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CHAPTER 5: Learning Theories Related to Educational Technology

Objectives:
a.) Compare the different learning theories related to educational
technology for teaching and learning
b.) Identify the elements of instructional visual media
c.) Exercise visual literacy using visuals given as examples.

Teachers are now aware that teaching and learning

can be enhanced by technology. Likewise, technology
begins to change the vision of education because it
appears to be an important component of a teaching-
learning program. Nowadays, many teachers are using
technology along with the application of appropriate
theories of learning.

Technology allows the students and teachers to

live within the four pillars of education: learning to be,
learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to
learn. Because of these. Information and
Communication Technology focused on computer
assisted instructions. Both teachers and students use the
computer to learn new ideas and recent researches, which are
unknown and search about them. New innovation of technology
is shaping the future of higher education and influencing teaching
methodologies. The globalization of technology continues to change the way we live
and work. Teaching and learning are more effective when technology is added to the
classroom and when used to improve students’ learning and to help them reach their
goals. Effective use of technology will also benefit the learning process if it motivates
the learner and provides an authentic learning experience that continues beyond the
virtual or physical classroom. Also, teachers have to be aware of the interest students
have in the technological world and take this interest and use as a means to develop
competitive individuals for society, the country, and the world.

LEARNING

What is Learning?

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The following diagram and discussion will make you realize what learning is.

PROCESS PRODUCT

The concepts about learning in the diagram exemplify that learning is both a
process and a product. It also emphasizes acquiring knowledge or skill after an
experience or practice.

This is illustrated in the example below:

Clara does not usually eat ampalaya at home. Her teacher in Technology and
Livelihood Education showed a PowerPoint presentation about the food value of
ampalaya such as a good source of Vitamin A, Vitamin C, iron, and phosphorus.
Following the lesson, the class prepared recipes using ampalaya as the main
ingredient. Because of this knowledge, she started to eat ampalaya. Her mother
was so glad to know that Clara learned to eat vegetables.

Principles of Learning and their Application in the Classroom

Teachers make use of principles in designing classroom episodes. Classroom

episodes are the collection of activities to realize the intended learning outcomes. The
following are the principles of learning and how they can be applied in the classroom
setting.

Principles ILO Classroom Episodes

Learning by doing Encourage the student to move freely like a
Show aesthetic
is more effective wind blowing. Let the students move their
sense through finger
than sitting and hands like blowing wind. Students apply
painting
listening finger painting on a cardboard imitating how

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the wind blows.

Have the students pour ½ cup of vinegar in
an aluminum pot and let it stand for 30
minutes to 1 hour and heat it. Pour the
vinegar in a glass and see what happened.
There’s discoloration to the portion of the
pot where the vinegar was heated. There’s
also a change in color of the vinegar.

Present concepts Explore the reaction Acid reacted on metal.

in various ways of metal to acid.
Application: Do not use metal in keeping
fruit salad in the refrigerator. The salad will
be spoiled. Why?

The fruit salad has pineapple which is

acidic. The pineapple will react to the metal
container, which will give the salad a rancid
taste.
The teacher asks the students how colors
are produced.

The Teacher asks the following questions:

1. What are the primary colors?

2. Which color is produced if you mix red
Learning is aided Explain how colors and yellow? (students get their
by formulating and are produced using watercolor and mix red and yellow in a
asking questions primary colors. container)
3. Which color is produced when you mix
red and blue? (students do the same as
in number 2 but using red and blue
colors)
4. Which color is produced when you mix
yellow and blue?

Some students hold on to their cellphones

and look at what they can do with it. Other
students are seated in front of a computer
More effort is put Compare and
and list what they can do with it.
forth when tasks contrast a cellphone
are challenging. and a computer.
Students with cellphone report their list of
what can be done with the cellphone and
what service can be obtained by it.

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The same will be done by those in front of

the computer.

Students then summarize their findings.

Readiness is
related to the Describe the events Illustrate the effects of a strong typhoon.
learner’s stage of that will happen
development and when there is a Write a story about what happens to crops
their previous typhoon. and plants when there is typhoon.
learning

LEARNING THEORIES

How teachers view the role of technology and media in the classroom depends
very much on their beliefs about how people learn. Over the past half-century, there
have been several dominant theories of learning. Each has implications for instruction in
general and for the use of technology and media in a particular. Driscoll (2005)
discusses learning theories and their impact on teaching decisions in greater detail.

The analysis and application of the learning theories will also

determine the appropriate technology application in classrooms
to ensure the efficient and effective integration. Technology
made a lot of modifications on how teachers and students’
access, gather, analyze, present, and transmit information
by giving them more power in the classroom (Dooley,
1999).

Learning theories provide a pedagogical basis for

understanding how students learn. As McLeod notes:

Each theoretical perspective offers benefits to designers, but the

perspectives must be taken into context depending upon the
situation, performance goal(s), and learners. And since the
context in which the learning takes place can be dynamic
and multi-dimensional, some combination of the three
learning theories and perhaps others should be considered
and incorporated into the instructional design process to
provide optimal learning.

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Behaviorism

Here are the key concepts about behaviorism and their relevance to educational
technology.

Key Concepts

• Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that focuses on

objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior
theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new
behavior.
• Experiments of behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning
process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a
different behavioral pattern:

1. Classical Conditioning – occurs when a natural reflex responds to a

stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs
salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people
are biologically “wired” so that certain stimulus will produce a specific
response.
2. Behavioral Operant Conditioning – occurs when a response to a
stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback
system: If a reward or reinforcement follow s the response to a stimulus,
then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example,
leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach
pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini alley.

In behaviorism, the learners are passive and just responding to stimuli. The
teachers design the learning environment. They shape the learner’s behavior by
positive and negative reinforcement. The teacher presents the information, then the
students demonstrate their understanding from the teacher’s presentation. Student’s
assessment is in the form of tests.

In behaviorism, the following are the relevant educational technology which can
be used.

1. Observations of learners are bases for identifying materials for reinforcing learning.
Examples are cards, mathematics counters, pictures, and charts to be used for
learners who learn best with the use visuals.

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2. Selecting stimulus. Some learners need varying stimuli in order to learn. There are
learners who learn faster by being exposed to real objects or actual experience while
others learn from pictures and stories.

3. Educational technology used by the teacher can help elicit the outcomes which are
easily observed like use and production of proper words in writing a story, creating
greeting cards for special occasions, using the dictionary to get the word meaning,
throwing and catching ball correctly in physical activities and other observable
behavior which correspond to expected outcomes.

4. Educational technology to be utilized in developing mastery learning can be used in

behavioral approaches. Students are repeatedly exposed to a technology until such
time that mastery of a skill, knowledge, and attitudes is manifested by the students.

5. Technology to promote motivation, classroom management, and special education

needs are also used in behaviorism. Example is the technology or art of storytelling
to motivate students to imbibe values like honesty, respect, patriotism, good
classroom behavior like orderliness and systematic presentation of assignment,
good or proper eating habits, thoughtfulness, and cooperation.

Possible Learning Activities in Behaviorism

1. Instructional cues to elicit correct response. Examples are hand signal, signages like
danger, speak softly, speak louder, forming circles or lines and direction (left, right,
up, down, forward, etc.)

2. Practice paired with target stimuli. Teachers can provide standards which the
students can follow for proper action and behavior like standards for reading
properly, standard for joining a field trip or safety rules when working in a laboratory.

3. Reinforcement for correct responses. The teacher can adopt varied ways to
encourage students to do well in class like praises, tap on the shoulder, a smile, ask
the class to clap for good deeds and many more acknowledgement of success in
class work.

4. Building proficiency. The teacher can adopt ways to encourage students to be

proficient in communications skills, mathematics skills, work skills and in other class
activities.

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Cognitivism

Key Concepts

Cognitivism focuses on the “brain”. It involves processing and storing information

which are very important in the process of learning. Cognitive structure which is called
schema constitutes the internal knowledge structure. Schema maybe combined,
extended, or altered to show new information. Learners process, store, and retrieve
information for later use-creating associations and creating a knowledge set useful for
living. The learner uses the information processing approach to transfer and assimilate
new information. The teacher manages problem solving and structured search activities,
especially with group learning activities. The teacher provides opportunities for students
to connect new information to schema.

Relevance of Cognitivism to Educational Technology

With this idea, cognitivists believe that learning develops through receiving,
storing, and retrieving information. Instructional designers must analyze thoroughly and
consider appropriate tasks needed to allow learners to process the information
effectively and efficiently they received. Instructional material designers must consider
relevant learner characteristics that will promote or impede cognitive processing of
information such as the following:

• Conduct task analysis and learner analysis.

• Create tests.
• Create learning materials according to any of the Instructional Design Model

Constructivism

Key Concepts

Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or

concepts based upon their current/past knowledge, social interactions, and
motivation which affect the construction of knowledge, social interactions, and
motivation.

• Educator focus on making connections between facts and fostering new

understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to
student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and
predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions
and promote extensive dialogue among students. Constructivism calls for
the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using

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curricula customized to the students’ prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes

hands-on problem solving.

Constructivism is a movement that extends beyond the ideas of cognitivism,

considering the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of
experiential learning. Shifting from passive transfer of information to active problem-
solving and discovery, constructivists emphasize that learners create their own
interpretations of the world of information. They argue that students situate the learning
experience within their own experience and that the goal of instruction is not to teach
information for their own understanding. The role of instruction is to provide students
with ways to assemble knowledge rather than to dispense facts. Constructivists believe
that learning occurs most effectively when students are engaged in authentic tasks that
relate to meaning contexts (i.e., learning by doing). The ultimate measure of learning is
therefore the ability of the student to use knowledge to facilitate thinking in real life, an
approach that fits with the learning abilities of 21st century learners need for an
uncertain future, in which they must solve problems that not only capitalize on their
existing knowledge but also require them to seek additional information or skills in
finding effective solutions.

Relevance of Constructivism to Educational Technology

Constructivism is characterized by open-ended expectation where results and

methods of learning themselves are easily measured and may not be consistent with
each learner.

TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION

Principles of Effective Instruction

As a teacher your role is to establish learning

environments that foster the defined outcomes for
your learners. At times, those outcomes may be
based on local or national learning standards; at other
times they may be based on negotiated outcomes
with your individual learners. Whichever direction you
take you need to think continually about how to engage
your students in the learning process.

As educators continually seeking ways to

improve our practice, it is important to consider how to
engage learners in their learning. Because one common

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feature across all classroom settings is the variety of learning levels and needs among
students, it is also critical to determine the best ways to meet the needs of all our
learners. Teachers need to become skilled at differentiating instruction to ensure that all
learners are challenged adequately and appropriately in their learning.

The following principles of effective instruction have evolved from a variety of sources.

1. Assess prior knowledge. Before you can properly provide instruction, you
should gather relevant information about each student’s knowledge and skill
level. You need to know what knowledge your students already have learned. To
learn from most materials and activities, students must possess prerequisite
knowledge and skills (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russel, 2010).

2. Consider individual differences. Learners vary in term s of personality, general

aptitude, knowledge of a subject, and many other factors. Be aware of the
multiple learning needs of your students. For example, whether a language other
than English is spoken in child’s home. You need to consider the technology and
media experiences your students have had and what resources are essential to
help your students learn. Effective instruction allows individuals to progress at
different rates, cover different materials, and even participate in different activities
(Cooper & Varma, 1997).

3. State objectives. For you and your students to know where instruction is going
and what is to be accomplished, the goals must be specified. Learning objectives
must match expected outcomes or standards (Mager, 1997).

4. Develop metacognitive skills. The skills of selective monitoring, evaluating, and

adjusting their approaches enhance students’ learning and help to make them
lifelong learners. Learners need assistance in understanding how they learn and
what resources help in that process (Nelson, 1992).

5. Provide social interaction. Teachers and peers serving as tutors or group

members can provide a number of pedagogical as well as social supports.
Learners gain experience and expertise when collaborating with other in and
beyond the classroom. (Jonassen, Howland, Marra, and Crismond, 2008)

6. Incorporate realistic contexts. Learners are most likely to remember and to

apply authentic knowledge presented in real-world context. Rote learning leads
to “inert knowledge”; that is learners know something but cannot apply it to real

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life, students benefit from understanding how their knowledge and skills fit into
the world around them (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).

7. Engage students in relevant practice. The most effective learning experiences

are those requiring learners to practice skills that build toward the desired
outcome. Learner participation increases the probability of learning. Practice,
especially in varying contexts, improves retention rate and the ability to apply the
new knowledge, skill, or attitude. Practice promotes deeper, longer lasting
learning (Morrison & Lowther, 2010).

8. Offer frequent, timely, and constructive feedback. Student learning requires

accurate information on misconceptions, misunderstandings, and weaknesses.
Learners need to know if their thinking is on track feedback may come from a
teacher, a tutor, electronic messages from a computer, the scoring system of a
game, or oneself. In addition to knowing that responses are incorrect, students
need to know why they have been unsuccessful and how they can improve their
performance. Further, knowing details about their correct responses in terms of
how and why they are accurate helps students understand more about what they
have learned (Black & William, 1998).

Principles of Effective Technology Utilization

Teachers are expected to be competent in the use of technology in their teaching

(Bowing, D’Onofrio, & Marker, 2006). This is especially true when working with 21 st
century learners and addressing the skills outlined for them, for which teachers not only
need to use technology effectively in their teaching but also need to guide the students
in using those tools to enhance their learning. The advent of newer technologies
requires critical decisions related to the best tool to integrate into teaching.

The National Education Technology Standards for Students (NETS-S) noted in

the following list specifically outline expectations for students use of technology to guide
their learning (International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE], 2007).

• Creativity and Innovation

• Communication and Collaboration
• Research and Information Fluency
• Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making
• Digital Citizenship
• Technology Operations and Concepts

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Many of these standards address the essential elements for success in acquiring
21st century knowledge and skills. Teachers also have standards for acquiring these
skills. They are also provided by the ISTE namely:

• Student Learning and Creativity

• Digital-Age Learning Experiences and Assessments
• Digital-Age Work and Learning
• Digital Citizenship and Responsibility
• Professional Growth and Leadership

As a teacher, you will be expected to enhance students’ abilities to engage in the

use of technology to support their learning and address these six areas of competency,
also known as technology literacy skills.

You can combine knowledge and skills related to content areas and information
literacy skills by using technology in ways that helps students learn information and
communicate knowledge. For example, in a Science lesson on weather, you can
present a problem to your students that will require them to search websites for data or
information, use communication tools to collaborate with outside experts, generate
solutions to the problem collaboratively, and present their ideas to their classmates
using creative resources. By which your students will be measured and will be given
guided practice in developing their knowledge and skills.

Principles of Effective Media Utilization

We are continually learning from multiple sources of media that provides us with
information and challenge or thinking. As users of these sources, we need media
literacy skills to know how to access them, how to understand and analyze the content,
and how to create new media messages (Stanbury, 2009)

Text, television, video, and a host of other media sources that will be covered
within this textbook are all valid and vital sources of information. Your role is to guide
your students to use these media as sources for their learning in ways that are wise,
safe, and productive. For example, students need to learn to find multiple sources to
verify facts they may have heard on the television news. They need to learn to be
critical users of these resources to ensure that they are well-informed, and their
conclusions are accurate. As mentioned earlier, the ISTE NETS-S address many of the
skills learners need to be successful consumers of the media resources surrounding
them.

Furthermore, your teaching approach should provide students with opportunities

to explore how to use these media resources to communicate their knowledge.

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Principles of Effective Text Utilization

Text is everywhere in students’ learning experiences. Text materials include

textbooks, fiction and non-fiction books, newspapers, booklets, computer screens,
magazines, study guides, manuals, and worksheets, as well as word-processed
documents prepared by students and teachers. Textbooks have long been the
foundation of classroom instruction. The other forms of technology and media discussed
in this textbook are frequently used in conjunction with and as supplements to text-
0based materials. The 21st century learner encounters text as part of daily interactions
with technology and media. The ability to use text as a means to gather information or
to communicate is known as text literacy. The two aspects to becoming literate in the
use of text as part of the learning process are reading and writing. Reading is the ability
to look at the text and gather knowledge from the message. Writing is the ability to
generate text through tools such as pencils, pens, or computers to communicate. Both
skills develop over time and the technology and media you use as a teacher can help
address their development.

Advantages

• Availability. Text-based materials are readily available on a variety of topics and

in many different formats.
• Flexibility. Text is adaptable to many purposes and may be used in any well-lit
environment.
• Portability. Texts are easily carried from place to place and do not require any
equipment or power supply.
• User Friendly. Properly designed text materials are easy to use, requiring no
special effort to “navigate” through them.

Limitations

• Reading Level. The major limitation of text materials is the reading level needed
for comprehension. Some students are nonreaders. Others lack adequate
literacy skills for text materials above their reading level. Still others lack the
prerequisite knowledge to comprehend the vocabulary and terminology.
• Memorization. Some teachers require students to memorize many facts and
definitions, which diminishes text materials to mere memorization aids.
• Vocabulary. Some textbooks introduce a large number of vocabulary terms and
concepts in a short amount of space, placing a heavy cognitive burden on
students which may be overwhelming for some.
• One Way Presentation. Because of most text materials are not interactive, they
tend to be used in a passive way, often without comprehension.

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• Curriculum Determination. Sometime textbooks dictate the curriculum rather than

supporting it. Textbooks are often written to accommodate the curriculum
guidelines of particular states or provinces. Consequently, the preferences of
these authorities disproportionately influence textbook content and its treatment.
• Cursory Appraisal. Selection committees might not examine textbooks carefully.
Sometimes textbooks are chosen by the “five-minute thumb test” whatever
catches the reviewer’s eye while thumbing through the textbook.

Integration

The most common application of text materials is presenting information.

Students are given reading assignments and held accountable for the material during
class discussions and on tests. Teacher-made handouts can also complement a
teacher’s presentation, or students may use them to study independently. Students can
use text materials to augment either teacher-presented information of other forms of
media. Students frequently refer to supplementary printed materials (such as books and
magazines from the media center) to locate information on a specific topic not covered
in their textbook.

Teachers need to understand the best ways to use text to facilitate learning.
Designing good text-based materials involves a few basic elements:

• Font Choice. Remember to select a clear font that helps learners to read the
information. Select only one or two fonts; it is not necessary to use many different
typefaces in a single document. Keeping it simple and clean is best when
selecting fonts for your text materials.
• Background and Patterns. When putting text on a page, website, or
PowerPoint presentation, use backgrounds that are not busy with distracting
images. Don’t scrimp on the page margins or use of space. It is better to use
double spacing and wide margins, making it easy for learners of all ability levels
to read.
• Arrangement. Use space text styles like bold and italics, to help your learners
find the information quickly and easily. By using headings and changes in text
styles, you guide your learners through the material to help them garner the most
important information. This is especially useful when you have challenged
readers in your classroom.
• Check and Revise. Always be sure to proofread your materials. Spell-checker
software helps but is not perfect. You might need to type the word “then” but only
to manage to type “hen”. Your spell-checker will accept is as correct when the
meaning is clearly impacted by the misuse of the word. You should also carefully

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review and be prepared to revise your phrasing of certain critical text such as
instructions to help ensure that all your students will understand the message
correctly.

Text-based materials are use in all subject areas and with students of all ages once
they learn to read. The media center provides a variety of text materials on countless
topics and in almost every conceivable format. Guidelines and examples are found in
When to Use Text-Based Materials and Using Text Materials in the Classroom.

Evaluation

As a teacher, you will want to consider all types of text-based materials your
students will be encountering in your classroom as well as their individual reading
abilities. You’ll want to be sure that they are able to read and comprehend the
messages that they encounter. Address your students’ literacy level by assessing their
reading ability and putting them into appropriate learning groups to develop reading and
literacy skills. Address materials by taking the time to evaluate all reading materials in
your classroom. For example, textbooks are often prepared at a general grade-specific
reading level without regard to the actual reading levels of individual children in your
classrooms. You will also want to be sure that your students can read other content
area text and resources as well. You will find the selection rubric: text materials at the
end of this chapter helpful when you review text-based materials in your classroom.

When to Use Text-Based Materials

Use when student learning will be enhanced by …

Guidelines Example
Reading text information for which they will Students read an assigned article from an
be held accountable online source.

Students use library books, encyclopedias,

Supplementing teacher-presented
or newspapers to add to their knowledge
material.
of a topic.
Using handouts that guide them through Students use a step-by-step guide to write
learning activities. a book report.
Students survey, ask questions, read,
Implementing the Survey, Question, Read,
recite, and review printed information
Recite and Review method (SQ3R)
about the Bill of Rights.

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Using Text Materials

Get learners actively involved with the materials. One technique is to have students use
the “SQ3R” method: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.

• Survey stage requires students to skim through the text material and read the
overview and/or summary.

• Question stage requires students to write a list of questions to answer while

reading.

• Read stage, students are led to look for the organization of the material, put
brackets around the main ideas, underline supporting details, and answer the
questions written in the previous step.

• Recite requires them to test themselves while reading and to put the content into
their own words.

• Review suggest that the students look over the material immediately after
reading it, the next day, a week later, and so on (Robinson, 1946)

Direct student reading with objectives or questions and provide a worksheet if

one is not included with the materials.

Emphasize the use of visual in text materials and teach students to study visuals
in an effort to increase their comprehension of the content.

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