Pilot Manual

3- Weather part I

Association of Paragliding Pilots and Instructors

© APPI 2010 / 2018
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Portions of the Appendix of this section may be reproduced by APPI Members for use in APPI-sanctioned training, but not
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Published by ASSOCIATION OF PARAGLIDING PILOTS AND INSTRUCTORS
CH-3707 Darligen SWITZERLAND

3.1 - Introduction
Apart from the choice of land and equipment, it is important to know the weather conditions to safely fly a paraglider.
This chapter gives an insight to the basic principles of meteorology.

This theoretical information can be put into practice in different ways:

• by checking several meteorological services at home.
• by a wise observation of the weather when going to the flying site
(increasing wind for example), as sometimes there are different conditions
locally.
• by questioning the locals. Don’t be shy to ask information about the specific
weather of the area, they can provide important information.
• by a systematic observation of the weather and know the forecast, make a
personal weather analysis and prediction and comparing it to the actual
weather evolution.

3.2 - The atmosphere

The air layer surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere. It goes to an altitude of 1000 kilometers and then melts in
the outer space with no definite boundary.

The atmosphere is composed of different layers called

spheres.
All the weather phenomena happen in the lowest layer, the
troposphere.
Toward the outside, this layer is in contact with the
stratosphere.
The boundary between these two layers is called the
tropopause, a very efficient inversion layer that does not
allow moisture to pass. For this reason clouds almost don’t
exist in the stratosphere, only horizontal flows.

The ozone layer, at an altitude of about 50 km,

prevents much of the harmful UV rays (ultraviolet)
of reaching the Earth’s surface.
This protective belt is strongly affected by
pollution: gases, such as engine exhaust gases,
eventually create holes on it.
The troposphere reaches an altitude of 6 kilometers
at the poles, 11 kilometers in mid latitudes and
rises until around 16 kilometers at the equator.

3.3 - The air

The air mass: This name is given to a certain part of
the atmosphere which has always the same criteria of
temperature and humidity. (For example: the Arctic air nitrogen 78%
mass). oxygen 21%
Pure air is a gas mixture consisting mainly of 20% carbon dioxide
oxygen and 80% nitrogen. and rare gases
1%

Oxygen is a vital gas for breathing. Carbon dioxide (C02) lets the sunlight energy pass through but holds the heat re-
emitted by Earth (greenhouse effect). If there is too much C02 in the air, there will be a general warming of the Earth’s
surface. This will involve long-term changes in climate.
In addition, microscopic particles, called condensation nuclei shear, are suspended in the air. They come from the
combustion residues, pollen and sea sprays. They play an important role in the condensation phenomenon that we will see
later.
3.3.1 Atmospheric pressure
Just like any other body under Earth’s magnetic influence, the weight of air exerts pressure on the soil surface. This
pressure depends on the thickness of the air column above the measuring point. The higher the altitude the lower the
pressure is. But because the air is compressible this pressure decrease is not linear but exponential. At 3000 meters the
pressure has decreased by one third to be no more than half at 5500 meters and a quarter at 11,500 meters.
● Unit of measure: kilopascals (kPa)
● Average pressure at sea level (standard atmosphere): 101.3 kPa
● Measuring instrument: barometer

When paragliding at high altitudes you must monitor the effect on your health and mental fitness. High altitude sickness
can occur. As altitude increases, the concentration remains the same but the number of oxygen molecules per breath is
reduced. At 12,000 feet (3,658 meters) the barometric pressure is only 483 mmHg, so there are roughly 40% fewer oxygen
molecules per breath. In order to properly oxygenate the body, your breathing rate (even while at rest) has to increase.
This extra ventilation increases the oxygen content in the blood, but not to sea level concentrations. Since the amount of
oxygen required for activity is the same, the body must adjust to having less oxygen. In addition, for reasons not entirely
understood, high altitude and lower air pressure causes fluid to leak from the capillaries which can cause fluid build-up in
both the lungs and the brain. Continuing to higher altitudes without proper acclimatization can lead to potentially serious,
even life-threatening illnesses.
If you are paragliding and finding you are climbing quickly to very high altitudes you must watch yourself carefully to see
how you are reacting. If you start to feel unwell then it is time to go down. Also make sure you are properly hydrated as you
can cause long term damage to your body
The paraglider will fly faster and more dynamically at higher altitudes. Take offs and landings will be faster, any incidents
that happen will be quicker but your reactions may be slower.

Special features: Isobars are lines of equal pressure on

weather maps. The measuring stations are located at
different altitudes (example: Geneva and Jungfrau). To get
comparable results, the measured pressure is converted by
calculation to a standard level, which may be the sea level
for instance.
In this drawing, the units are represented Hectopascals
(hPa).
 Figure 3-3: Graphical representation of the average air
pressure at different altitudes above sea level.

3.3.2 Density
Density is the mass per unit of volume, i.e., the number of air molecules per cubic meter. It depends mainly on temperature
and pressure. Like almost all the materials, the air expands as it warms. Thus we have more particles in a cubic meter of
cold air than in a warm one. This is the reason why the same volume of air is lighter if it is warm than if it’s cold. We will
return to this theme in the thermals.

With a decrease in pressure, there is a decrease in density.

Thus the density of air also decreases with altitude. At 6600
meters the density is only by half compared to that of sea level.
• Unit of measure: kg / m3
• Average density at sea level (standard atmosphere): 1,225 kg
/ m3

hot air cold air

Links with practice:

Given the lower density, flying at high altitude means flying faster and therefore, during takeoff, you will have to run
faster. On the other hand the altitude flight allows for stronger winds.

3.3.3 Air humidity

The water is in the form of three states: solid, liquid, gas.

→ fusion → evaporation →
melting point: boiling point:
solid 0°C liquid 100°C gaseous
(ice) (water) (vapor)

← crystallization point: ← dewpoint: ←

0°C 100°C
crystallization condensation

Latent Heat Energy:

If a substance is changing from a solid to a liquid, for example, the substance needs to absorb energy from the surrounding
environment in order to spread out the molecules into a larger, more fluid volume. If the substance is changing from
something with lower density, like a gas, to a phase with higher density like a liquid, the substance gives off energy as the
molecules come closer together and lose energy from motion and vibration.
If water is changed from a Solid to a liquid, or from a liquid to a gas then latent heat energy is absorbed from the
atmosphere. If water is changed from a gas to a liquid, or from a liquid to a solid latent heat energy is released into the
atmosphere.
One might think there is evaporation or, in the reverse, condensation only occurs when reaching 100°C. But this is not the
case in meteorology, as we will see.
Water vapor as a gas contains more energy (heat) that liquid water because the change from solid to gaseous state releases
energy. It is the same between liquid water and ice. We can say that the condensation and crystallization emit energy in the
environment.

—> —> —> —>

water vapor water ice

condensation crystallization
(gaz) (liquid) (solid)

Unlike the energy return during fusion and evaporation because these transformations of states require energy.

⇒ ⇒ ⇒ ⇒

ice water water vapor

fusion evaporation
(solid) (liquid) (gaz)

In weather phenomena the water changes from liquid to gas state without reaching the boiling point. We experience this
phenomenon everyday through sweating. Sweat drops appear on the skin surface and evaporate thereby cooling the
immediate environment of the epidermis, implying a decrease in body temperature. In nature, water (lakes, seas, rivers)
and soil humidity evaporate below 100°C by the fact that the air soaks up this moisture depending on its temperature as a
more or less tight sponge. For every air mass three types of humidity will be referred:
● Saturation humidity (SH)
Is the maximum amount of moisture (grams per cubic meter) that an air mass can contain at a given temperature.
❍ Unit of measure: g (water vapor) / m3 (air) at a °C temp
❍ Application: by experimental curve
Depending on temperature and pressure an air mass contains more or less water vapor.

Fig. 3-9: Water vapor curve: It shows the maximum grams of water a cubic
meter can contain at a given temperature. As there are fewer particles of air in
a cubic meter of warm air than in a cold one, we can imagine it has more free
space for water particles. Using the sponge example again, we can say it soaks
up more if it has an airy texture.
● Absolute humidity (AH)
It is the quantity of water actually contained in an air mass.
❍ Unit of measure: g (water) / m3 (air)
❍ Application: by measuring instruments such as the hair hygrometer, psychrometer or, in altitude, the radiosondes.

● Relative humidity (RH)

It is the ratio between absolute and saturation humidity.
❍ Unit of measure: ratio in %
❍ Application: by formula AH: SH x 100
❍ Average at sea level (standard atmosphere): 70%

Dewpoint: It is the temperature at which a cooling air mass reaches 100% of relative humidity. If saturated air cools again
the relative humidity remains at 100%, but microscopic water droplets appear, they gather and form a cloud. Since every
ascending air mass has its own dew point, the height of cloud bases varies.

Example: 1m3 of air at a temperature of 10 ° C may contain at most 9.5 g of water vapor (along curve of water vapor).

temperature: 10°C 10°C

absolute humidity: 9.5g 4.75g
relative humidity: 100% 50%

3.3.4 Temperature
The air is mainly heated in contact with the earth’s surface which gets the majority of the sun’s energy. In fact, the soil gets
warm with the absorption of solar radiation and transfers this heat to its environment in different ways:
⇒ by Conduction: Through direct contact heat is transferred through the vibration of molecules in a substance. As
something gets warmer, it begins to increase the vibration and movement of the molecules that it consists of. Only the air
layer surrounding the soil is warmed by conduction.

⇒ by Radiation: heat propagation in wave form. The heat

absorbed by the soil during the day spreads into the
atmosphere during the night by radiation. On an overcast
day this cooling is lower than in a clear one as the clouds
form a shield that returns this radiation to the earth.
⇒ by Convection: The transfer of heat from a warmer
region to a cooler one by moving air from the heated area
to the unheated area. The vertical movements of air masses
happen by convection.
⇒ by Advection: horizontal movement of air masses. A
moist air mass moving horizontally towards a cold surface
will create advection fog.

● Unit of measure: °C (Celsius)

● Average at sea level (standard atmosphere): 15°C
● Measuring instruments: thermometer (it should never be exposed to direct sunlight or to direct contact with objects
that could influence the measurement). In altitude radiosondes are used.
● Vertical thermal gradient:
 The temperature variation according to altitude is called the vertical thermal gradient (sometimes called standard
temperature gradient). Because air is a poor conductor temperature decreases with altitude. Till the tropopause the
temperature, that normally decreases, may either remain stable (isothermal) or increase (thermal inversion).
● Average rate (standard atmosphere - Environment Adiabatic Lapse Rate - EALR): 0,65°C / 100 m

• Curve of a homogeneous stable air (standard temperature

gradient)
Regular decrease of temperature with altitude (negative
temperature gradient)

When the temperature increases with altitude, this is called inversion.

• Inversion on the ground:

A cloudless sky allows the heat to radiate since the sunset. As a
result, the air layers near the ground cool down. As we already saw,
because the air is a poor conductor, the cooling is only on the lower
layers. In comparison with the standard curve the temperature
increases with altitude and only from a certain altitude it cools
again.

Upward inversion layer

In a warm front there is, at a certain altitude, a warmer air layer than that
prevailing on the ground. It has a high relative humidity that makes the air in this
layer to heat instead of cooling and then it decreases again from a certain altitude
(See fronts explanation)
Downward inversion layer

When unsaturated air descends from high altitudes, it warms 1°C

per 100 meters (see explanation on adiabatic). During this descent
its relative humidity decreases. The absolute humidity remains
constant, but with the warming it moves away from its dew point. In
most cases this descent (subsidence) stops by the presence of a
layer of cold air on the ground. At this limit we find typical clouds of
this situation, namely the stratus. Above this barrier layer we have a
good horizontal visibility. One can often notice this situation during
the winter high pressures.

Inversion in altitude: ●

Isothermal

This is an air layer whose temperature does not change with

altitude, so its temperature gradient is 0°C / 100 m. Links with
practice:
Inversions and isothermal are air stable layers. They are a thermal
barrier because the warm rising air loses its relative advantage of
heat and thus ceases to rise.

The two curves in this graphic show the

temperature evolution in the atmosphere. These
temperatures are measured by radio sensors,
dropped in specific locations, which continuously
send, to very high altitude, data to the ground
stations.
● Environment Adiabatic Lapse Rate - EALR Average rate of cooling is 0,65°C / 100 m. But this will vary considerable
on a daily basis. Till the tropopause the temperature, that normally decreases, may either remain stable (isothermal) or
increase (thermal inversion).

● The adiabatic temperature gradient

The adiabatic temperature gradient expresses the change in temperature within an ascending or descending air mass.
Adiabatic means: without heat exchange with the outside environment. The higher an air mass rises, the lower the
pressure is, so the air expands and therefore it cools. On the opposite, if the air mass descends, it compresses and thus it
warms.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate - DALR

As the air humidity is not saturated, i.e. with a relative humidity

below 100%, the ascending air mass cools down by 1°C / 100
meters above sea level.

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate - SALR (or moist adiabatic)

If ascending air reaches its dew point, i.e. 100% relative humidity, it
will have too much water vapor compared to its temperature, there
is an excess of moisture that will condense. We are witnessing the
formation of clouds. When water vapor condenses, it releases latent
heat energy, that is the reason why its cooling is lower than the 1°C
/ 100 m of dry adiabatic. This value fluctuates with the temperature
of the dewpoint. The average is around 0.6°C / 100 m.

In addition we must differentiate if the air is saturated or not because there are two types of adiabatic temperature ●

gradient:

As we already know, warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. The warmer an air mass is when it reaches the dew
point, the larger the amount of condensed water vapor and the more latent heat energy is released from condensation.
 When an air mass reaches its dewpoint.
dewpoint moist adiabatic temperature gradient
high low
low high

⇒ The higher the dewpoint temperature of a rising air mass, the

lower is the Saturated adiabatic temperature gradient.
⇒ The lower the dewpoint temperature of a rising air mass, the
greater is the Saturated adiabatic temperature gradient.
⇒ Thus the saturated adiabatic lapse rate varies between 0.4°C and
0.9°C / 100 m.
Abstract:
⇒ The saturated and dry adiabatic describe temperature changes in
an ascending or descending air.
⇒ At the condensation level or dew point, the cooling of ascending
air passes from dry adiabatic gradient to humid.
⇒ Descending air masses that get warm by dry adiabatic involve
dissolution of the clouds.
⇒ The dry adiabatic temperature gradient is 1°C / 100 m.
⇒ The average value of humid adiabatic temperature gradient is
0,6°C / 100 m.

⇒ When an air mass rises (less pressure) the volume increases (expansion) and therefore its temperature decreases.
⇒ Conversely when an air mass descends (high pressure) the volume decreases (compression) and therefore its
temperature increases.
● The state of the atmosphere:
By comparing the curve of the atmosphere with the adiabatic one, it’s possible to determine the atmosphere stratification
with its stability or instability characteristics or indifferent situations. This technique of graphical representation of the
atmosphere layers is called emagram.

● Unstable layer in the atmosphere:

An unstable equilibrium happens if the atmosphere part within which an air mass is rising cools down more than the
ascending air. The state curve is less inclined than the adiabatic one. The temperature difference between ambient air
and ascending air increases so steadily that the bubble continues to rise and accelerate. The dry-unstable equilibrium,
where the atmosphere cools down more than 1°C / 100 m, is found almost exclusively in the layers near the ground.
Links to practice: The unstable layers of the atmosphere mean in practice:
1. that the thermal improves with altitude
2. that the thermal is short
3. A rapid formation of clouds means a threat of storm

● stable layer in the atmosphere

The state curve of the atmosphere being steeper than the adiabatic one, the ascending air cools down faster than the air
mass in which it operates. The thermal relative heat advantage decreases and when its temperature reaches that of the
ambient air this one stops.

Links to practice: The stable layers of the atmosphere mean in practice that:
1. thermal quality decreases with altitude
2. the thermal does not rise very high
3. there is little or virtually no clouds, then called blue thermal (the dry ascending air doesn’t cool down enough to reach
its condensation level).

● neutral layer in the atmosphere

The state curve and the adiabatic one are parallel. The ascending air evolves always at the same speed.
Links to practice: The neutral layers of the atmosphere mean in practice that:
● the thermal is often steady and quiet till high altitudes
● there is little cloud formations
● the thermal holds often for long
This situation is unfortunately very rare

Example: (This explanation is in relation with the graphic below)

⇒ Lets suppose that at the ground (400 m / sea) a specific surface heats a volume of air at 25°C. The ambient air mass has
the following characteristics: temperature 20°C, absolute humidity 6 g / m3, relative humidity 26%.
⇒ Given its caloric advantage this volume will start to rise
⇒ When rising it cools down according to dry adiabatic curve (1°C / 100 m)
⇒ At 2400 meters this ascending air mass has 5°C, it reaches its dew point or 100% of relative humidity (the 6 grams of
water vapor saturate a cubic meter at this temperature according to the diagram)
⇒ We find the cloud base at this altitude
⇒ At this altitude this thermal bubble still has a caloric advantage of 1.5°C on the surrounding air mass so it continues to
rise
⇒ It is now advancing according to the moist adiabatic curve as there is condensation (energy release) and cloud
formation.
⇒ Its cooling is then only 0.6°C / 100 m
⇒ As up to 3200 meters the caloric advantage is in favour of the air bubble, the ascent becomes faster.
⇒ We’re talking about the unstable humid layer
⇒ At 4000 meters the ascending air mass loses its caloric advantage and stops rising
⇒ The upper limit of the cloud is reached
⇒ If the unstable humid layer had gone to high altitude, we would have an ascent to the tropopause and the formation of a
cumulonimbus.

value of the
rising air mass thermal
advantage
over the
surrounding
saturating relative air mass
humidity humidity

3g 100% 0°C

4g 100% 2.8°C

4.5g 100% 3.3°C

5.5g 100% 2.6°C

3g 100% 1.5°C

6g 70% 2°C

6g 55% 3°C

6g 42% 4°C

6g 33% 4.5°C

6g 26% 5°C

3.4 - The clouds

When the air cools to the dew point, there is cloud formation. Water vapor condenses around condensation nuclei. It is this
formation of small and light water droplets or ice crystals floating in the air that make the cloud visible.
This cooling until condensation occurs in different ways:
● Orographic lift ⇒ orographic clouds ⇒ orographic rains
● Frontal lift ⇒ frontal clouds ⇒ regular rains during warm fronts ⇒ front storms during cold fronts
● Thermal lift ⇒ thermal clouds ⇒ thermal storms
● Earth’s surface radiation on clear nights ⇒ fog or dew ⇒ drizzle or frost
● Contact with cold surfaces ⇒ advection fog ⇒ drizzle or frost

We differentiate two kinds of cloud types:

• Heaped clouds (cumulus)

They are synonymous of unstable layers in the atmosphere: warm
air rises, the cold gets down ⇒ vertical movements of air ⇒ unstable
atmosphere
Photo 3-1: Cumulus. Cloud of fine weather; if it evolves to rain
situation, we talk about overdevelopment.

• The stratum-shaped clouds (stratus)

They are synonymous of stable layers in the atmosphere: no
tendency to mix, for instance: fog in the valleys and beautiful
weather in the mountains.
Photo 3-2: Stratus.
 Fig. 3-28: Another distribution of
clouds according to altitude.
Troposphere is divided in three
ranges: strato (up to 2-3 km), alto
(up to 5-7 km) and cirro (up to 13
km).

Photo 3-3: Cirrus. Photo 3-4: Cirrocumulus.

Photo 3-5: Cirrostratus. Photo 3-6: Altocumulus.

Photo 3-7: Altostratus. Photo 3-8: Stratocumulus.

Photo 3-9: Nimbostratus. Photo 3-10: Cumulonimbus with piliouscloud.

Photo 3-12: Cumulonimbus

Photo 3-11: Cumulus.
CB = storm cloud that can cause hail.

Photo 3-13: Lenticulars. Photo 3-14: Lenticulars.

3.5 - The fog
3.5.1 Radiation fog
During the night, the ground cools the lower air layers to their condensation level. Clear skies, little wind and air
temperature near the dew point make fog formation easier. This is often the case in autumn and winter when high-pressure
situations occur. Its dissolution during the day is due to wind and sunlight.

3.5.2 Advection fog

It is formed when humid air layers near the ground go on a cooler surface and cool down to the dew point. This happens in
the mountains along the glaciers.

Photo 3-15: Upper limit of the fog layer.

Flying in a sea of fog represents danger of life due to the complete
loss of orientation and sense of balance. It is also not allowed by law
(Paragliders fly by VFR Visual Flight Rules: Clear of cloud, in sight
of the ground and flight visibility of 1500m).

Photo 3-16: Lower limit of the fog layer.

It’s called fog when visibility is less than one kilometer, between 1
and 5 km is called mist.

3.6 - Precipitation
Definition: The different forms by which the solid or liquid water contained in the atmosphere falls or settles on the
earth’s surface (rain, fog, snow, hail, dew).
Droplets gather together and become heavier and heavier until reaching a weight that the updraft is not able to maintain in
suspension. At this time they fell as rain. If pressure and temperature allow crystallization, it snows. Due to very strong
suck phenomena in the clouds (CB), the droplets are often propelled at high altitudes where they freeze. When they come
down, new ice crystals or droplets stick on their melting outer layer. If they are aspirated again and this operation is
repeated many times hailstones are formed.

Photo 3-17: Nimbostratus

NS = cloud of persistent and
general rains