BEH 260 Page 1 of 6 Section 1.

1 Lecture Notes
Behavioral Statistics

Objectives:
1. Define statistics and statistical thinking
2. Explain the process of statistics
3. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative variables
4. Distinguish between discrete and continuous variables
5. Determine the level of measurement of a variable

Why Statistics?
“Because it’s required for your degree.”

Without statistics (Source: http://statswithcats.wordpress.com):

• There would be no U.S. Census, IRS audits, Nielsen ratings of TV shows, political polls, and consumer
preference surveys
• Our society couldn’t function without being able to figure out tax brackets, insurance rates, stock prices,
and online matchmaking
• We couldn’t predict the outcome of elections before the polls close
• There would be no standardized tests, no ACT, GRE, TOEFL, MBTI, SATs, or CATs
• Amazon.com couldn’t tell us what we want to buy
• Baseball announcers would have nothing to talk about between pitches
• We could not determine if a pharmaceutical drug or medication is effective.

Definition 1a Statistics

Statistics is the study of how to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret numerical information from data.

Definition 1b Statistics

Statistics is both the science of uncertainty and the technology of extracting information from data.

The Process of Statistics

Consider the following scenario:

You are walking down the street and notice that a person walking in front of you drops $100. Nobody
seems to notice except you. Since you could keep the $100 without anyone knowing, would you keep it or
return it to the owner?

Suppose you wanted to use this scenario as a gauge of the morality of students at this campus. How would you do
this?
Page 2 of 6 Section 1.1 Lecture Notes

Definition 2 Population

The entire group to be studied is called the population.

Definition 3 Individual

An individual is a person or object that is a member of the population being studied.

Definition 4 Sample

A sample is a subset of the population that is being studied.

Definition 5 Statistic

A statistic or sample statistic is a numerical measure that describes an aspect of a sample.

Definition 6 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics describes data through numerical summaries, tables, and graphs.

Definition 7 Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics uses methods that take a result from a sample, extend it to the population, and
measure the reliability of the result.

Definition 8 Parameter

A parameter or population parameter is a numerical measure that describes an aspect of a population.

The Process of Statistics

1. Identify the research objective.
2. Collect the data needed to answer the question(s).
3. Describe the data.
4. Perform inference.
Page 3 of 6

Example 1 The Process of Statistics

A study was conducted to determine if listening to heavy metal music affects critical thinking. To test the
claim, 124 subjects were randomly assigned to two groups. Both groups were administered a basic math
skills exam. The first group took the exam while heavy metal music was piped into the exam room, while
the second group took the exam in a silent room. The mean exam score for the first group was 76, and the
mean exam score for the second group was 83. The researchers concluded that heavy metal music
negatively affects critical thinking. Identify the following:

(a) the research objective

(b) the sample

(c) the descriptive statistics

(d) the conclusions made in the study.

Qualitative & Quantitative Variables

Definition 9 Qualitative Variable

Qualitative, or categorical, variable allow for the classification of individuals based on some attribute or
characteristic. In other words, a qualitative variable describes an individual by placing the individual into a
category or group, such as male or female.

Definition 10 Quantitative Variable

Quantitative variables provide numerical measures of individuals. Arithmetic can be performed on the
values of a quantitative variable and provide meaningful results.
Page 4 of 6 Section 1.1 Lecture Notes

Example 2 Qualitative verse Quantitative Variables

Determine whether the following variables are qualitative or quantitative.

(a) Gender

(b) Number of days during the past week that a college student studied

(c) Type of wood used to build a kitchen table

(d) Political Affiliation

(e) Volume

(f) Number of children

(g) Zip code

Discrete & Continuous Variables

Definition 11 Discrete Variable

A discrete variable is a quantitative variable that has either a finite number of possible values or a
countable number of possible values.

Definition 12 Continuous Variable

A Continuous variable is a quantitative variable that has an infinite number of possible values that are not
countable.

Example 3 Discrete verse Continuous Variables

Determine whether the quantitative variables are discrete or continuous.

(a) The number of heads obtained after flipping a coin five times.

(b) The distance a 2011 Toyota Prius can travel in city driving conditions with a full tank of gas.

(c) The number of cars that arrive at a McDonald’s drive-thru between 12:00 PM and 1:00 PM.

(d) Internet connection speed in kilobytes per second.

(e) Number of children.

Page 5 of 6 Section 1.1 Lecture Notes

Level of Measurement
Rather than classify a variable as qualitative or quantitative, we can assign a level of measurement to the
variable. Variables that are nominal or ordinal are qualitative variables. Variables that are interval or ratio
are quantitative variables.

Definition 13 Nominal Level of Measurement

A variable is at the nominal level of measurement if the values of the variable name, label, or
categorize. Values of the variable cannot be ranked or arranged in a specific order. In other
words, there are no implied criteria by which the data can be ordered from smallest to largest.

Definition 14 Ordinal Level of Measurement

A variable is at the ordinal level of measurement if it has the properties of the nominal level of
measurement; however, the naming scheme allows for the values of the variable to be ranked or
arranged in a specific order. Note: Differences between data values either cannot be determined
or are meaningless.

Definition 15 Interval Level of Measurement

A variable is at the interval level of measurement if it has the properties of the ordinal level of
measurement and the difference in the values of the variable have meaning. A value of zero does
not mean the absence of the quantity. Arithmetic can be performed in the values of the variable.

Definition 16 Ratio Level of Measurement

A variable is at the ratio level of measurement if it has the properties of the interval level of
measurement and the ratios of the values of the variable have meaning. A value of zero means
the absence of the quantity (true zero). Arithmetic can be performed in the values of the variable.

Example 4 Ordinal Level of Measurement

Determine the level of measurement of each variable.

(a) Nation of origin

(b) Volume of water used by a household in 1 day

(c) Year of birth of college students

(d) Movie ratings of 1 star through 5 stars

Page 6 of 6 Section 1.1 Lecture Notes

PROCEDURE
How to Determine the Level of Measurement
To determine the level of measurement of data, state the highest level that can be justified for the entire
collection of data. Consider which calculation are suitable for the data.
LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT SUITABLE CALCULATION
Nominal We can put the data into categories.
Ordinal We can order the data from smallest to largest or
“worst” to “best.” Each data value can be compared
with another data value.
Interval We can order the data and also take the differences
between data values. At this level, it makes sense to
compare the differences between data values. For
instance, we can say that one data value is 5 more
than or 12 less than another data value.
Ratio We can order the data, take differences, and also
find the ratio between data values. For instance, it
makes sense to say that one data value is twice as
large as another.
BEH 260 Page 1 of 3 Section 1.2 Lecture Notes
Observational Study Verse Designed Experiments

Objectives:
1. Distinguish between an observational study and an experiment
2. Explain the various type of observational studies

Distinguish Between Observational Study& Designed

Experiments
Example 1 Cellular Phones and Brain Tumors

Researcher Elizabeth Cardis and her colleagues wanted "to determine whether mobile phone use
increases the risk of brain tumors." The researcher’s identified 5117 individuals from 13 countries
who were 30 to 59 years of age who had brain tumors diagnosed between 2002 and 2004 and
matched them with 5634 individuals who did not have brain tumors. The matching was based on
age, gender, and region of residence. Both the individuals with tumors and the matched
individuals were interviewed to learn about past mobile phone use, as well as social demographic
background, medical history, and smoking status. The researchers concluded there is "no
increased risk of brain tumors observed in association with use of mobile phones." (Source:
Elizabeth Cardis et al. "Brain Tumor Risk in Relation to Mobile Telephone Use," International
Journal of Epidemiology 2010: 1-20)

Example 2 Cellular Phones and Brain Tumors

Researchers Joseph L. Roti and associates examined "whether chronic exposure to radio
frequency (RF) radiation at two common cell phone signals - 835.62 MHz, a frequency used by
analogue cell phones, and 847.74 MHz, a frequency used by digital cell phones - caused brain
tumors in rats." To do so, the researchers randomly divided 480 rats into three groups. The rats in
group 1 were exposed to the analogue cell phone frequency; the rats in group 2 were exposed to
the digital frequency; the rats in group 3 served as controls and received no radiation. The
exposure was done for 4 hours a day, five days a week for 2 years. The rats in all three groups
were treated the same, except for the RF exposure.

After 505 days of exposure, the researchers reported the following after analyzing the data. "We
found no statistically significant increases in any tumor type, including brain, liver, lung or kidney,
compared to the control group." (Source: M. La Regina, et al, "The Effect of Chronic Exposure to
835.62 MHz FMCW or 847.74 MHz CDMA on the Incidence of Spontaneous Tumors in Rats,"
Bioelectromagnetic Society Conference, June 25, 2002)

In both studies, the goal of the research was to determine if radio frequencies from cell phones increase

contracting brain tumors. Whether or not brain cancer was contracted is the response variable variable.

The level of cell phone usage is the explanatory variable variable.

Definition 1 Explanatory and Response Variables

The response variable is the variable whose value can be explained by the value of the
explanatory or predictor variable. Another way to view it is the response variable is the variable
being measured.
Page 2 of 3 Section 1.2 Lecture Notes
Observational Study Verse Designed Experiments

Definition 2 Observational Study

An observational study measures the value of the response variable without attempting to
influence the value of either the response or explanatory variables. That is, in an observational
study, the researcher observes the behavior of the individuals without trying to influence the
outcome of the study.

Definition 3 Designed Experiment

If the researcher assigns the individuals in the study to a certain group, intentionally changes the
value of an explanatory variable, and then records the value of the response variable for each
group, the study is a designed experiment.

Example 3 Do Flu Shots Benefit Seniors?

Researchers wanted to determine the long-term benefits of the influenza vaccine on seniors age
65 years and older. The researchers looked at records of over 36,000 seniors for 10 years. The
seniors were divided into two groups. Group 1 were seniors who chose to get a flu vaccination
shot, and group 2 were seniors who chose not to get a flu vaccination shot. After observing the
seniors for 10 years, it was determined that seniors who get flu shots are 27% less likely to be
hospitalized for pneumonia or influenza and 48% less likely to die from pneumonia or influenza.
(Source: Kristin L. Nichol et al, "Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccine in the Community-Dwelling
Elderly," New England Journal of Medicine, 2007)
Page 1 of 1 Section 1.2 Lecture Notes
Observational Study Verse Designed Experiments

Example 4 Observational Study or Designed Experiment?

Determine whether each of the following studies depict an observational study or an experiment.
If the researchers conducted an observational study, determine the type of the observational
study.

(a) Researchers wanted to assess the long-term psychological effects on children evacuated
during World War II. They obtained a sample of 169 former evacuees and a control group of
43 people who were children during the war but were not evacuated. The subjects’ mental
states were evaluated using questionnaires. It was determined that the psychological well-
being of the individuals was adversely affected by evacuation. (Source: Foster D, Davies S,
and Steele H (2003) The evacuation of British children during World War II: a preliminary
investigation into the long-term psychological effects. Aging & Mental Health (7)5.)

(b) Xylitol has proven effective in preventing dental caries (cavities) when included in food or
gum. A total of 75 Peruvian children were given milk with and without xylitol and were asked
to evaluate the taste of each. Overall, the children preferred the milk flavored with xylitol.
(Source: Castillo JL, et al (2005) Children's acceptance of milk with xylitol or sorbitol for dental
caries prevention. BMC Oral Health (5)6.)

(c) A total of 974 homeless women in the Los Angeles area were surveyed to determine their
level of satisfaction with the healthcare provided by shelter clinics versus the healthcare
provided by government clinics. The women reported greater quality satisfaction with the
shelter and outreach clinics compared to the government clinics. (Source: Swanson KA,
Andersen R, Gelberg L (2003) Patient satisfaction for homeless women. Journal of Women’s
Health (12)7.)

(d) The Cancer Prevention Study II (CPS-II) is funded and conducted by the American Cancer
Society. Its goal is to examine the relationship among environmental and lifestyle factors on
cancer cases by tracking approximately 1.2 million men and women. Study participants
completed an initial study questionnaire in 1982 providing information on a range of lifestyle
factors such as diet, alcohol and tobacco use, occupation, medical history, and family cancer
history. These data have been examined extensively in relation to cancer mortality. Vital
status of study participants is updated biennially. Cause of death has been documented for
over 98% of all deaths that have occurred. Mortality follow-up of the CPS-II participants is
complete through 2002 and is expected to continue for many years. (Source: American
Cancer Society)

Note 1 Census

A census is a list of all individuals in a population along with certain characteristics of each
individual.
BEH 260 Section 1.3 Lecture Notes
Page 1 of 3 Simple Random Sampling

Objective:
1. Obtain a simple random sample

Definition 1 Random Sampling

Random sampling is the process of using chance to select individuals from a population to be
included in the sample.

Note: When acquiring a random sample, chance or randomness must play a role in determining which
individuals are selected from the sample. If convenience is used to obtain a sample, the results of the
survey are meaningless.

Definition 2 Simple Random Sample

A sample of size from a population of size is obtained through simple random sampling if
every possible sample of size has an equally likely chance of occurring. The sample is then
called a simple random sample.

Important Features of a Simple Random Sample:

For a simple random sample

• Every sample of specified size from the population has an equal chance of being selected.
• No researcher bias occurs in the items selected for the sample.
• A random sample may not always reflect the diversity of the population. For instance, from a
population of 10 cats and 10 dogs, a random sample of size 6 could consist of all cats.

Example Illustrating Simple Random Sampling

Suppose a study group consists of 5 students:

Bob, Patricia, Mike, Jan, and Maria.

Two of the students must go to the board to demonstrate a homework problem.

(a) List all possible samples of size = 2 from the population of size = 5. Once an individual is
selected, they cannot be selected again (referred to as without replacement).

(b) Comment on the likelihood of the sample containing Mike and Jan.
Page 2 of 3 Section 1.3 Lecture Notes
Simple Random Sampling

Steps for Obtaining a Simple Random Sample

Definition 3 Frame

A frame is a list of all the individuals within the population.

1) Obtain a frame that lists all the individuals in the population of interest.
2) Number the individuals in the frame 1- .
3) Use a random number table, graphing calculator, or statistical software to randomly generate
numbers where is the desired sample size.

Example Obtaining a simple Random Sample

The 110th Congress of the United States had 435 members in the House of Representatives. (a)
Explain how to conduct a simple random sample of 5 members to attend a Presidential luncheon.
Then (b) obtain the sample.

(a)

(b) By Graphing Calculator

1. Press “MATH”
2. Arrow over to “PRB”
3. Arrow down to “5:randInt(“
4. Select by pressing “ENTER”
6. Press “,” – comma
7. Press “4” “3” “5” – Population size
8. Press “)” – Close parenthesis
9. Keep pressing “Enter” until
you have 5 unique numbers.

(b) By Table of Random Numbers

Page 3 of 3 Section 1.3 Lecture Notes
Simple Random Sampling
BEH 260 Section 1.4 Lecture Notes
Page 1 of 3 Other Effective Sampling Methods

Objectives:
1. Obtain a stratified sample
2. Obtain a systematic sample
3. Obtain a cluster sample

Definition 1 Stratified Sample

A stratified sample is one obtained by separating the population into homogeneous,

nonoverlapping groups called strata, and then obtaining a simple random sample from each
stratum. The individuals within each stratum should be similar in some way
Keyword: Nonoverlapping—make sure it is impossible for one member
of the population to fall into more than one category

Definition 2 Systematic Sample

A systematic sample is obtained by selecting every th individual from the population. The first
individual selected corresponds to a random number between 1 and .

Steps in Systematic Sampling (population size known)

Step 1: Determine the population size, .

Step 2: Determine the sample size desired, .
Step 3: Compute / and round down to the nearest integer. This value is .
Step 4: Randomly select a number between 1 and . Call this number .
Step 5: The sample will consist of the following individuals:
, + , + ,…, + −

Example Obtaining a Systematic Sample

The human resource department at a certain company wants to conduct a survey regarding
worker benefits. The department has an alphabetical list of all 6127 employees at the company
and wants to conduct a systematic sample of size 60.
(a) What is ?

(b) Determine the individuals who will be administered the survey. Randomly select a number
from 1 to . Suppose that we randomly select 19. Starting with the first individual selected, the
individuals in the survey will be:

Aaaaaa, aaaaaa, …, aaaaaa

Page 2 of 3 Section 1.4 Lecture Notes
Other Effective Sampling Methods

Definition 3 Cluster Sample

A cluster sample is obtained by selecting all individuals within a randomly selected collection or
group of individuals.

Definition 4 Convenience Sample

A convenience sample is a sample in which the individuals are easily obtained and not based
on randomness. Studies that use convenience sampling generally have results that are
suspect. The results should be looked on with extreme skepticism.

Determining Sample Size

Determining sample size is key in the overall statistical process. We will discuss how to determine
sample size in Chapter 9.
Page 3 of 3 Section 1.4 Lecture Notes
Other Effective Sampling Methods

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES (Review)

• Random sampling: Use a simple random sample from the entire population.

• Stratified sampling: Divide the entire population into distinct subgroups, called strata. The strata are
based on a specific characteristic such as age, income, education level, and so on. All members of a
stratum share the specific characteristic. Draw random samples from each stratum.

• Systematic sampling: Number all members of the population sequentially. Then, from a starting
pointed selected at random, include every th member of the population in the sample.

• Cluster sampling: Divide the entire population into pre-existing segments or clusters. The clusters
are often geographic. Make a random selection of clusters. Include every member of each
selected cluster in the sample.

• Convenience sampling: Create a sample by using data from population members that are readily
available.
BEH 260 Section 1.5 Lecture Notes
Page 1 of 2 Bias in Sampling

Objective:
1. Explain the sources of bias in sampling

Definition 1 Bias

If the results of the sample are not representative of the population, then the sample has bias.

There are three sources of bias in sampling:

1) Sampling bias
2) Nonresponse bias
3) Response bias

Definition 2 Sampling Bias

Sampling bias means that the technique used to obtain the individuals to be in the sample tend
to favor one part of the population over another.

Note: Sampling bias can lead to incorrect predictions.

Definition 3 Nonresponse Bias

Nonresponse bias exists when individuals selected to be in the sample who do not respond to
the survey have different opinions from those who do. Nonresponse can occur because
individuals selected for the sample do not wish to respond or the interviewer was unable to
contact them.

Note: Nonresponse can be improved through the use of callbacks or rewards/incentives.

Definition 4 Response Bias

Response bias exists when the answers on a survey do not reflect the true feelings of the
respondent.

Types of Response Bias:

1) Interviewer error—a trained interviewer is essential to obtain accurate information from a survey.
A skilled interviewer can elicit responses from individuals and make the interviewee feel
comfortable enough to give truthful responses. On the other hand, you should always be
suspicious of survey results. Never trust survey results if the sponsor has a vested interest in the
results of the survey.

Example Interviewer Error

Would you trust a survey conducted by a car dealer that reports 90% of customers say
they would buy another car from the dealer?
Page 2 of 2 Section 1.5 Lecture Notes
Bias in Sampling

2) Misrepresented answers—some survey questions result in responses that misrepresent facts or

are flat-out lies. People tend to inflate or overestimate their abilities.

Example Misrepresented Answers

Ask people how many push-ups they can do in one minute, and then ask them to do the
push-ups. How accurate were they?

3) Wording of questions—the way a question is worded can lead to response bias in a survey, so
questions must always be asked in a balanced form. Another consideration in wording a question
is not to be vague.

Example Wording of Questions

The yes/no question: “Do you oppose the reduction of estate taxes?” should be written
“Do you favor or oppose the reduction of estate taxes?”

4) Ordering of the questions or words within the question—many surveys will rearrange the
order of the questions within a questionnaire so that responses are not affected by prior
questions. Surveys will also rearrange words within a question.

Example Words within a Question

Do you [rotated: approve (or) disapprove] of the job Donald Trump is doing as president?