I.

The French Formal Garden (17th Century)

Louis XIV and the Rise of Absolutism: This section covers Louis XIV's reign (1638-1715) and his
influence on the development of the French formal garden, characterized by centralized power
and an emphasis on French culture and arts.
Baroque Gardens: Geometry, Control, and Spectacle: Explores the key elements of Baroque
gardens, including their geometric plans, use of perspective and optics, terraces, and controlled
vegetation.
Parterres: Intricate Designs and Symbolism: Delves into the significance of parterres in Baroque
gardens, examining their placement, elaborate designs, and symbolic meaning.
Theatrical Elements and Symbolic Meaning: Discusses the use of drama and spectacle in
Baroque gardens, focusing on elaborate water features, sculptures, intricate layouts,
trompe-l'oeil effects, and the collective experience.
Andre Le Notre and the Shaping of Versailles: Introduces Andre Le Notre (1613-1700), the
renowned landscape architect behind the gardens of Versailles, highlighting his influence on
French formal garden design.
Vaux-le-Vicomte: A Precursor to Versailles: Explores Le Notre's earlier masterpiece,
Vaux-le-Vicomte, emphasizing its innovative use of illusions, perspective, and sightlines.
Versailles: The Garden of the Sun King: Provides an in-depth analysis of the gardens of
Versailles, focusing on the theme of the Sun King, the extension of the landscape to infinity, and
the orientation of the garden towards the King.

II. The English Landscape Garden (18th Century)

Naturalism: Embracing Organic Forms and Vistas: Introduces the English landscape garden,
contrasting its naturalistic approach with the formality of French gardens. This section
emphasizes organic form, winding paths, irregular shapes, and dramatic vistas.
The Sublime: Evoking Awe and Inspiration: Discusses the concept of the sublime in landscape
design, highlighting its ability to evoke awe, grandeur, and inspiration.
The Picturesque: An Idyllic Pastoral Landscape: Explains the key characteristics of the
picturesque style, including lakes, rolling lawns, classical and Gothic ruins, and the recreation of
idyllic pastoral landscapes.
The Ha-Ha: Seamless Integration of Landscape: Details the function of the ha-ha, an innovative
design element that eliminates the need for fences, allowing for uninterrupted views of the
landscape.
William Kent: Idealized, Painterly Landscapes: Introduces William Kent (1685-1748), a
prominent landscape architect known for his idealized, painterly landscapes that blurred the
boundaries between garden and park.
Rousham: A Narrative Circuit Garden: Examines Rousham, a notable example of Kent's work,
highlighting its narrative structure, series of landscape pictures, and sequential visual events.
Lancelot 'Capability' Brown: Master of the Naturalistic Style: Introduces Lancelot 'Capability'
Brown (1716-1783), known for his mastery of the naturalistic style, blending art and nature. This
section explores his signature features: undulating lawns, clumps of trees, and serpentine lakes.
Blenheim Palace: A Fusion of Styles: Analyzes Blenheim Palace, showcasing a blend of
picturesque and formal design elements across its extensive gardens.
III. The Victorian Era (19th Century)
Social, Cultural, and Technological Influences: Sets the stage for Victorian garden design by
exploring the era's social, cultural, and technological shifts, including class and status, leisure
and recreation, the rise of the middle class, and the impacts of industrialization.
Urban Parks and the Need for Green Space: Discusses the growth of cities and the need for
urban parks, emphasizing their role in providing respite, improving public health, and addressing
the needs of the working class.
Romanticism, Colonialism, and Horticulture: Explores the influences of Romanticism, with its
focus on the beauty of nature, and colonialism, which brought exotic plants to Europe. This
section also touches on the advancements in botany and horticulture, including the Wardian
Case for plant transportation.
Cemeteries as Urban Open Space: Examines the unique role of cemeteries in providing urban
open space during the Victorian era. This section discusses the reasons for the shift from
church graveyards to rural park-like cemeteries, highlighting their recreational and public health
benefits.
Mount Auburn Cemetery: A Picturesque Oasis: Focuses on Mount Auburn Cemetery as a prime
example of a Victorian cemetery, emphasizing its picturesque landscape features.
John C. Loudon and the Gardenesque Movement: Introduces John C. Loudon (1783-1843), a
leading landscape designer of the time, and his promotion of the Gardenesque movement,
characterized by showcasing the individual beauty of plants and the use of exotic species.
IV. Fredrick Law Olmsted and the American Park Movement
Frederick Law Olmsted: A Pioneer of American Landscape Architecture: Introduces Frederick
Law Olmsted and his key design principles, which included naturalism, scenic beauty,
functionality, accessibility, harmony, public good, sustainability, stewardship, and community
engagement.
Calvert Vaux: Olmsted's Collaborator: Introduces Calvert Vaux, Olmsted's frequent collaborator,
highlighting his architectural background.
The Need for Urban Parks: Addressing Urban Challenges: Explores the context for the
emergence of urban parks in America, focusing on urban growth, dense populations, lack of
open space, and the need for public respite.
Central Park: A Masterpiece of Urban Design: Examines Central Park as a landmark project by
Olmsted and Vaux, detailing its design features, circulation systems, and social impact.
Prospect Park: Scenic Choreography and Open Spaces: Focuses on Prospect Park, another
significant Olmsted and Vaux project, highlighting its scenic choreography, continuous network
of open spaces, and innovative drainage and flood control measures.
The Emerald Necklace: A Green Corridor in Boston: Introduces the Emerald Necklace, a chain
of parks designed by Olmsted in Boston, emphasizing its role as a green corridor connecting
different parts of the city.
Olmsted's Legacy: Shaping the Landscape of America: Summarizes Olmsted's lasting impact
on landscape architecture, highlighting his numerous projects and the enduring relevance of his
design principles.
V. Landscape Architecture in Canada
Olmsted's Influence in Canada: Explores Olmsted's work in Canada, including Mount Royal in
Montreal and Montebello Park in St. Catharines, highlighting his contributions to Canadian
landscape architecture.
Frederick Todd: An Apprentice of Olmsted: Introduces Frederick Todd, a Canadian landscape
architect who apprenticed with Olmsted and became a prominent figure in the field. This section
emphasizes Todd's use of the Picturesque style and his focus on public projects.
Dunington-Grubb: A Leading Canadian Firm: Introduces the firm Dunington-Grubb, founded by
Howard Grubb and Lorrie Dunington, highlighting their contributions to Canadian landscape
design, including the founding of Sheridan Nurseries and the design of the Oakes Garden
Theatre in Niagara.

VI. Cultural Landscapes and the Garden City Movement

Cultural Landscapes: Understanding the Human-Place Relationship: Defines the concept of
cultural landscapes, emphasizing the layered history of values, traditions, and experiences that
shape human relationships with places.
Spirit of Place: The Essence of a Landscape: Discusses the concept of "spirit of place," referring
to the physical and spiritual elements that imbue a location with meaning, value, emotion, and
mystery.
Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement: Introduces Ebenezer Howard and his vision
of garden cities as a solution to the problems of industrial cities. This section explores Howard's
utopian ideals, his aim to reintegrate humans with nature, and his "Three Magnets" diagram,
which proposed a balanced network of garden cities.
Key Principles of Garden City Design: Details the key elements of garden city design, including
greenbelts, self-contained communities, a balance of residential, industrial, and agricultural
areas, and the goal of achieving cooperative socialism.
The City Beautiful Movement: Beautification and Social Reform: Explores the City Beautiful
Movement, highlighting its emphasis on urban beautification as a means of improving social
conditions. This section discusses the movement's focus on monumental architecture, public
institutions, and cultural parity with Europe.
Beaux Arts Architecture: Classical Forms and Ornamentation: Describes the Beaux Arts
architectural style, which played a role in the City Beautiful Movement, emphasizing its use of
classical forms, elaborate detailing, massive plans, and heavy masonry.
Garden Suburbs: Extending Garden City Principles: Introduces the concept of garden suburbs,
which applied garden city principles to the outskirts of large cities. This section highlights the
reliance on reliable transportation and the exclusion of industrial areas.
Riverside, Illinois: A Prototype Garden Suburb: Examines Riverside, Illinois as an influential
example of a garden suburb designed by Olmsted and Vaux, emphasizing its scenic roads,
avoidance of right angles, and ample recreational space.
VII. Modernism and the International Style
Modernism: Embracing Functionality and Simplicity: Introduces Modernism in landscape
architecture, highlighting its rejection of traditional styles, embrace of functionality, and focus on
reflecting a democratic and casual lifestyle.
The Bauhaus: Form Follows Function: Explores the influence of the Bauhaus, an
interdisciplinary art and design school, on Modernist design principles, emphasizing the unity of
art, industry, and nature and the use of industrial materials and technologies.
Villa Savoye: A Machine for Living: Analyzes Villa Savoye, designed by Le Corbusier and Pierre
Jeanneret, as an iconic example of the International Style applied to residential design. This
section highlights the house's elevated structure, disconnection from the landscape, and
emphasis on functionality.
Gabriel Guevrekian: Blending European and Persian Influences: Introduces Gabriel Guevrekian,
an Armenian architect and landscape designer, known for his innovative garden designs that
blended European and Persian influences.
The Garden of Water and Light: A Cubist-Inspired Landscape: Examines Guevrekian's Garden
of Water and Light, highlighting its Cubist-inspired design, geometric shapes, and interplay of
light and water.
Fletcher Steele: Bridging Traditional and Modern Design: Introduces Fletcher Steele, a
landscape architect known for blending traditional and modern design elements, creating unique
combinations of formal and informal features, exemplified by his Blue Steps garden.

VIII. Post-War Suburban Modernism and the California Style

Post-War Suburban Modernism: Adapting Modernism for the Suburbs: Discusses the adaptation
of Modernist principles for suburban landscapes, focusing on functionality, simplicity, and
affordability for middle-class homeowners.
The California Style: Indoor-Outdoor Living and Functionality: Introduces the California Style of
landscape design, emphasizing its integration of indoor and outdoor spaces, low-maintenance
plantings, and user-driven functionality.
Thomas Church: A Pioneer of the California Style: Highlights Thomas Church, a key figure in
developing the California Style, known for his innovative use of space, color, and texture,
exemplified by the Donnell Garden.
Garrett Eckbo: Landscapes for Living: Introduces Garrett Eckbo, a landscape architect known
for his focus on creating affordable, functional, and dynamic landscapes for middle-class
families, as showcased in his book "Landscape for Living."
Dan Kiley: Master of Spatial Hierarchy and Geometry: Explores the work of Dan Kiley, a
landscape architect known for his use of strong geometries, overlapping planes, repeated
modules, and axial arrangements, exemplified by the Miller Garden.
Lawrence Halprin: Participatory Design and Experiential Focus: Introduces Lawrence Halprin, a
landscape architect known for his emphasis on participatory design, experiential landscapes,
and the integration of art and nature, as seen in the Ira Keller Fountain and Freeway Park.
Roberto Burle Marx: Landscape as Art: Discusses Roberto Burle Marx, a Brazilian landscape
architect who treated landscapes as canvases, using abstract compositions, bold colors, and
native plants to create independent works of art.
IX. Postmodernism and the Rejection of Modernist Dogma
Rejection of Modernist Dogma: Embracing Diversity and Pluralism: Explores the reaction
against the rigid principles of Modernism, highlighting the shift towards diversity, ambiguity, and
a challenge to singular viewpoints.
Historical and Cultural Context: References and Symbolism: Discusses the incorporation of
historical styles, regional vernaculars, and cultural symbolism in Postmodern landscape design.
User-Centered Design: Meeting Diverse Needs: Emphasizes the importance of user-centered
design in Postmodern landscapes, focusing on inclusivity, accessibility, and meeting the diverse
needs and experiences of users.
Eclecticism and Collage: Combining Diverse Elements: Explores the use of eclecticism and
collage in Postmodern landscapes, blending elements from different historical periods and
creating visually complex and layered spaces, exemplified by the Piazza d'Italia.
Playful and Ironic Design: Challenging Conventions: Discusses the use of humor and irony in
Postmodern landscapes, challenging traditional notions of design and incorporating unexpected
elements, as seen in Berczy Park.
Emphasis on Ornament: Bold Colors, Patterns, and Textures: Highlights the return of ornament
in Postmodern design, focusing on the use of bold colors, patterns, and textures to create
visually engaging landscapes.

X. Key Postmodern Landscape Architects

Charles Jencks: Science, Mathematics, and Landscape: Introduces Charles Jencks, a
landscape architect known for his integration of science and mathematics into landscape
design, creating gardens that explore these themes through sculpture and planting.
Peter Walker: Tanner Fountain and the Interface of Art and Nature: Examines Peter Walker's
Tanner Fountain, highlighting its unconventional placement, blurring of boundaries between
constructed and natural elements, and the fusion of organic and artful forms.
Martha Schwartz: Splice Garden and the Illusion of Nature: Explores Martha Schwartz's Splice
Garden, a landscape devoid of living plants yet evoking a sense of garden reality through the
use of materials like green aquarium gravel and artificial turf, referencing traditional garden
styles in an unconventional way.
Bernard Tschumi: Parc de la Villette and Deconstructivist Design: Discusses Bernard Tschumi's
Parc de la Villette, highlighting its deconstructivist approach, large scale, and integration of open
space within a redevelopment project.

XI. Environmental Design and the Rise of Ecological Awareness

Environmental Design: Addressing Environmental Concerns: Introduces the concept of
environmental design, focusing on its role in finding creative solutions to environmental
problems, incorporating ecological principles into design, and promoting sustainability.
The Influence of Rachel Carson and Earth Day: Highlights the impact of Rachel Carson's book
"Silent Spring" and the first Earth Day celebration in 1970, raising awareness about
environmental issues and sparking a shift towards ecological thinking in landscape architecture.
Jens Jensen: A Champion of Native Plants and the Naturalistic Style: Introduces Jens Jensen, a
landscape architect known for his strong environmental consciousness, use of native plants and
local stone, and emphasis on the social benefits of public parks.
Ian McHarg: Holistic Design and "Design with Nature": Explores the work of Ian McHarg, a
landscape architect and planner who pioneered a holistic approach to design, outlined in his
book "Design with Nature." This section emphasizes McHarg's site analysis techniques based
on the carrying capacity of the land and his development of mapping overlays, which laid the
foundation for GIS technology.

XII. Land Art and the Intersection of Art and Landscape

Land Art: Earth as Medium and Process as Focus: Introduces Land Art, an art movement that
uses the earth itself as a medium, highlighting its ephemeral nature, emphasis on process, and
challenge to traditional notions of art.
Ian Hamilton Finlay: Little Sparta and Garden Poetry: Explores the work of Ian Hamilton Finlay,
specifically his garden Little Sparta, which combines concrete poetry and sculptural forms to
create a unique landscape experience.
Robert Smithson: Spiral Jetty and the Iconic Power of Land Art: Examines Robert Smithson's
Spiral Jetty, a large-scale earthwork in the Great Salt Lake, Utah, highlighting its significance as
a powerful symbol of the Land Art movement.
Christo and Jeanne-Claude: Wrapping Landscapes and Environmental Interventions: Briefly
mentions the work of Christo and Jeanne-Claude, known for their large-scale environmental
installations that involve wrapping landscapes and structures.
Andy Goldsworthy: Ephemeral Works and the Processes of Nature: Discusses the work of Andy
Goldsworthy, known for his ephemeral sculptures and installations created from natural
materials, emphasizing his exploration of natural processes and the passage of time.

XIII. Contemporary Trends and the Future of Landscape Architecture

Piet Oudolf: New Perennialism and Naturalistic Planting Design: Introduces Piet Oudolf, a Dutch
landscape architect known for his naturalistic planting style, highlighting his emphasis on
texture, form, seasonal interest, and sustainability.
Sustainability and Climate Change: New Challenges and Opportunities: Discusses the growing
importance of sustainability and addressing climate change in contemporary landscape
architecture, emphasizing the need for innovative solutions, water conservation, and the use of
native plants.
Technology and Innovation: Shaping the Future of Design: Explores the impact of technology
and innovation on landscape architecture, highlighting new tools and techniques for design,
visualization, and analysis.
Social Equity and Inclusivity: Creating Accessible and Equitable Landscapes: Emphasizes the
growing focus on social equity and inclusivity in contemporary landscape architecture,
promoting the design of accessible and welcoming spaces for diverse communities.
The Evolving Role of Landscape Architects: Beyond Beautification: Concludes by discussing the
expanding role of landscape architects in addressing complex challenges, including urban
planning, environmental restoration, and community development, highlighting the profession's
vital contribution to shaping a sustainable and equitable future.