Regional Analysis Brief:

Caspian Sea

Last Updated: February 6, 2025

Next Update: February 2027

www.eia.gov
U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, DC 20585
The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the statistical and analytical agency within the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), prepared this report. By law, our data, analyses, and forecasts are
independent of approval by any other officer or employee of the U.S. Government. The views in this
report do not represent those of DOE or any other federal agencies.

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Overview
• This report analyzes energy in the Caspian Sea region, focusing both on energy production and
resources offshore in the Caspian Sea itself. It also provides an energy overview of several
littoral (coastal) countries of the Caspian Sea (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan). We
also include a discussion of Uzbekistan because a considerable amount of Uzbekistan's territory,
along with its energy resources, lies in the geological Caspian basins (Figure 1). Separate reports
are available for the two other littoral countries, Iran and Russia.
• The Caspian Sea region is one of the oldest oil-producing areas in the world, and historical
records reveal primitive oil extraction on the Apsheron peninsula near Baku dating back
hundreds of years. Significant oil and natural gas reserves exist from both offshore deposits in
the Caspian Sea and onshore fields in the Caspian basins. Traditionally an oil-producing area, the
Caspian area has more recently grown as a natural gas producer.
• The Caspian Sea region became a significant source of oil production for the Russian Empire, and
subsequently the Soviet Union. The region’s share of world supply fell in the second half of the
20th century because its stagnated growth and a shift toward new oil-rich areas such as West
Siberia. Aside from Azerbaijan's oil production, the Caspian Sea largely was untapped until the
collapse of the Soviet Union.
• The Caspian Sea and its surrounding area regained the world's attention after a consortium of
international oil companies led by bp signed an agreement with Azerbaijan’s government to
develop the country's offshore reserves and discovered the giant Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli (ACG)
field. Since then, Caspian fields have seen an influx of investment into major projects such as
Kazakhstan's Kashagan field.

Territorial disputes
• The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland water body and contains more than 40% of the
world's inland waters, according to the United Nations Global International Waters Assessment
(GIWA). The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to different interpretations of existing legal
treaties between the Soviet Union and Iran related to the ownership of the Caspian Sea and use
of resources in its waters, seabed, and subsoil. Given the lack of an agreement on whether the
Caspian was a lake or a sea, two sets of public international law could have applied. This lack of
clarity created uncertainties for investments in exploration and development activities in
the Caspian Sea. 1
• During the Fifth Caspian Summit on August 12, 2018, the Presidents of Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan,
Iran, Russia, and Turkmenistan signed the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea
(Convention).
• According to the Convention:
o The parties established the extent of their territorial waters up to a limit not exceeding
15 nautical miles.
o The parties also established 10 nautical miles-wide fishery zones adjacent to the
territorial waters where each state has the exclusive right to harvest aquatic biological
resources. Outside the fishery zones, the parties preserved a common water area.
Outside the maritime state borders, ships flying the flags of coastal countries enjoy
freedom of navigation.

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o The states with adjacent and opposite coasts could delimit the seabed and subsoil into
sectors by agreement to enable those states to exercise their sovereign rights to subsoil
exploitation and other legitimate economic activities related to developing the seabed
and subsoil resources.
o Undersea pipelines and cables can also be laid on the bed of the Caspian Sea, on the
condition that the projects complied with environmental requirements.

Table 1. Caspian offshore oil and natural gas reserves and production
2023 2P reserves (percentage of total 2022 offshore production per day
country 2P reserves) (percentage of total country production)
Azerbaijan Oil (million barrels) 3,196 (89%) 0.650 (96%)
Natural gas (Bcf) 23,067 (95%) 3.307 (100%)
Kazakhstan Oil (million barrels) 4,206 (28%) 0.277 (15%)
Natural gas (Bcf) 1,948 (10%) 0.345 (13%)
Turkmenistan Oil (million barrels) 526 (52%) 0.122 (55%)
Natural gas (Bcf) 2,234 (4%) 0.552 (7%)
Uzbekistan Oil (million barrels) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Natural gas (Bcf) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics, Rystad
Note: Excludes refinery gains. 2P reserves are the total of proven and probable reserves. Bcf= billion cubic feet

Energy Overview of Caspian Regional Countries

• Petroleum and natural gas production in the four Caspian regional countries (Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) were considered an alternative to Russia after the
breakup of the Soviet Union. Petroleum production in the offshore Caspian accounted for 1% of
global petroleum supplies [over 1 million barrels per day (b/d)] and almost 3% [over 4 trillion
cubic feet (Tcf)] of global natural gas supplies in 2022.
• OPEC+ member Azerbaijan was the top producer of oil and natural gas from offshore Caspian
Sea fields, and almost all of its petroleum and natural gas production in 2022 came from
offshore in the Caspian Sea (Table 1).
• Kazakhstan, also an OPEC+ member, was the second-highest petroleum producer from offshore
fields in the Caspian Sea, with 15% (0.28 million b/d) of its total production produced offshore.
• Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan also have considerable energy resources and
production located onshore that are not included as part of their Caspian Sea totals. Large fields
such as the Tengiz field in Kazakhstan, often associated with the Caspian, are located onshore
and are not included in Kazakhstan’s Caspian Sea totals.
• In 2023, the four Caspian countries covered in this brief accounted for 3% of global energy
production [16.0 quadrillion British thermal units (quads)] and 1% of global energy consumption
(8.1 quads). Kazakhstan accounted for almost one-half of the region’s energy production and
consumption (Table 2).

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• Turkmenistan was the world’s 11th-highest natural gas producer, and Uzbekistan was the 17th-
highest natural gas producer in 2023; almost all of their reserves and production were onshore.

Figure 1. Caspian basins

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

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Figure 2. Caspian region oil and natural gas infrastructure

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

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Table 2. Caspian Sea countries' energy overview, 2023

Crude oil and

other petroleum Natural Other
liquids gas Coal Nuclear Hydro renewables Total
Azerbaijan Primary energy
production (quads) 1.33 1.32 0.00 0.00 0.01a 2.66
Primary energy
production
(percentage) 49.9% 49.8% 0.0% 0.0% 0.3% 100.0%
Azerbaijan Primary energy
consumption (quads) 0.22 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00a 0.69
Primary energy
consumption
(percentage) 32.0% 68.5% 0.0% 0.0% -0.5% 100.0%
Azerbaijan Electricity generation
(TWh) 0.11 27.08 0.00 0.00 1.64 0.26 29.09
Electricity generation
(percentage) 0.4% 93.1% 0.0% 0.0% 5.6% 0.9% 100.0%
Kazakhstan Primary energy
production (quads) 4.13 1.16 2.62 0.00 0.05a 7.96
Primary energy
production
(percentage) 51.9% 14.6% 32.9% 0.0% 0.6% 100.0%
Kazakhstan Primary energy
consumption (quads) 0.76 0.82 1.88 0.00 0.05a 3.52
Primary energy
consumption
(percentage) 21.7% 23.4% 53.4% 0.0% 1.5% 100.0%
Kazakhstan Electricity generation
(TWh) 1.42 28.22 70.50 0.00 9.36 4.70 114.19
Electricity generation
(percentage) 1.2% 24.7% 61.7% 0.0% 8.2% 4.1% 100.0%

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Table 2. Caspian Sea countries' energy overview, 2023 continued

Crude oil and

other petroleum Natural Other
liquids gas Coal Nuclear Hydro renewables Total
Turkmenistan Primary energy
production (quads) 0.48 3.12 0.00 0.00 0.0 a 3.59
Primary energy
production
(percentage) 13.3% 86.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Turkmenistan Primary energy
consumption
(quads) 0.29 1.66 0.00 0.00 -0.03a 1.92
Primary energy
consumption
(percentage) 15.2% 86.4% 0.0% 0.0% -1.6% 100.0%
Turkmenistan Electricity
generation (TWh) 0.00 33.78 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 33.78
Electricity
generation
(percentage) 0.0% 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Uzbekistan Primary energy
production (quads) 0.07 1.55 0.09 0.00 0.02 a 1.74
Primary energy
production
(percentage) 4.0% 89.3% 5.3% 0.0% 1.4% 100.0%
Uzbekistan Primary energy
consumption
(quads) 0.21 1.60 0.13 0.00 0.03 a 1.97
Primary energy
consumption
(percentage) 10.6% 81.0% 6.7% 0.0% 1.8% 100.0%
Uzbekistan Electricity
generation (TWh) 1.50 62.0 5.70 0.00 6.60 0.45 76.25
Electricity
generation
(percentage) 2.0% 81.3% 7.5% 0.0% 8.7% 0.6% 100.0%
Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, International Energy Statistics
Note: Table shows country totals. We aggregate hydroelectricity, hydro pump storage, and renewables as other renewables for
primary energy production and consumption. Totals may not equal sum of component due to independent rounding.
Quads=quadrillion British thermal units, TWh=terawatthours
a Includes hydroelectricity. Negative numbers can occur when energy is put into pumped storage and then released, resulting in

net energy losses.

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Petroleum and Other Liquids

Azerbaijan
• Azerbaijan’s proved oil reserves totaled 7 billion barrels as of January 1, 2025. 2
• Crude oil production (excluding condensate) in Azerbaijan has been declining since peaking at
almost 1.0 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2009–2010. We project total petroleum liquids
production to average a little over 600,000 b/d from 2024 to 2026 (Figure 3). 3
• The State Oil Company of the Republic of Azerbaijan (SOCAR) is the state-owned company
responsible for 282,000 b/d of Azerbaijan’s oil production in 2021, primarily through minority
stakes in fields. 4 bp is the largest foreign investor in Azerbaijan and operates much of the
country’s oil and natural gas production and infrastructure, including pipelines and terminals,
with SOCAR.
• The deepwater field Azeri Chirag Gunashli (ACG) is the primary source of petroleum liquids
production in Azerbaijan, but it peaked in 2010 at 823,100 b/d before falling to 664,400 b/d in
2012. 5 In the first half of 2023, the field produced 375,000 b/d of Azeri Light crude oil (34.9° API
and 0.55% sulfur). This crude oil and the condensate from the Shah Deniz natural gas field are
the primary petroleum liquids produced and exported by Azerbaijan. 6,7 The newest addition to
the ACG field, the $6 billion Azeri Central East platform (ACE), began production in April 2024 as
part of an effort to slow the decline of the ACG field production. 8,9

Kazakhstan
• Kazakhstan’s proved oil reserves totaled 30 billion barrels as of January 1, 2025. 10
• In Kazakhstan, also an OPEC+ member, petroleum and other liquid fuels production totaled an
estimated 1.9 million b/d in 2024 (Figure 3). Petroleum liquid fuels consumption was an
estimated 0.4 million b/d in 2024 (Figure 4).
• Crude oil production (excluding condensate) was 1.5 million b/d in 2024. Kazakhstan has missed
its OPEC+ production targets for multiple months. 11
• The Tengiz oil field, Kashagan offshore oil field, and Karachaganak natural gas condensate field
are the primary sources of oil production in Kazakhstan. KazMunayGas, formerly KazakhOil,
maintains a relatively small stake in most fields, and international firms such as Shell, Chevron,
Eni, Lukoil, and ExxonMobil oversee most of the operations.
• The three top-producing petroleum liquids fields in 2022 were Karachagank (227,000 b/d of
condensate), Tengiz (610,000 b/d of condensate), and Kashagan (255,000 b/d of crude oil). 12
• Chevron completed an expansion project for the Tengiz oil field that plans to increase
production to 960,000 b/d. 13
• The Tengiz oil field expansion could lead to more production, but seasonal power outages
continue to hamper oil production in Kazakhstan. 14
• Kazakh CPC blend is a very light (45.3° API), sweet crude oil (0.56% sulfur) that is valued for its
high yield of gasoline and light distillates, and it is the main export blend of Kazakhstan.

Turkmenistan
• Turkmenistan’s proved oil reserves totaled 600 million barrels as of January 1, 2025. 15

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• Crude oil and liquid petroleum fuels production in Turkmenistan totaled an estimated 275,000
b/d in 2024, and we estimate that consumption was 154,000 b/d in 2024 (Figures 3 and 4).

Uzbekistan
• Uzbekistan’s proved oil reserves totaled 594 million barrels as of January 1, 2025. 16
• Uzbekistan has relatively small production totals, with an estimated 63,000 b/d of crude oil and
liquid fuels production in 2024 (Figure 3). In 2024, an estimated 112,000 b/d of liquid fuels were
consumed in Uzbekistan (Figure 4). Notably, total petroleum liquids production in Uzbekistan
peaked decades earlier with production as high as 189,000 b/d in 1999.

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Table 3. Caspian region refineries, 2023

Vacuum
Crude oil distillation
Initial capacity capacity
Refineries Ownership Location operations (b/cd) (b/cd) Note
Scheduled to undergo
construction and
modernization until
2026; scheduled to
produce lower-emitting
and lower-sulfur EURO-5
diesel starting in 2022
and EURO-5 gasoline this
New Baku SOCAR Baku, Azerbaijan 1953 120,493 71,043 year 17
Uses only domestic
crude oil from
northwestern
Atyrau KazakOil Atyrau, Kazakhstan 1945 100,000 27,064 Kazakhstan
In north-central
Kazakhstan and supplied
mainly by a crude oil
pipeline from western
Siberia because Russia’s
Pavlodar, supplies are well-placed
Pavlodar KazakOil Kazakhstan 1978 120,000 93,973 geographically to serve it
Uses crude oil from the
oil fields at Kumkol and
Petro- Shymkent, the nearby area in
Shymkent Kazakhstan Kazakhstan 1985 120,000 0 central Kazakhstan
Many plans to expand
refining have been
Turkmenbashi Turkmenbashi/Seydi, reported but details are
Complex Turkmenistan 1943 200,820 40,900 scarce. 18
$400 million
modernization effort
replaces 30% of the
refinery’s existing
obsolete units and
equipment and enables
production of Euro 5-
quality gasoline, diesel,
and jet fuel. A new
Sanoat hydrogen production
Energetika unit for hydroprocessing
Fergana Guruhi LLC Fergana, Uzbekistan 1959 110,452 45,671 also added. 19
In 2022, added
installation for loading
liquefied hydrocarbon
gas into tankers and
enabled production of
Bukhara Uzbekneftegaz Bukhara, Uzbekistan 1997 50,000 0 Euro-6 class diesel fuel. 20
Total 821,765 278,651
Data source: Oil & Gas Journal, 2023 Worldwide Refining Survey
Note: Excludes production in Iran and Russia. b/cd=barrels per calendar day

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Natural Gas
Azerbaijan
• Azerbaijan’s proved natural gas reserves totaled 60 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) as of January 1,
2025. 21
• Production reached a record-high 1.3 Tcf of natural gas in 2023, and consumption was 0.4 Tcf
(Figures 5 and 6).
• The Shah Deniz field and the ACG oil and natural gas fields are the top sources of natural gas in
Azerbaijan. The Shah Deniz field accounted for 0.7 Tcf and the ACG field accounted for 0.3 Tcf of
the 1.3 Tcf of natural gas produced from January to September 2023 in Azerbaijan. bp, the
operator of the field, expects the second phase of the Shah Deniz field to increase Shah Deniz’s
production to 0.9 Tcf of natural gas and 100,000 b/d of condensate when production plateaus.

Kazakhstan
• Kazakhstan’s proved natural gas reserves totaled 85 Tcf as of January 1, 2025. 22 Most of
Kazakhstan’s natural gas reserves are associated reserves with crude oil.
• In Kazakhstan, natural gas production was 1.0 Tcf, and consumption was 0.8 Tcf in 2023 (Figures
5 and 6).
• In 2022, more than 35% of gross natural gas production in Kazakhstan was reinjected to increase
oil production. 23 Natural gas produced at Tengiz and Kashagan generally is high in sulfur and so,
requires special handling and additional expense to process. Unlike the Tengiz project, which
includes a natural gas processing plant, the Karachaganak project has insufficient natural gas
processing capacity to produce pipeline-quality dry natural gas. Most of the raw marketed
natural gas production from the Karachaganak field must be exported via a Soviet-era dedicated
pipeline to Russia to be processed at a natural gas processing plant in Orenberg, owned by
Gazprom.

Turkmenistan
• Turkmenistan’s proved natural gas reserves totaled 400 Tcf as of January 1, 2025, which are the
fifth-highest in the world. 24
• In Turkmenistan, dry natural gas production was 3.0 Tcf, and consumption was 1.6 Tcf in 2023,
which were record highs dating back to when our data keeping began in 1992 (Figures 5 and 6 ).
In 2009, production in Turkmenistan fell nearly 50% to 1.2 Tcf when a dispute with Russia led to
decreased exports via the Central Asian Center Export Pipeline 4. 25
• In response, Turkmenistan built the East-West Gas Pipeline and established additional pipeline
paths to export natural gas to Europe and Asia. Turkmenistan also plans to complete the
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India Gas Pipeline (TAPI) and begin the Trans Caspian
Pipeline extension of the East-West Pipeline to Europe through Azerbaijan and Türkiye. 26
• Turkmenistan’s national gas company, Türkmengaz, operates the Galkynysh Gas Field, the
world’s second-largest natural gas field based on reserve volume. The Galkynysh has an
estimated 953.5 Tcf in reserves, which includes unproven reserves, and an estimated 3.2 Bcf/d
of production from 45 wells.

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• Development of the Galkynysh field cost Turkemenistan $10 billion and was partially financed by
an $8 billion targeted loan from China. Galkynysh is still in its first production stage, so
production likely will increase in the future with additional drilling. 27,28
• The Galkynysh produces a sour natural gas containing hydrocarbon gas liquids. It has two sour
natural gas and condensate processing complexes that have a total processing capacity of 1.0
Tcf per year. The field also has at least three natural gas treatment and sulfur handling facilities,
and each has production capacity of 0.4 Tcf per year. 29
• High methane emissions from its oil and natural gas fields threaten Turkmenistan’s prospects to
enter the European natural gas market via a potential Trans Caspian Pipeline, but Turkmenistan
has additional export prospects in Asia via the proposed TAPI Gas Pipeline and via Line D of the
Center Asia Gas Pipeline (CAGP).30,31

Uzbekistan
• Uzbekistan’s proved natural gas reserves totaled 65 Tcf as of January 1, 2025. 32,33
Uzbekneftegaz, Ubekistan’s state-owned energy firm, owns about one-half (33.0 Tcf) of the
proved reserves in Uzbekistan. 34
• In Uzbekistan, in 2023, dry natural gas production was 1.5 Tcf, and consumption was 1.6 Tcf
(Figures 5 and 6). Production in Uzbekistan has been declining since peaking at 2.4 Tcf in 2008.
Natural gas production in the country declined by 4% from 2021 to 2022, and this decline is on
pace to continue in 2023. 35
• In 2018, Uzbekneftegaz and Russia’s Lukoil commissioned the Kandym Gas Processing Complex
(KGPC) in the Bukhara Province of southwestern Uzbekistan. The plant can process more than
280 Bcf of natural gas per year, making it one of the largest natural gas treatment facilities in
Central Asia. 36
• Natural gas shortages have intensified Uzbekistan’s energy shortages and power outages, but a
proposed natural gas union with Russia could provide some relief in the form of additional
Russian natural gas imports. 37,38

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Coal
• Kazakhstan is the only significant coal producer and consumer of the four Caspian-region
countries in this brief, and it was the eighth-highest coal producer in the world in 2023.
• Coal production in Kazakhstan in 2023 was 130 million short tons, and consumption was 92
million short tons (Figures 7 and 8). Coal production and consumption remain a significant part
of Kazakhstan’s energy sector despite a general decline in both since peaking in 2012.
• Most coal production (85% in 2023) and exports (81% in 2023) in Kazakhstan consist of steam
coal (also known as bituminous coal), which is suitable for burning in electric power plants or in
other applications to generate steam and heat. Smaller quantities of metallurgical coal are also
produced in Kazakhstan that are consumed domestically. In addition to coal, Kazakhstan is rich
in a variety of minerals, and those deposits are concentrated in the north and center of the
country. Coal is a major energy source for the mining and smelting industries and for the electric
power sector in Kazakhstan.
• Uzbekistan produces and consumes a relatively small amount of coal compared with other
Caspian region countries, but Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan do not have any significant coal
consumption or production (Figures 7 and 8).

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Electricity
Azerbaijan
• In 2023, electricity generation in Azerbaijan totaled 29.1 terawatthours (TWh), and the country
had 8.4 gigawatts (GW) of installed generation capacity, of which 6.7 GW was fossil fuel
capacity (primarily natural gas).
• Azerenerji—Azerbaijan's state-owned power utility—is responsible for generating, dispatching,
and transmitting electric power. Azerenerji, along with the Nakhchivan Energy Authority,
operates most of the country’s power stations. 39 The State Agency for Alternative and
Renewable Sources and independent power producers operate much less generation capacity.
• Azerbaijan's electric power sector has no wholesale competition among its power producers.
Electricity prices are regulated, and power producers are required to supply their power to the
central dispatch system for transmission and distribution.
• In December 2023, Azerbaijan’s energy minister announced a 230-MW solar plant was
completed, the largest in the Caspian Sea region, with near-term plans for eight more solar and
wind plants totaling 1.6 GW of capacity. The minister conveyed further plans to use foreign
investment to add 8.0 GW of carbon-free power capacity by 2030 and 19.0 GW of power
capacity by 2037, including hydrogen and green-ammonia production and export projects. 40

Kazakhstan
• In 2023, electric power generation in Kazakhstan totaled 114.2 TWh, and the country had 28.0
GW of installed generation capacity. Kazakhstan had 22.0 GW of installed fossil fuel capacity,

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primarily coal in 2023. Kazakhstan generates the most electricity among the four Caspian
countries (Figure 9).
• Kazakhstan has some of the world’s largest uranium deposits and is the top uranium producer,
accounting for 43% of the world’s uranium production from mines (21.2 thousand metric tons)
in 2022.41,42 Kazakhstan’s sole nuclear power plant retired in 1999, but in 2023, the government
announced plans for a referendum on building another nuclear power plant at an indefinite
date. 43
• Kazakhstan's Electricity Grid Operating Company, a state-owned company, operates
Kazakhstan's national grid and is responsible for electricity transmission and network
management. Several medium and small regional electricity companies handle distribution,
some of which are privately owned. The electricity transmission and distribution sectors are
considered natural monopolies and are regulated by the government. However, wholesale
power generation is a competitive market, and most generation assets are owned by private
enterprises.44
• Kazakhstan faced a series of power outages in 2023 that affected its oil production, refining, and
transmission via the Caspian Pipeline Consortium (CPC) pipeline, highlighting the need for
investment in its power infrastructure. 45

Turkmenistan
• In 2023, electric power generation in Turkmenistan was 33.8 TWh, and the country had 6.5 GW
of installed generation capacity, all of which was from natural gas.
• The Ministry of Energy and Industry controls the electric power sector in Turkmenistan.
• Turkmenistan expanded electricity generation at the Turkmenbashi Oil Processing Complex. It
already supplies some electric power to neighboring Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and
Kyrgyzstan. 46

Uzbekistan
• In 2023, electric power generation in Uzbekistan was 76.3 TWh, and the country had 18.0 GW of
installed generation capacity, of which 15.0 GW was from fossil fuel, primarily natural gas.
• Natural gas-fired thermal plants are the country’s primary source of power generation,
supplying approximately 86% of the country’s total power; the remaining electricity is supplied
by hydropower plants (Table 1). Uzbekistan’s power system contributes significantly to the
power-generating capacity of the Central Asia Power System (CAPS), an integrated power
transmission network linking several Central Asian nations. Uzbekistan is also the primary
electricity supplier to neighboring Afghanistan with fellow supplier Tajikistan. 47
• Uzbekistan has an electrification rate of nearly 100%, but because of the country’s aging Soviet-
era infrastructure as well as increasing electricity demand, natural gas supply shortages, and
extreme weather, regular power shortages and blackouts occur in some areas. 48,49 Shortages
also limit electricity exports (Figure 16). 50

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Energy Trade
Figure 12. Major Caspian pipeline routes

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

Azerbaijan
Petroleum
• Azerbaijan’s crude oil exports remained steady at about 620,000 b/d in 2022 and 2023. (Figure
13).
• Since it began operating in 1994, over 90% of ACG-produced oil (3.3 billion barrels of 3.6 billion
barrels) has been exported to Ceyhan, Türkiye, via the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) as the

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BTC blend (36.6° API gravity, 0.15% sulfur). 51,52 Small volumes of heavier crude oil are exported
through the northern export pipeline to Russia. This oil is blended in Russia and marketed as the
Urals blend. The quality of Urals blend can vary, but the oil is generally a medium, sour crude oil.
• About 83% of Azerbaijan’s oil exports go through the BTC pipeline. Azerbaijan’s and some of
Kazakhstan’s oil exports via the BTC were stopped for about six days following the earthquake in
Türkiye that disrupted the Ceyhan port terminals in February 2023. 53
• Russia and Azerbaijan may reverse the flow of the Baku-Tikhoretsk oil pipeline to supply up to
80,000 b/d to Baku because Kazakhstan is diverting flows to other pipelines and away from
Russia’s pipeline infrastructure. 54

Natural Gas

• Natural gas exports grew from 0.7 Tcf in 2021 to 0.8 Tcf in 2022 and 2023 (Figure 14).
• In 2023, natural gas and oil exports briefly paused as a result of an earthquake that primarily
damaged Turkish infrastructure. Since then, Azerbaijan’s Nagorno-Karabakh conflict with
Armenia has limited Azerbaijan’s natural gas trade with Europe. However, production prospects
in Azerbaijan got a boost from the Azeri Central East oil field (ACE) and Absheron natural gas and
condensate fields, which should provide large production increases in Azerbaijan. 55
• Given its connections to the Turkish pipeline system, including the TANAP pipelines, Azerbaijan
can export both its own domestic natural gas production and the production from other Central
Asian countries to Europe (Table 4).
• Azerbaijan’s natural gas exports to Europe rose 4% to 0.3 Tcf for January to September 2023
relative to the prior year. 56
• In September 2023, Azerbaijan and Türkiye began constructing the Türkiye-Nakhchivan (Igdir-
Nakhchivan) Gas Pipeline, which was completed at the end of 2024. This pipeline will provide
the Nakchivan Autonomous Region of Azerbaijan with an alternative to Gazprom, which
currently controls the region’s pipeline access to natural gas from both Russia and Iran. The
pipeline capacity will be 53.0 Bcf per year (Bcf/y). The pipeline will travel through Armenia,
which also could benefit by providing the country with new sources of natural gas as an
alternative to Russia’s Gazprom. 57

Kazakhstan
Petroleum

• Kazakhstan’s crude oil exports were 1.30 million b/d in 2022 (Figure 13) and increased to 1.41
million b/d in 2023. 58 In 2023, Kazakhstan worked to diversify trade routes, given its high use of
the CPC pipeline. The CPC carries about 80% of Kazakhstan’s crude oil export, which is loaded at
Novorossiysk Port in Russia. Since Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine and the disruption to
CPC loadings, Kazakhstan has been increasingly using vessels to ship oil and natural gas across
the Caspian and Black Sea in addition to using the BTC oil pipeline; exports through the BTC
increased 54% between January and August 2023 compared with the same time in 2022. 59,60,61

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Regional Analysis Brief: Caspian Sea 20

 February 2025

Coal

• Kazakhstan’s coal exports in 2023 totaled 37.5 million short tons (Figure 15).

Turkmenistan
Natural Gas

• Turkmenistan is the Caspian region’s top natural gas exporter (1.5 Tcf in 2023) (Figure 14).
• Turkmenistan increased its trade with China when its natural gas exports to China via pipelines
(such as the Central Asia-China pipeline) increased to 1.2 Tcf in 2022 (Table 4). Some analysts
expect natural gas exports to reach 2.3 Tcf after a fourth pipeline, Line D, is built in 2028. These
projects appear to be an alternative to the proposed West Siberia 2, also known as Power of
Siberia 2, a proposed 1.8 Tcf link with China via Mongolia that is now pushed to the early 2030s.
• Turkmenistan is seeking to further diversify its natural gas exports to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
India via the planned Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) pipeline project, in which
Turkmengaz is the primary shareholder. All other parties from Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India
have a 5% share each in the $10 billion project. The TAPI has an expected transport capacity of
1.2 Tcf/y. 62,63
• Turkmenistan also supplies 0.9 Bcf/d of natural gas to Iraq via a natural gas swap with Iran. This
swap is one of many expansions on the initial 2021 three-way agreement between
Turkmenistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan. 64,65
• Turkmenistan aspires to ship natural gas to Europe via the proposed TransCaspian pipeline, but
high methane emissions from its oil and natural gas fields may prevent its exports from
complying with the EU’s 2030 import emission limits.66 Satellites have recorded 849 super-
emitting events from leaks, wells, tanks, or pipes from 2019 to 2022, and an estimated 2.6
metric tons of methane leaked in 2022 from Turkmenistan’s western fields on the Caspian coast.
67,68,69

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Regional Analysis Brief: Caspian Sea 21

 February 2025

Uzbekistan
Natural Gas

• Uzbekistan is a transit country for natural gas flowing from Turkmenistan and Russia to China via
the CAC oil pipeline and pipelines associated with the Kazakhstan-China natural gas pipeline
(Tables 4 and 5).

Electricity

• Uzbekistan’s power shortages have resulted in electricity exports falling from 8.1 billion kWh in
2013 to 2.0 billion kWh in 2023 (Figure 16).

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Regional Analysis Brief: Caspian Sea 22

 February 2025

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Regional Analysis Brief: Caspian Sea 23

 February 2025

Table 4. Caspian Sea region’s major natural gas pipelines

Total
Facility Capacity length
(status) (Tcf/y) (miles) Supply regions Destination Details
Central Asia- 2: 2.1 2: 1,650 Russia Kazakhstan and Originally used to connect Turkmenistan to
Center/China Pipeline 3: 0.2 3: 2,240 China via Russia. Now, relatively important in
(CAC)-2,4,5, and 3 4: 2.1 4: 2,300 Uzbekistan and supplying China with natural gas. Notably,
(Operating since 1969; Turkmenistan CAC flow reversed on two lines in October
5: 2.1 5: N/A
CAC-1 retired) 2023 to supply Russia’s natural gas to
Uzbekistan from Kazakhstan. 70
Center Asia Gas Pipeline A and B: 0.5 1,140 Turkmenistan China via China helped finance the pipelines,
(CAGP) Line A–C C: 0.9 each Kazakhstan, including the latest Line 4, to gain access to
(Operating since 2009; D: 1.1 Tajikistan, Turkmenistan’s natural gas. The Line D, one
Line D planned) Kyrgyzstan, and of China’s main energy projects, will
Uzbekistan connect China to the Galkynysh natural gas
field to China’s Kyrgyzstan border. 71
South Caucuses Pipeline 0.9 (originally 430 Shah Deniz field, Türkiye via It follows the route of the BTC oil pipeline
(SCP)/Baku-Tbilisi- 0.3) Azerbaijan Georgia from Azerbaijan through Georgia to the
Erzurum Pipeline (BTE) (TANAP) TANAP.
(Operating since 2007;
expanded in 2018)

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Regional Analysis Brief: Caspian Sea 24

 February 2025

Total
Facility Capacity length
(status) (Tcf/y) (miles) Supply regions Destination Details
Trans-Anatolian 0.6 1,150 Azerbaijan (SCP) Türkiye and It is Türkiye’s longest pipeline. It will be a
Pipeline (TANAP) Europe via key entry point to Europe for the rest of
(Operating since 2019) Greece (TAP) the Caspian Basin countries on the other
side of the Caspian from Baku if the Trans
Caspian pipeline is completed.
Trans Adriatic Pipeline 0.4 540 Azerbaijan via Italy, Bulgaria Construction is underway to expand to 0.7
(TAP) TANAP and SCP (via IGB), and Tcf capacity; it was built mainly to carry
(Operating since 2020) Southeast natural gas from Azerbaijan via the SCP
Europe expansion and TANAP. The Greece-Bulgaria
bridge (IGB) was recently completed. 72

Interconnector Türkiye- 0.1 – Azerbaijan (via TAP Bulgaria Bulgaria has been importing more natural
Bulgaria (ITB) and TANAP) gas from Azerbaijan instead of from Russia,
(Operating since 2022) which was previously its nearly sole
source. 73

East-West Pipeline 1.1 480 Mary Province, Balkan Province Connects all the major natural gas fields in
(Operating since 2015) Turkmenistan near Turkmenistan also supplying natural gas to
Türkmenbaşy, the central and Caspian regions, and
Turkmenistan potentially connects a Trans-Caspian
Pipeline to Azerbaijan for access to greater
Europe.
Trans-Caspian Pipeline 1.1 190 Türkmenbaşy, Baku, The estimated $5 billion pipeline would
(TCGP) Turkmenistan Azerbaijan connect Turkmenistan’s large natural gas
(Proposed) reserves to Europe.

Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Türkiye, 2023.
Note: Tcf/y=trillion cubic feet per year; (–)= not applicable

Table 5. Caspian Sea region’s major crude oil and condensate pipelines
Capacity Total
(million length
Facility (status) b/d) (miles) Supply regions Destination Details
Caspian Pipeline 1.4 940 Tengiz, Kashagan, Novorossiysk, on A less favored trade route since
Consortium (CPC) and Karachaganak Russia's Black Sea sanctions were imposed on
fields, Kazakhstan coast Russia following Russia’s full-
scale invasion of Ukraine. 74,75
Kazakhstan-China 0.4 1,380 Kumkol oil field, China Preliminary plans exist to expand
Pipeline Kazakhstan the Kenkiyak-Kiumkol section of
the pipeline. 76
Baku-Tbilisi- 1.2 1,100 Baku, Azerbaijan Türkiye to It currently primarily carries ACG
Ceyhan and Kazakhstan Ceyhan oil port crude oil and Shah Deniz
(BTC) condensate. 77 It is used as an
(Operating since alternative for Russia’s oil and
2006) infrastructure to Europe.

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Regional Analysis Brief: Caspian Sea 25

 February 2025

Baku-Novorossiky 0.1 825 Sangachal terminal, Novorossiysk, on A less favored trade route since
Pipeline (Northern near Baku, Russia's Black Sea sanctions were imposed on
Route Export Azerbaijan coast Russia.
Pipeline)
(Operating since
1996)
Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief: Türkiye, 2023
Note: b/d=barrels per day
a Flows to the Ceyhan port were disrupted in 2023 because of earthquake damage and weather disruptions.

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