
Table 2. Geometric ParametersAe/ At 1.89
Table 2: Geometric Parameters

Figure 9: Gerlach Area Variation

Figure 9: Gerlach Area Variation

The CAD Model of the S-Duct is illustrated in Fig. 10. All these designs are made
OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 94
using CATIA V5 R20 designing software. Multi-Section Solid tool is used to loft the S-
Duct geometry.
The CAD Model of the S-Duct is illustrated in Fig. 10. All these designs are made using CATIA V5 R20 designing software. Multi-Sec-
tion Solid tool is used to loft the S-Duct geometry.

Figure10: CAD Model of S-Duct

CFD analysis has to be carried out to evaluate the performance mesh approximately containing 2.4 million cells and 781,796
of the air intake designed in the previous sections. The air intake nodes is generated over the model. Curvature-based refinement is
Figure10: CAD Model of S-Duct
should provide a maximum mass flow rate of 6.65 kg/s under all applied to accurately capture geometry. To accurately capture the
conditions. Factors like Pressure Recovery and Pressure Distortion flow, a slow volumetric growth rate is applied to the mesh to grad-
have been analyzed using METACOMP CFD++ software for the ually increase the cell size of prism-shaped boundary layers. A to-
CFD
flight conditions analysis
depicted has3.to be carried out to evaluatetalthe
in Table of performance
29 prism layers of the air over
distributed intake designed
a total thicknessinof 9.09×10-
3 m are used to resolve the boundary layer along with the upstream
3. Meshing
the previous sections. The air intake should parallel provide a maximum mass flow rate of 6.65
extension, NACA Duct, inlet lip, and S-Duct. The first cell
To evaluate the flight
kg/s parameters
under mentioned before,
all conditions. Factorsa mesh
like was heightRecovery
Pressure is equal to 9.24×10 -6
m and the
and Pressure y+ value ishave
Distortion equal to 1. Dif-
generated using METACOMP MIME 8.1 software. A fine surface ferent mesh profiles have been depicted in Fig. 11.
been analyzed using METACOMP CFD++ software for the flight conditions depicted
in Table
S/N 3.H(km) Throttle
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) Mach Number Velocity (m/s)
1 Max 0.2 67.3
2 6.65 0.4 126.6
3.3 Meshing 0.6 189.9
To 4evaluate the flight parameters mentioned before, 0.85 a mesh was generated using
289.2
5 Idle 0.2 67.3
METACOMP Level 8.1 software.
Sea MIME A fine surface mesh approximately containing 2.4
6 4.55 0.4 126.6
million
7 cells and 781,796 nodes is generated over 0.6 the model. Curvature-based
189.9
8
refinement is applied to accurately capture geometry.0.85To accurately 289.2
capture the flow, a
Table 3: Flight
slow volumetric growth rate is applied to theEnvelope
mesh to gradually increase the cell size of
prism-shaped boundary layers. A total of 29 prism layers distributed over a total thickness
of 9.09×10-3 m are used to resolve the boundary layer along with the upstream parallel
extension, NACA Duct, inlet lip, and S-Duct. The first cell height is equal to 9.24×10-6 m
and the y+ value is equal to 1. Different mesh profiles have been depicted in Fig. 11.

OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 95

S/N H(km) Throttle Mass Mach Velocity

 Table 3. Flight Envelope

Figure11: Mesh Profiles

4. Solver
The solver usedMesh
Figure11: is Profiles
Pressure based compressible solver which solves Nav
4. Solver equations. The governing equations are as follows: -
Figure11:
The solver used is Pressure Meshsolver
based compressible Profiles
which solves Navier-Stokes equations. The governing equations are as follows: -

(4)
4. Solver
Where U, F, G, and H are flux variables
Where U, F, G, and H are flux variables
The solver used is Pressure based compressible solver which solves Navier-S
equations. The governing equations are as follows: -
U= (5)

{ } (4)

F= (6)

{ ( ) }

G= (7)

{ ( ) }
OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 96

H= (8)
 G= (7)

{ ( ) }

H= (8)

{ ( ) }

Solver Settings and Boundary Conditions have been represented in Tables 4 and Table 5 respectively.

Parameter Condition
Free stream Velocity 0.4 M
Angle of attack
(9)
0 degree
Total temperature 293 K
{ ̇}
Free stream Static Pressure 101325 N/m2
Mass Flow Rate 6.65 kg/s
Simulation Type Steady State
Turbulence Model 2 eq. k-ε turbulence model
Solver Settings and Boundary Conditions have been represented in Tables 4 and Table
Table 4: Solver Settings
5 respectively.
Boundary Boundary Conditions
Domain Subsonic Inflow, Static Pressure 101325 N/m2, Static Tempera-
ture 288.15 K,flow direction normal to the boundary
Engine Face Mass flow rate = 6.65 kg/s
NACA Duct, S Duct, Inlet Lip, Engine Hub Viscous Adiabatic Wall, No-slip Condition
Parameter
Table 5: Boundary Conditions Condition
To calculate the above-mentioned boundary conditions, META-
Free fers
stream a total pressure
Velocity 0.4 M loss through intake due to some or all of the
COMP CFD++ software has been used. 1000 iterations and order reasons listed above. Intake duct pressure can be written in terms
of magnitude convergence up to 10-5 are applied. of the following parameters only:

5. Losses in an Intake (i) Duct Geometry- loss due to geometry is accounted for as a loss
Intake is no different from any other existing engineering system coefficient, usually called lambda, λ
where a fraction of the supplied energy goes to waste i.e., it is
spent in ways other than desired. The following could be the prob- (ii) Inlet Mach number or dynamic head.
able reasons for the losses: -
(iii) Inlet swirl angle
• Friction on the walls of the duct Total pressure loss in terms of λ is defined in Eq. 10:
• Turbulent mixing and vortex generation Pin – Pout = λ (Pin – PSin) (10)
• Flow separation due to adverse pressure gradient as well as Where,
bends.
• Flow distortion Pin – Total Pressure at the entry of duct Pout – Total Pressure at
• Shockwaves the duct exit
PSin – Static Pressure at the entry of the duct
6. Factors affecting Performance of Air Intake The loss coefficient λ is the fraction of dynamic head lost in the
6.1 Total Pressure Loss duct, whatever the level of Mach number. Its magnitude is a frac-
The air intake duct either diffuses free stream air from a high in- tion of only duct geometry and inlet swirl angle. Total pressure
let Mach number to a low Mach number (as in the case of UAV loss concerning inlet Mach number can be determined initially by
cruising at high speed) or accelerates the free stream air from static expressing inlet dynamic head divided by inlet total pressure as a
condition to an acceptable level of compressor inlet Mach number function of inlet total to static pressure ratio.
(as in the case of UAV takeoff). In either case, the air stream suf-

OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 97

6.2 Pressure Recovery For flow speeds in the range of Mach number 0.5 to 1, the above
Pressure recovery factor (PRF) is a commonly utilized parameter equation can be roughly approximated as described in Eq. 13.
in the design of conventional turbojet intakes to assess how ef-
fectively the intake delivers air from ambient static pressure to a X = 0.35 KM0 (Δ P/q) (13)
target AIP static pressure. It is defined as the ratio of the AIP's total
pressure to that of upstream infinity. It is described mathematically Where M0 is the free stream Mach number and ‘q’ is free stream
in Eq. 11. dynamic pressure. It is evident from the above equations that the
loss in engine thrust is almost directly proportional to the intake
ηPR = P2/P0 (11) pressure loss.

Pressure recovery is affected by two losses viz. skin friction and 6.3 Circumferential Pressure Distortion
turbulent mixing. Pressure recovery is a measure of loss in the The circumferential ring pressure distortion index is based on the
DP/PCring i = {[PAVring i – PMINring i]/PA} for rings i = 1, 5
intake flow with respect to the isentropic flow. The effect of intake calculation of DP/PCring i, where the subscript “ring i” refer to (1
pressure loss on engine thrust depends on the characteristics of the any of the five pressure rings. The rings are counted in ascending
engine. Intake pressure loss can be assumed to be translated direct- order, outermost to innermost. The mathematical relationship is
ly to the engine by the relationship indicated in Eq. 12. described in Eq. 14.

All kinds of intake distortions are

X = K (Δ P/P0) (12) felt at the
DP/PCring AIP i and
i = {[PAVring would
– PMINring severely
i]/PA} for rings i = 1, 5 affect
Where, (14)
compressor‘s performance. To calculate the pressure distortion the geometry of po
Δ X – loss in thrust X – Thrust All kinds of intake distortions are felt at the AIP and would severe-
indicated in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 had been introduced in front of the engine face:-
K – a factor depends on the type of engine, generally, 1< K ~ 1.5
ly affect the compressor’s performance. To calculate the pressure
distortion the geometry of points indicated in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13
had been introduced in front of the engine face:-
Δ P – Total Pressure loss at the intake exit P0 – Free stream total
pressure

Figure12: Geometry of Pressure Points

Figure12: Geometry of Pressure Points
Figure13: Pressure Points in CFD++
Figure 13: Pressure Points in CFD++

Five rings have been introduced in the aforementioned drawings, face, the flow may be distorted by the inlet. At the compressor
with radii of 28.6 mm, 57.2 mm, 85.8 mm, 114 mm, and 130 mm. face, one portion of the flow may have a higher velocity or higher
Eight evenly spaced points have been plotted on each ring to get pressure than another portion. The flow may be swirling, or some
Five rings have been introduced in the aforementioned drawings, with radii of 28.6 m
the average total pressure there. The airflow may be deformed by section of the boundary layer may be thicker than another sec-
the inlet when it is carried from the free stream to the compressor's tion because of the inlet shape. The rotor blades of the compressor
57.2 mm, 85.8 mm, 114 mm, and 130 mm. Eight evenly spaced points have been plo
face. As the air is brought from the free stream to the compressor’s move in circles around the central shaft. The flow environment
OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 98
on each ring to get the average total pressure there. The airflow may be deformed by
inlet when it is carried from the free stream to the compressor's face. As the ai
 Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show the static pressure distribution at an inlet velocity of 0.4 M.

around the blades rapidly alters as the blades meet distorted inlet 7. Results
flow. The compressor
Fig.may stall, Fig.
14 and experience flow the
15 show separation, or ex- 7.1distribution
static pressure Static Pressure Distortion
at an inlet velocity of 0.4 M.
perience structural issues with the compressor blades as a result Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show the static pressure distribution at an inlet
of changing flow conditions. High-pressure recovery and minimal velocity of 0.4 M.
Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show the static pressure distribution at an inlet velocity of 0.4 M.
distortion are qualities of a good intake.

Figure14: Static Pressure Distribution over S Duct at 0.4 M

Figure14: Static Pressure Distribution over S Duct at 0.4 M

Figure14: Static Pressure Distribution over S Duct at 0.4 M
Figure14: Static Pressure Distribution over S Duct at 0.4 M

Figure15: Static Pressure Distribution at cut planes (0.4 M)

Figure 15: Static Pressure Distribution at cut planes (0.4 M)
Fig.16
Fig.16 and Fig. and Fig.the
17 show 17static
show the static
pressure pressure
distribution at andistribution
inlet velocity at
Figure15: Static Pressure Distribution at cut planes (0.4 M) an inlet
of 0.85 M velocity of 0.85 M

Figure15: Static
Fig.16 andPressure Distribution
Fig. 17 show at cut planes
the static pressure (0.4 M)
distribution at an inlet velocity of 0.85 M

Fig.16 and Fig. 17 show the static pressure distribution at an inlet velocity of 0.85 M

Figure 16: Static Pressure Distribution over S-Duct at 0.85 M

OA J Applied Sci Technol, 2023 Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 99
 Figure16: Static Pressure Distribution over S-Duct at 0.85 M

Figure17: Static Pressure Distribution at cut planes (0.85 M)

a. Mach Number Distribution
Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 show Mach Number Distribution over the duct for an inlet velocity
of 0.4 M. Figure 17: Static Pressure Distribution at cut planes (0.85 M)
a. Mach Number Distribution
Figure17:
Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 Static Pressure
show Mach Number DistributionDistribution
over the duct forat
an cut
inlet planes (0.85
velocity of M)
0.4 M.
a. Mach Number Distribution
Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 show Mach Number Distribution over the duct for an inlet velocity
of 0.4 M.

Figure 18: Mach number Distribution over S-Duct at 0.4 M

Figure18: Mach number Distribution over S-Duct at 0.4 M

Figure18: Mach number Distribution over S-Duct at 0.4 M

Figure 19: Mach Number Distribution at cut planes (0.4 M)

Fig. 19 Figure19: Mach
and Fig. 20 show Number
Mach Number Distribution
Distribution overatthe
cut planes
duct (0.4 velocity
for an inlet M) of 0.85 M.
Fig. 19 and Fig. 20 show Mach Number Distribution over the duct for an inlet velocity
of 0.85 M.

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 Figure 19: Mach Number Distribution over S-Duct at 0.85 M
Figure19: Mach Number Distribution over S-Duct at 0.85 M

Fig. 20 Mach Number Distribution at cut planes (0.85 M)

b. Flow Velocity Vectors at Engine Face

Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 show
Figurethe
20:velocity vectors
Mach Number at the engine
Distribution face.
at cut planes (0.85 M)

b. Flow VelocityFig.
Vectors at Engine
20 Mach Face Distribution at cut
Number planes (0.85 M)
Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 show the velocity vectors at the engine face.

b. Flow Velocity Vectors at Engine Face

Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 show the velocity vectors at the engine face.

Figure 20: Flow Streamlines at 0.4 M

Figure20: Flow Streamlines at 0.4 M

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 Figure21: Flow Streamlines at 0.85 M

7.3 Pressure Distortion Data

Data for pressure distortion and pressure
Figure 21:recovery for the
Flow Streamlines at cases
0.85 M of input velocities of 0.4

M, 0.6Distortion
7.3 Pressure M, and 0.85Data M are presented in Table 6.
Data for pressure distortion and pressure recovery for the cases of input velocities of 0.4 M, 0.6 M, and 0.85 M are presented in Table 6.
Figure21: Flow Streamlines at 0.85 M
M Radius Avg. P0 ring P0 ring Min. Avg. P0 FS DP/PCring DP/PC DP/PCmax PRF
(inlet) 7.3
(mm) Pressure Distortion
(bar) (bar) DataP0engine (bar)
Data for pressure distortion and pressure recovery for the cases of input velocities of 0.4
(bar)
0.4 M, 0.6 M, 108530
28.6 and 0.85 M are107907
presented in Table 6. 113135 0.0057
109251 0.0108 0.0176 96.6
57.2 108854 107112 0.0159 0.0176
M 85.8 Radius Avg. P0 ring
109624 P0 ring Min. Avg.
107511 P0 FS
0.0193 ring DP/PC DP/PCmax PRF
DP/PC0.0153
(inlet)
114.4(mm)110316
(bar) (bar)
109086 P0engine (bar)
0.0113 0.0165
130 110548 108170 (bar) 0.0218
0.6 0.428.6 28.6 125201
108530 107907 125856
124431 109251 113135
129240 0.00570.0079
0.0061 0.0108 0.017697.4 96.6
0.0188
57.2 57.2 124273
108854 107112
123052 0.01590.0096
0.0097 0.0176
85.8 85.8 125916
109624 107511
124732 0.01930.0124
0.0094 0.0153
114.4114.4127347
110316 109086
125416 0.01130.0188
0.0153 0.0165
130 130 127119
110548 108170
124326 0.0218
0.0222
0.85 0.628.6 28.6 148492
125201 124431 150471
148101 125856 129240
162507 0.00610.0038
0.0026 0.0079 0.018892.6 97.4
0.0058
57.2 57.2 148235
124273 123052
147488 0.00970.0058
0.0050 0.0096
85.8 85.8 148654
125916 124732
147647 0.00940.0054
0.0067 0.0124
114.4114.4150183
127347 125416
149576 0.01530.0042
0.0040 0.0188
130 127119 124326
From Fig. 14 - 20, it can be observed that through the diffusing
0.0222
walls of the duct. From Fig. 19 a clear effect of Gerlach Shaping on
shape of 0.85
the duct, 28.6
there is a rise in the magnitude148101
148492 of static pres- the flow inside
150471 the duct
162507 can be seen. 0.0038
0.0026 In Fig. 9, 0.0058
we can see that92.6
the
sure and a decrease in the velocity of the air, to make the flow area variation spline changes its curvature and the duct area gets
57.2
conditions favorable 148235With an increase
for the compressor. 147488 in Mach increased exponentially0.0050 0.0058
after 50% length of the duct. The effect of
number, there is also an increase in static pressure inside the duct. this exponential change in area is reflected in CFD as one can see
85.8
There is a smooth transition of 148654 147647
the pressure gradient between the the “red” colored part0.0067 0.0054
(Fig. 14 and Fig. 16) at 75% length in all
114.42023
OA J Applied Sci Technol, 150183 149576 0.0040 0.0042
Volume 1 | Issue 2 | 102
cases is present in all most the same fashion. This shows the effect the length of the duct. The initial design proved to be sufficient.
of Gerlach Shaping on static pressure distribution over the duct. Some fine-tuning in the length and shape of the duct will decrease
From Fig. 20 and Fig. 21, it can be seen that the flow vectors are the losses due to duct geometry after which excellent numbers for
pretty straight when they go inside the compressor, which means the parameters analyzed can be obtained.
that Gerlach Shaping is helping in restricting the formation of the
secondary vortex flow generation inside the duct. Overall, Gerlach References
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were calculated to evaluate the design. In the CFD Data, it can be nal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 32, 1153-1160.
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Copyright: ©2023 Kishan Tanna, et al. This is an open-access article

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