Acta Mechanica Sinica

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10409-020-00926-7

RESEARCH PAPER

Large deformation plasticity

From basic relations to finite deformation

Otto T. Bruhns1

Received: 8 July 2019 / Revised: 7 November 2019 / Accepted: 2 December 2019

© The Author(s) 2021, corrected publication 2021

Abstract
The theory of plasticity as a special field of continuum mechanics deals with the irreversible, i.e. permanent, deformation of
solids. Under the action of given loads or deformations, the state of the stresses and strains or the strain rates in these bodies
is described. In this way, it complements the theory of elasticity for the reversible behavior of solids. In practice, it has been
observed that many materials behave elastically up to a certain load (yield point), beyond that load, however, increasingly
plastic or liquid-like. The combination of these two material properties is known as elastoplasticity. The classical elastoplastic
material behavior is assumed to be time-independent or rate-independent. In contrast, we call a time- or rate-dependent
behavior visco-elastoplastic and visco-plastic—if the elastic part of the deformation is neglected. In plasticity theory, because
of the given loads the states of the state variables stress, strain and temperature as well as their changes are described. For
this purpose, the observed phenomena are introduced and put into mathematical relationships. The constitutive relations
describing the specific material behavior are finally embedded in the fundamental relations of continuum theory and physics.
Historically, the theory of plasticity was introduced in order to better estimate the strength of constructions. An analysis based
purely on elastic codes is not in a position to do this, and can occasionally even lead to incorrect interpretations. On the other
hand, the entire field of forming techniques requires a theory for the description of plastic behavior. Starting from the classical
description of plastic behavior with small deformations, the present review is intended to provide an insight into the state of
the art when taking into account finite deformations.

Keywords Finite deformation · Elasto-plasticity · Constitutive relations · Thermodynamics · History of plasticity

1 Small deformation theories end of the 19th century1 Tresca [5] as well as later von Mises
[6] introduced a limit in stress space, separating the range of
Since people have learned to melt and process metals, they elastic (or rigid) behavior from that of plastic deformations.
know that these can be deformed under the influence of heat The investigations then began with purely phenomenological
and large forces and that their properties can change as well. considerations to describe the constitutive relations between
Whereas in ancient times, the knowledge about these pro- the stresses and rates of strain and strains, respectively.
cesses was only accessible to a few selected people, who Until about 1940, for the case of small deformations, three
carefully guarded it as art, a rethinking has taken place with different types of relations were proposed. These were (i) the
the New Age. At least since the beginning of industrialization Lévy-von Mises equations:
in Europe, people were forced to investigate the governing 1
processes and their interrelations more precisely. This was ε̇  = Λσ  , (•) = (•) − tr(•)I , (1)
3
the beginning of the scientific treatment of plasticity, which,
perhaps somewhat arbitrarily, can be identified with a series for a rigid plastic material2 , (ii) the Hencky equations:
of experiments by the French engineer Tresca towards the

B
1 A somewhat more detailed outline of the history of plasticity can be
Otto T. Bruhns
otto.bruhns@rub.de found in Refs. [1–4]. Parts of these works were included in the present
review article.
1 2 Here and in what follows, a prime will mark the deviator of a second
Institute of Mechanics, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44780
Bochum, Germany order tensor.

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 O. T. Bruhns

1+ϕ  1 1 
ε = σ , tr(ε) = tr(σ ) , ε̇  = σ̇ . (2) so-called loading factor  has been introduced taking the val-
2μ 3K 2μ ues 1 and 0 during loading and unloading (elastic behavior),
respectively:
under loading condition beyond the yield limit and with Eq.
(2)3 during unloading and purely elastic processes, and (iii) 
1, wherever F = 0 and Ḟ = 0 ,
the Prandtl-Reuss equations: = (6)
0, wherever F < 0, or where F = 0 and Ḟ < 0 .
1  1
ε̇  = σ̇ + Λσ  , tr(ε̇) = tr(σ̇ ) , (3) Thus, for a von Mises material with yield condition (4), we
2μ 3K
determine
for loading beyond the yield limit and with a plastic multiplier
Λ = 0 for unloading or purely elastic behavior, where μ is the ε̇ = C−1 : σ̇ + Λσ  . (7)
shear modulus and K the bulk modulus. In addition, during
the plastic part of the deformations, preferably von Mises For an isotropic, work-hardening hardening material, where
type yield conditions like function k 2 in Eq. (4) is described
 as function of the (accu-
mulated) plastic work w p = σ : ε̇ p dt, this relation is
F = tr(σ 2 ) − 2 k 2 = 0, (4) reformulated as

were prescribed, where k is the shear yield limit. k 2 = k02 + f (w p ) . (8)

It is obvious that Eq. (1) is valid only for plastic defor-
mation. Below the yield limit, and hence Λ = 0, this model
Now with the help of the consistency condition Ḟ = 0, Λ
describes a rigid behavior. Thus, representing a special case
can be calculated as4
of the more general Prandtl-Reuss model for vanishing elas-
tic deformations or for those cases where the latter can be 1   dk 2
neglected compared with the plastic deformations. On the Λ= σ : σ̇ , H = 2k 2 , (9)
H dw p
other hand, the ϕ in Eq. (2)1 is a yet unspecified proportion-
ality factor, analogous to Λ. where H = H (wp ) is a hardening function which has to be
Subsequently, the two models of Prandtl-Reuss and Hen- determined from appropriate experiments. With this result,
cky3 , were a matter of discussion whether they could we finally arrive at
adequately reproduce experimental observations. With this
respect, Hill [7] finally stated that the Hencky equations were 
ε̇ = C−1 : σ̇ + (σ  : σ̇  )σ  . (10)
unsuitable to describe a complete plastic behavior of a metal, H
and further: “None the less, in situations where the load-
ing is continuous, the Hencky equations may lead to results For application, especially for numerical calculations, an
in approximate agreement with observations. In some prob- inversion of Eq. (10) is necessary. We therefore multiply it
lems, too, total strain theories have certain advantages of from the left by C. Thus, C: C−1 = I, where I is the fourth-
mathematical convenience. It is apparently for this reason order identity tensor, and
that the Hencky (...) relations have often been used in appli-   
cations where the strains are small, particularly by Russian σ̇ = C: ε̇ − (σ  : σ̇  )σ  . (11)
H
writers.” It thus turned out that applying the Hencky equa-
tions could be associated with great inaccuracies, especially Now again multiplying this result from the left by σ  yields
in those cases where the loads are prescribed in the form of
non-radial processes. Therefore, this model, which is also 
σ  : σ̇ = σ  : σ̇  = σ  : C: ε̇ − (σ  : σ̇  )σ  : C: σ  .
referred to as deformation theory, is no longer used today. H
A more general description of the Prandtl-Reuss equations
can be found in the form From this, we finally can derive5 the inverted form of Eq.
(10)
1 ∂F
ε̇ = ε̇e + ε̇ p = C−1 : σ̇ + Λ , (5)  
2 ∂σ  σ  : C: ε̇
σ̇ = C: ε̇ − σ  . (12)
where C is the elastic stiffness tensor for an isotropic mate- H + σ  : C: σ 
rial, and the colon marks a double contracting product. A
4 We note that during loading  takes the value 1.
3In the English literature, these models are also referred to as incre- 5 This calculation was first carried out in Ref. [7] for the specific case
mental and total theories. of an isotropic material with hardening.

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Large deformation plasticity

1.1 Some amendments allowing for different evolutions in the tensile and the com-
pressive parts of the hysteresis loop.
Numerous modifications of this classical flow rule have been In addition, several kinematic variables can be used, with
introduced in the last centuries in various directions: the generalization
Firstly, with a modification of the yield condition (4), the 
concept of kinematic hardening has been adopted to account α= α i , (i = 1, 2, . . . ,n). (20)
for the Bauschinger effect during cyclic loading. According i
to Reuss [8], Prager [9], and Melan [10], we find
Finally, numerous applications of plasticity, e.g., in me-
  tal forming processes, made it necessary to extend the
F = (σ − α): (σ − α) − 2k , α̇ = cε̇ p ,2
(13)
relations to large deformations. Whereas Hencky’s defor-
where α is the so-called backstress, and c is an additional mation theory from its setting was restricted to applications
hardening parameter. A slightly modified expression for the within infinitesimal small deformations, this was not the
plastic part of the power ẇ p , namely case for the Prandtl-Reuss theory. Having in mind its set-
ting as a combination of fluid-like and solid-like materials,
s: ε̇ p = ẇ p , s = σ  − α , (14) its description of the fluid-like part originally was intro-
duced as a relation of the stress σ as function of the
rate of deformation (stretching) tensor D. Thus, it should
leads to a new Prandtl-Reuss equation
be straightforward to replace the rates of the strains in
  Eq. (5) by the respective parts of the rate of deformation,
s: C: ε̇
σ̇ = C: ε̇ − s , (15) viz.
H̄ + s: C: s
D = De + Dp . (21)
where, compared with Eq. (11), σ  has been replaced by the
reduced deviatoric stresses s and the hardening function H
Applying this to Eq. (3), yields
of Eq. (9)2 by
1  1
H̄ = H + 2k 2 c , (16) D = σ̇ + Λσ  , tr( D) = tr( De ) = tr(σ̇ ) . (22)
2μ 3K

combining the isotropic and the kinematic hardening. This, however, would cause at least two new problems
Moreover, to describe in a more appropriate manner the related with the elastic part of the aforementioned decom-
behavior during cyclic loading and to account for the different position. A first seminal discussion of the question how to
phenomena observed during corresponding experiments, the define in a physically reasonable way the different parts of
linear evolution Eq. (13)2 has been modified by introducing strains or strain rates that may contribute to the compos-
a second term, e.g., ite behavior of an elastic-plastic material was given in Ref.
  [13]7 .
α
α̇ = c ε̇ p − 2 ẇ p . (17)
2k (1) If the rates of the strain in the foregoing relations are
This generalization was first discussed in Ref. [11] and then replaced by the stretching, a relation between strain and
propagated in several papers (see, e.g., Ref. [12])6 . stretching would become necessary, e.g., to determine
Applying this modification to the Prandtl-Reuss equation, the strains in the plastically deformed structure. Provid-
we finally arrive at ed such a relation exists. We will see that it took several
decades to properly answer this first question.
  (2) Then the question arises, what kind of rate should be
s: C: ε̇
σ̇ = C: ε̇ − s , (18) used for the herein incorporated stresses and stress-like
Ĥ + s: C: s
quantities?
where now (3) Finally, a fundamental question needs to be answered:
In which way should the splitting of the different solid-
Ĥ = H̄ − c tr(sα) = H + c[2k 2 − tr(sα)] , (19) like elastic and fluid-like plastic contributions to the
total deformation be applied? Moreover, if strains are
6 In several of these works, the progress of the plastic processes is used, which strain measure should be chosen?
described by accumulated plastic strains εp rather than by the accu-
mulated plastic work w p . This, however, does not change the results 7 The interested reader may in particular follow the discussion in Sects.
significantly. 3 and 4 of this critical review.

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 O. T. Bruhns

1.2 Cyclic loading already used specific elements of thermodynamics, when

demanding a positive value of the rate of plastic work (plas-
Cyclically varying loads occur in many problems of engi- tic power) throughout the whole body. Later these thoughts
neering applications. Already with his work from 1924, were broadened in Refs. [44–47]. More recent contributions
H. Hencky [14] pointed out the necessity of an adequate were made in Refs. [48–50], and many others. Experimental
treatment. At the time, he explained that, depending on the observations describing a temperature dependency of plastic
specific loading, a cyclic load could give rise to an elas- behavior were reported, e.g., in Refs. [51–54].
tic shakedown or to damage with rupture and subsequent In order to consider the temperature dependence of a
failure of the structure. These thoughts were taken up again material behavior, it is not sufficient to simply insert the tem-
in the 1930s by many authors [8–10,15] when introducing perature into the material description, e.g., as an additional
kinematic hardening and describing the Bauschinger effect. parameter. The modeling in addition to the fundamental laws
Another very simple approach to describe the Bauschinger of mechanics has to incorporate also the natural laws of ther-
effect can be traced back to Ref. [16]. Since the second half modynamics.
of the last century, such challenging engineering projects as First, it is assumed that there exists a quantity T , called
aircraft constructions, high-speed railways, aerospace struc- the absolute temperature, which is always positive:
tures and, in particular, the construction of nuclear reactors
have provided a significant stimulus to improve the descrip- T > 0. (23)
tion of cyclic plasticity phenomena. These developments
required a particularly high level of security for these struc-
tures. Since then, many attempts have been made to include This statement is sometimes referred to as the zeroth law of
hardening and recovery, ratchetting, amplitude dependence thermodynamics.
of hardening, the influence of non-radial loading, etc., in Second, from the observation of interconvertibility of heat
model formulations. and mechanical work, it is assumed that the mechanical work
One of the first more realistic models that has been widely done by the external loading and the internal stresses and the
used in practice describes a back stress increasing along the non-mechanical work contributed by the heat flux and the
plastic strain rate orientation and decreasing proportionally to heat supply are converted into kinetic energy and internal
the back stress itself, refer to Eq. (17). That is, the back stress energy of the material body. Accordingly, a new physical
evolves toward its limit value specified by a hardening satu- quantity, the internal energy, is introduced. Let ϕ represent
ration. This model was originally introduced by Armstrong the internal energy per unit reference volume. Then, from
and Frederick (A-F model) [11] and then generalized by the energy balance, together with the Euler-Cauchy law of
many authors [17–25]. Comparable results can be achieved motion and the continuity equation, the following relation
with a multi-surface model such as provided by Mróz [26], may be derived:
cf. Refs. [27,28]. Ohno and Wang [29] succeeded in sig-
nificantly improving the A-F model by incorporating the ϕ̇ = σ : ε̇ − ∇· q + r , (24)
dynamic recovery of the α i . Amendments were discussed e.g.
in Refs. [30,31]. Further typical examples of current models for all possible thermodynamic processes. Here, ∇ is used
are given as Refs. [32–35]. An extension to model large to designate the differentiation with respect to the current
deformations and to include temperature effects is described position vector. Let n be the outward normal at a point on
with Refs. [36–38]. a closed material surface. Then q· n > 0 means the efflux
of the heat through the material surface and thus follows the
1.3 Influence of temperature and rate dependence minus sign in Eq. (24) for the term contributed by the heat
flux q. This is the first law of thermodynamics: the changing
Although from the very beginning plastic behavior of a mate- rate of internal energy is furnished by the sum of the (internal)
rial body should be closely related with thermomechanical stress power and the (internal) non-mechanical power due to
energy transformations, e.g., due to the energy dissipation heat flux and heat supply r .
into heat during plastic work, this effect was for long time Next, based on the observation of the irreversibility of
neglected (refer, e.g., to the textbook [7]). macroscopic physical phenomena, it is assumed that there
This situation began to change, when in the 1950s and exists a scalar field quantity η measured per unit reference
60s, several researchers studied the thermodynamic founda- volume, called specific entropy, so that the following inequal-
tions of elastoplasticity. In the case of small deformation, ity holds:
e.g., Prager [39], Ziegler [40], and Naghdi [41] started to
incorporate thermodynamic principles into their consider- q r
ations. In earlier works, e.g., Green [42] and Prager [43] η̇ ≥ −∇· + , (25)
T T

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Large deformation plasticity

where η̇ represents the total local dissipation. This inequality conjugated quantities [56–58]. Thus, for an elastoplastic
is the second law. material, e.g., with state variables  e and T , process vari-
Entropy η and the internal energy ϕ are related to each ables α and κ = k 2 (w p , T ), and the Helmholtz free energy
other through the first and second laws. To render this relation ψ = ψ(εe , T , α, κ), inequality (30) becomes
direct, alternate forms are derivable by a Legendre transform  
introducing the Helmholtz free energy per unit reference vol- ∂ψ ∂ψ
D= σ− : ε˙e − η + Ṫ
ume: ∂ε e ∂T (31)
∂ψ ∂ψ
+ σ : ε˙p − α̇ − κ̇ ≥ 0 .
ψ = ϕ − Tη. (26) ∂α ∂κ
With this notation, we follow Ref. [59], and only for simplic-
Then, the energy balance (24) may be reformulated as
ity, we replace the k 2 of prior relations by a process variable
κ, which now may be a function of plastic work and the
ψ̇ = σ : ε̇ − ∇· q + r − η Ṫ − T η̇ . (27)
temperature.
Since this inequality is assumed to hold true for all admis-
Using this relation, we may recast inequality (25)
sible processes, two equations of state can be deduced as
1
σ : ε̇ − (ψ̇ + η Ṫ ) − q· ∇T ≥ 0 . (28) ∂ψ ∂ψ
T σ = and η = − . (32)
∂εe ∂T
Inequality (25) or its alternate form Eq. (28), also known
In addition, as the time rates of the state variables are inde-
as Clausius-Duhem inequality, express the entropy principle
pendent of ∇T , the Clausius-Duhem inequality (28) was
for the irreversibility of physical phenomena in deformable
recast into an internal dissipation term and a heat conduc-
bodies.
tion inequality. The latter requires
Furthermore, we introduce a quantity D
1
D = T η̇ − (r − ∇· q) = σ : ε̇ − (ψ̇ + η Ṫ ) . (29) − q· ∇T ≥ 0 . (33)
T
This quantity, known as internal dissipation, provides the With these results, the production of free energy becomes
remaining part after the deduction of the total local heating
from the total local entropy rate times the temperature. The ψ̇ = σ : ε̇e − η Ṫ − Di , (34)
Planck inequality (cf., e.g., Ref. [55])
where
D ≥0 (30)
∂ψ ∂ψ
Di = − : α̇ − κ̇ (35)
requires that the internal dissipation should always be non- ∂α ∂κ
negative. It should be positive for a process of dissipative is the dissipation due to the inelastic deformation of the inter-
deformation such as in elastoplasticity. nal structure. Thus, introducing the balance (27), the entropy
For a thermomechanical behavior of a material body, there production may be reformulated as
will be a strong coupling between the deformation field, the
stress field, and the temperature field. The material behav- T η̇ = σ : ε̇p + Di − ∇· q + r . (36)
ior will be characterized by constitutive relations relating
these field quantities and their histories. The thermodynamic This is guaranteed for arbitrary ε̇ e and Ṫ , if the two equa-
laws as expressed in Eqs. (23–25), or their alternate forms tions of state (32) hold. The first term herein is the so-called
Eqs. (27) and (28), place restrictions on various kinds of the inelastic stress power.8
material behavior. With the help of the equations of state (32), the above result
We note here that the stress power ẇ = σ : ε̇ per unit may be converted to an evolution equation for the temperature
volume in Eq. (24) plays an essential role, especially when (refer, e.g., to Ref. [60]). We thus arrive at the equation of
deriving constitutive relations. If thermodynamic consis- heat production:
tency of a constitutive relation is analyzed—or in other
words—if the bounds of such consistency with thermody- ∂σ ∂Di
cT Ṫ = T : ε̇ e − ∇· q + r + σ : ε̇ p + Di − T , (37)
namics are examined, the internal dissipation D should fulfill ∂T ∂T
Planck’s inequality (30). 8 In passing, we note that for an adiabatic process, i.e. for −∇· q + r ≡
Since σ and ε̇ constitute the stress power, the stress 0, due to the different sources of dissipation the remaining thermody-
and the strain may be regarded as pair of energetically namic process is not isentropic.

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 O. T. Bruhns

where tury with Refs. [62–64,66] and some earlier considerations

in Refs. [65,67]. Norton [68] developed a one-dimensional
∂ 2ψ dashpot model, which linked the rate of (secondary) creep to
cT = −T
∂T 2 the stress. In 1934, Odqvist [69] generalized Norton’s law to
is the specific heat at constant strain. the multiaxial case. Hohenemser and Prager proposed a first
To complete the equation of heat production, a constitutive model for slow viscoplastic flow.This model provided a rela-
relation for the heat flux q has to be inserted into Eq. (37). tion between the deviatoric stress and the strain rate for an
It is a common practice to introduce here Fourier’s law of incompressible Bingham solid [70]. Malvern [71] has taken
isotropic heat conduction up these ideas proposing a one-dimensional constitutive law
of the form
q = −λ∇T , (38)
E ε̇ = σ̇ + k[σ − f (ε)] . (40)
where λ ≥ 0 is here the so-called thermal conductivity and
such that inequality (33) will take its maximum value. Here, the plastic strain rate is proportional to σ − f (ε), the
Fourier’s law means that the heat flux can only take place excess of stress over the stress at the same strain in a static
in the direction of decreasing temperature. It is obvious that test, and σ = f (ε) expressing the static plastic stress-strain
for one-dimensional problems, this equation reduces to the relation. The basic idea of this so-called overstress descrip-
parabolic diffusion equation, implying that thermal distur- tion has been adopted later by numerous other authors.
bances propagate with infinite velocity. A more appropriate The first IUTAM Symposium on “Creep in Structures”
generalized law has been discussed in Ref. [61] [72] provided a major development in viscoplasticity. Perzy-
na in Refs. [73,74] and later with his seminal work [75]
cτ q̇ + q = −λ∇T , (39) introduced a viscosity coefficient that is temperature and time
dependent, e.g.,
the so-called Maxwell-Cattaneo relation, where now wave-
1  ∂f 1
like solutions can be obtained from this equation. Accord- ε̇ = σ̇ + γ Φ(F) , trε̇ = trσ̇ , (41)
ingly, cτ is the characteristic relaxation time. 2μ ∂σ 3K
We note that both laws of heat conduction constitute rate-
where μ and K are parameters of elasticity and γ is a viscos-
dependent relations and thus introduce a rate dependency
ity constant of the material. The symbol • herein is defined
into the description of thermoplasticity, although the setting
as:
of the elastic-plastic material description was introduced as

rate independent. 0, for F ≤ 0,
• = (42)
It is well known that in many practical problems, the actual •, for F > 0,
behavior of a material is governed by plastic as well as vis-
cous effects, e.g., visible as a more or less pronounced strain and F is a static yield function:
rate dependence of respective uniaxial stress-strain curves.
This, however, is contradicting the fundamental assumption f (σ , ε p )
F(σ , ε p ) = − 1, (43)
of plasticity, namely, a time independence of the constitu- κ
tive equations. It is therefore a common practice that for a
wherein κ = κ(w p ) is a work-hardening parameter.
material with less rate sensitivity, or for a low velocity of
In cases where the influence of the temperature can no
loading, this dependence is neglected. For many materials,
longer be neglected, these equations are reformulated as
however, it is observed that these strain-rate effects are more
pronounced after the plastic state has been reached. In these 1  ∂f 1
cases, it may be assumed that the material displays viscous ε̇= σ̇ +γ (T )Φ(F) , trε̇= trσ̇ +ᾱ Ṫ , (44)
2μ ∂σ 3K
properties in the plastic range, too. Before yielding, the mate-
rial remains elastic, and after yielding, it exhibits viscous as with ᾱ the coefficient of thermal expansion. Here γ and κ,
well as plastic properties. This composite behavior is called and thus F and Φ are temperature-dependent quantities.
viscoplasticity.
We note that for most materials, the rate sensitivity
increases with the temperature. Thus, it should be clear that 2 Step towards finite deformations
at higher temperatures, these strain-rate effects could not be
neglected. Hencky [76] was one of the first to use tensor analysis in
In viscoplasticity, the development of a mathematical continuum mechanics. He also in Ref. [77] introduced a log-
model heads back to the beginning of the twentieth cen- arithmic strain measure

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Large deformation plasticity

1 In Ref. [77], he therefore replaced the time derivative of

h= ln B , B = V 2 = F FT, (45)
2 the stress tensor by10
◦
in today’s notation, and σ̇ ⇒ σ = σ̇ + σ W − W σ . (52)

1
n
1 Herein, the spin tensor (vorticity) W has been introduced as
h = e(0) = ln B = (ln χσ )B σ , (46) skew-symmetrical part of the velocity gradient L:
2 2
σ =1
1 1
W= L − LT , D= L + LT , L = Ḟ F −1 .
where F is the deformation gradient, and χσ and B σ are 2 2
n distinct eigenvalues and corresponding eigenprojections, (53)
respectively, of the left Cauchy-Green tensor B. The symbol
(•)T herein is used to represent the transpose of the second- Today, we recognize the Jaumann derivative, previously dis-
order tensor. Moreover, e(0) marks an Eulerian strain out of cussed in Refs. [79,80]. At that time, however, this finding
the family of the Seth-Hill-Doyle-Ericksen strains [78]: was ignored. Until much later the idea was taken up again,
e.g. in Refs. [81–87], and others. Prager [88] also mentioned
1 that “Jaumann’s work does not seem to be well known: the
e(m) = Bm − I , (47) definition ... is frequently used in the recent literature without
2m
reference to Jaumann.”
for m = 0.9
The corresponding Lagrangian counterparts are 2.1 Different objective rates and hypoelasticity

1 The first who rediscovered the above mentioned problems

E (m) = Cm − I , (48) of describing finite deformations was Oldroyd [81]. Like
2m
Hencky he introduced convected coordinates and a convected
and in particular for m = 0, differentiation with respect to time which must replace the
material derivative when equations of state are transformed
1 from a convected to a fixed system of reference.
H= ln C , C = U 2 = F T F (49)
2 As convected coordinates were used, four different rela-
tions may be given in a spatial description depending on the
are the Lagrangian Hencky strains with the property different representations of the (second rank) tensor compo-
nents as covariant, contravariant, or mixed quantities. It can
H = RT h R . (50) be shown that these different forms are particular cases of the
Lie derivative (refer to Refs. [89,90]). For the stress tensor, a
Herein C is the right Cauchy-Green tensor, and according to contravariant description was preferred, and thus the upper-
the polar decomposition, the deformation gradient F has the convected derivative or Oldroyd rate (54)1 was obtained
unique left and right multiplicative decompositions ◦
(δ cc /δt)σ = σu = σ̇ − σ L T − Lσ ,
◦
(δc·c /δt)σ = σm = σ̇ − σ LT + LTσ ,
F = V R = RU, RT = R−1 , det R = 1 , (51) ◦ (54)
c /δt)σ
(δ·c = σm = σ̇ + σ L − Lσ ,
◦
where U and V are right and left stretch tensors, and R is the (δcc /δt)σ = σl = σ̇ + σ L + LTσ ,
rotation tensor. Thus, due to the above correspondence (50),
the Lagrangian Hencky strain H may be interpreted as the for the Cauchy stresses. Here the superscript or subscript
back-rotated Eulerian Hencky strain h. index c is used as a mnemonic notation to distinguish con-
Hencky introduced Lagrangian and Eulerian descripti- travariant or covariant, respectively (refer to Ref. [57]).11 In
ons and discussed in this context the importance of time
10 Unfortunately, the original work of Hencky contained a small error.
derivatives occurring in the relevant constitutive laws. For a
Instead of the above spin tensor, he used an alternative definition, which
Lagrangian analysis, these were the material time derivatives. differs by a minus sign. Due to this deviation, however, his derivative
In an Eulerian description, which he preferred for physical (52) loses its objectivity.
reasons, he noted that the time derivative must be indepen- 11 We note that in the original literature instead of the small circle a
dent of the respective rigid body rotation. wavy line was used to designate an objective time derivative. In some
more recent literature, the raising and lowering of the indices c is in
analogy to the accidentals of music notation designated by a sharp ()
9 The proof of this limit is given with Ref. [4]. or a flat ().

123
 O. T. Bruhns

the above, the remaining three forms are with Eq. (54)4 the which turns over to the Jaumann rate (52), the Oldroyd rate
Cotter-Rivlin or lower-convected rate according to Ref. [91]. (54)1 , and the Cotter-Rivlin rate (54)4 , respectively, for m =
Moreover, due to the symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor, 0, 1, −1. Hill indeed preferred the Kirchhoff stress τ , which
the two mixed descriptions coincide. is the weighted Cauchy stress J σ , rather than the Cauchy
In a comprehensive work on the foundations of elasticity stress σ itself.
and fluid dynamics, Truesdell [92] discussed the general form During ensuing years, possible relations between hypoe-
of a material where the rate of stress is related to the rate of lasticity and elasticity were discussed extensively. From this
deformation. Applying the principle of invariance against a discussion, it turned out that most hypoelastic materials
rigid rotation, he arrived at the following expression for the fail to have the properties of an elastic let alone a hyper-
rate of stress: elastic (Green elastic) material. It was Bernstein [95] who
showed that hypoelastic rate constitutive relations have to
◦
σ = σ̇ − σ L T − Lσ + σ tr( D) (55) meet specific integrability conditions to gain the properties of
an elastic material. Nevertheless these rates—preferably the
◦ Jaumann rate—were widely accepted and used, even in com-
in a spatial description, where σ is named a relative time flux.
mercial computer codes. This preference of the Jaumann rate
It is evident that this is the same result as Oldroyd’s upper-
may be due to Prager [88], who in an elementary discussion of
convected rate, where the differential operation is applied to
different at the time existing stress rates and with the objective
the weighted Cauchy stress J σ , where J is the Jacobian of
to avoid non-uniqueness in the definition has introduced an
deformation and J˙ = J tr( D).
additional restriction which has to be satisfied during plastic
Thus, the defining relation for the simplest law satisfying
processes. Then the stress is at yield limit and the yield func-
this principle is
tion is zero. The yield function should be stationary when
◦ the stress rate vanishes. This implies that the invariants of
σ = A : D, (56) the stress tensor should be stationary, too. Applying this sta-
tionary condition to the above introduced stress rates, Prager
where the material tensor A may be a function of σ . This argued that the convected (non-corotational) rates presented
class of materials is named hypoelastic bodies with the prop- with the Oldroyd rates and the Truesdell rate could not be
erties that in general they neither have a preferred state nor recommended, as these rates do not imply stationarity of the
a preferred stress (refer to Ref. [93]). We note that Ref. [85] stress invariants.
emphasized that “this new theory does not employ any con- Thus, with the Jaumann rate the above Prandtl-Reuss the-
cept of strain.” ory, in particular, the J2 -flow theory with a von Mises-type
As a special case, an isotropic hypoelastic body of grade yield function (4), was developed by many researchers. How-
zero is considered, where the right-hand side of Eq. (56) ever, the foundation of this classical theory was shaken by an
appears to be independent of σ [93]. In the simplest case, unexpected discovery of spurious phenomena like the shear
this expression will depend upon the rate of deformation in oscillations. It seems that Lehmann [96] was the first to reveal
the same way as the stress depends upon the strain in the that a rigid-plastic J2 -flow theory with kinematic hardening
classical elasticity theory, viz. would predict an oscillating shear stress response to mono-
tonically progressing simple shearing13 .
◦ Ten years later, this phenomenon was rediscovered in Ref.
σ = 2μ D + λtr( D)I , (57)
[97]. On the other hand, Dienes [98] demonstrated that a sim-
ilar phenomenon would emerge for the hypoelastic rate Eq.
where here μ and λ are the Lamé constants. It was shown that
(57) which was assumed to describe purely elastic behavior.
these equations reduce to those of classical linear elasticity
The question on how to avoid these unexpected results, how-
under the usual assumptions of infinitesimal deformations.
ever, is then often reduced to a search for a proper definition
Under the assumption of invariance against a rigid body
of the objective rate. Dienes used the Green-Naghdi rate or
motion, Refs. [83,84] arrived at a description for the rate of
polar rate (refer to Refs. [99,100]) where the material time
stress in the form of the Jaumann rate.12 Hill [94] finally com-
derivative is applied to a rotated stress tensor, thus replacing
bined the convected derivatives of Eq. (54) and the Jaumann
the vorticity W of the Jaumann rate by a skew-symmetric
rate by introducing a relation
rate of rotation Ω R with
◦
σ = σ̇ + σ W − W σ − m(σ D + Dσ ) , (58)
13 Unfortunately, this paper was written in German and submitted for
publication to a Romanian journal in 1968. Due to severe production
12 Noll called this a general invariance requirement principle of isotropy problems in those days, the article appeared not until 1972. These cir-
of space, whereas Thomas used the term absolute time derivative. cumstances may explain why this paper was widely ignored.

123
Large deformation plasticity

◦
σ R = σ̇ + σ Ω R − Ω R σ , Ω R = Ṙ RT . (59) 2.2 The logarithmic rate and related properties

In an entirely comparable way, e.g., the spin Ω E and The development of the logarithmic rate as a remedy out
the rotation RE of the Eulerian triad may be used to define of the above-mentioned dilemma has started with the wish
another objective rate: to resolve the following questions: Can the stretching D be
represented as a direct flux of an Eulerian strain measure,
◦ T
σ E = σ̇ + σ Ω E − Ω E σ , Ω E = ṘE RE . (60) say e? And could this eventually be the logarithmic strain?
Although the stretching is frequently referred to as the rate of
This rate is sometimes called Sowerby-Chu rate (refer to Ref. deformation tensor or the Eulerian strain rate, it was believed
[101]). It may be clear that numerous additional objective for a long time that the former would not be the case (see,
rates could be defined, e.g. simply by combining the above e.g., Refs. [57] and [106]).
mentioned rules. With respect to the latter, there were different attempts
The hypoelastic rate Eq. (57) is intended for finite elas- to relate the logarithmic Hencky strain h to the stretching
tic deformation behavior. Although it may be clear that the D. Hill [56] showed that the material time derivative of the
small deformation case yields the conventional elastic rela- Lagrangian counterpart Ḣ equals RT D R within a second-
tion, i.e., Hooke’s law, essential difference emerges for the order term (see also Refs. [57,107]). With respect to the
direct extension of Eq. (22) to finite deformations. Typical Eulerian logarithmic strain, Hoger [108], like Refs. [58,106]
examples were presented in Refs. [102,103]. Kleiber [102] earlier, stated that h does not have a conjugate stress. The
also discussed non-radial cyclic processes of a hypoelastic proof, however, was somewhat flawed as the material time
material with a Jaumann derivative and observed a signif- derivative of ln V introduced in Ref. [108] failed to be objec-
icant linearly increasing accuracy loss with the number of tive (see also Ref. [109]). Instead, she should have introduced
cycles. It was stated that within several cycles (with not an objective time derivative and thus broaden the definition
uncommon rotations) the solution could lead to an energy of conjugacy introduced in Ref. [56].
error comparable with the maximum energy attained dur- Gurtin and Spear [110] and Hoger [111] derived condi-
ing the cycle, “thus rendering the results totally useless”, tions when under very specific circumstances the Jaumann
◦
as the accumulated energy should vanish at the end of a rate of the logarithmic strain (ln V ) equals the stretching. It
closed cycle for an elastic material. In view of this result, was shown, e.g., that a condition DV = V D would be nec-
he concluded that it might be doubtful that the use of an essary and sufficient for this case. Moreover, it was shown
objective rate on the left-hand side of Eq. (56) (with a con- ◦
that (ln V ) would be a very good approximation to D for
stant material tensor A) would yield more accurate results sufficiently small deformations, a result which already has
than those corresponding to a simple (non-objective) mate- been demonstrated in Ref. [80]. Inspired by these works and
rial time derivative. using an explicit formula for the gradient of the general strain
Another unexpected finding was made Simo and Pister measure e with respect to the stretch tensor V (see in Refs.
[89], who demonstrated that for each of the, at that time, [112,113]), Xiao et al. [114] could prove that an objective
well-known objective rates, except for certain unrealistic par- corotational rate of the logarithmic strain measure ln V could
ticular cases for elastic constants, the widely used hypoelastic be identical with the stretching tensor D and furthermore that
rate Eq. (57) fails to be exactly integrable. Since this finding, in all possible strain measures, only ln V would enjoy this
a general tendency was to believe that this non-integrability property, i.e. any corotational rate of any other strain measure
property would likely be true for all possible rates (see, e.g., could not be identical with D.
Refs. [104,105]). This would imply that the classical Eule- This result was gained by broadening the work-conjugacy
rian elastoplasticity and the Prandtl-Reuss theory might be relation introduced in Ref. [56]:
self-inconsistent in the sense of formulating elastic behavior
via the hypoelastic equation. ẇ = tr(S Ė) = tr(τ D) . (61)
Only recently it was demonstrated that both problems,
namely, the shear oscillation and the non-integrability of the A stress S and a strain E are said to be a conjugate pair, if
hypoelastic relation (57), were closely related. To prove this, tr(S Ė) represents the stress power ẇ. A classical solution
a new objective time derivative had to be defined which, of this problem is given with S = F −1 τ F −T as second
applied to a yet undetermined Eulerian strain measure, could Piola-Kirchhoff stress and the Lagrangian Green strain E.
give the stretching D. It was shown that this strain was the Relation (61) now has been generalized by introducing a pair
Hencky strain h and the new time derivative, in turn, was of objective Eulerian stress and strain measures, say (s, e),
the logarithmic rate. Only with this logarithmic rate applied both symmetric, and an Eulerian spin:
to σ , Eq. (57) could be integrated to give an elastic rela-
Ω ∗ = − Q ∗ T Q̇ ∗ = Q̇ ∗ Q ∗ ,
T
tion. (62)

123
 O. T. Bruhns

where Q ∗ is a proper orthogonal tensor. is called the logarithmic rate of A. Then, Eq. (67) together
In an Ω ∗ -frame relative to a fixed background frame, this with the relationship (65) yields the following exact kine-
pair becomes ( Q ∗ s Q ∗ T , Q ∗ e Q ∗ T ). Then the inner product matical relationship between the Hencky strain h and the
˙ stretching D:
( Q ∗ s Q ∗ T ) : ( Q ∗ e Q ∗ T ) is formed by the observer in the
Ω ∗ -frame just as an observer in the fixed background frame
◦
does for a Lagrangian stress and strain pair. D = h log = ḣ + hΩ log − Ω log h . (68)
Following the idea of Hill, which is concerned with a fixed
background frame, the observer in the Ω ∗ -frame feels that It seems that Lehmann et al. [117] were the first to establish
the pair (s, e) is an Ω ∗ -work-conjugate pair if the above inner relationship (68) in discussing the work-conjugacy between
product furnishes the stress power, i.e. the Cauchy stress σ and Hencky strain h.15
With reference to the idea of Kleiber [102], e.g., a hypoe-
˙ ◦
( Q ∗ s Q ∗ T ) : ( Q ∗ e Q ∗ T ) = s :e ∗ = ẇ, (63) lastic model of grade zero with different known objective
rates has been subjected to different non-radial cyclic pro-
◦
where e ∗ is the corotational rate of the strain defined by the cesses in strain space. It turned out from the calculations of
spin Ω ∗ , the corresponding stresses that only a hypoelastic body with
a logarithmic rate exhibits the properties of an elastic mate-
◦
e ∗ = ė + eΩ ∗ − Ω ∗ e . (64) rial, where no dissipation should be observed at the end of
a cycle, i.e., where the stresses should return to their initial
A corotational rate of an Eulerian tensor need not be objec- values (refer to Lin [123], Lin et al. [124] and Meyers et al.
tive. The spin tensors defining objective corotational rates are [125,126]).
called material spins [78]. We now want to know whether or If several evolution equations for tensor-valued variables
not a strain measure e and a material spin Ω ∗ can be found are used, e.g., for a description with kinematic hardening,
such that the objective corotational rate of e defined by Ω ∗ several objective rates might be discussed. To avoid contra-
is identical with the stretching D, i.e., dictions, Xiao et al. [127] showed that any other additional
objective rate included in the set of constitutive relations has
◦
e ∗ =ė+eΩ ∗ −Ω ∗ e= D , e = h and Ω ∗=Ω log . (65) to be of the same kind. This is especially true for the rates
of internal variables included in the evolution equations of
It turned out that this expression, where both the strain and these variables.
the spin can be chosen arbitrarily, holds if and only if e is
the logarithmic strain h = ln V .14 The main idea in finding
Eq. (65) was inspired by the wish to express in an Eulerian 3 Large deformations
description of the energy balance the stress power as a func-
tion of Cauchy stress and an objective rate of a conjugate In the late 1970s Green and Naghdi [99] established a
strain. rigorous theory of plasticity in the framework of modern
It turned out that Eq. (65) has a unique continuous solution continuum mechanics, where the restrictions on the general
for the logarithmic spin: form of the constitutive relations were derived from thermo-
dynamic principles. The kinematical basis of this work was

n
1 + (χσ /χτ ) 2 the assumption that the total strain could be decomposed into
Ω log =W + + B σ D B τ . (66) the sum of an elastic-like and a plastic strain tensor, respec-
1−(χσ /χτ ) ln(χσ /χτ )
σ =τ
tively. Although in their paper the plastic strain has been
introduced as a primitive variable and the elastic-like strain
We note that explicit basis-free and unified expressions for
is merely defined by the difference of the total strain and this
Ω log have been presented with Refs. [114,116].
The spin Ω log given by Eq. (66) is referred to as the log-
15 Almost at the same time several groups were seeking a solution for
arithmic spin because of its unique relationship with the
this problem, namely to express the stretching D as an objective rate of
logarithmic strain. For an objective Eulerian tensor A, the
an Eulerian strain. It is reported that P.A. Zhilin 1995 starting from a
corotational rate defined by the logarithmic spin, i.e., quite different idea came to a conclusion comparable to Eq. (68). Unfor-
tunately, however, his result remained unpublished then (refer to Ref.
◦ [118]). Later, Eq. (68) was also discovered by Reinhardt and Dubey
A log ≡ Ȧ + AΩ log − Ω log A (67) [119,120]. This relationship was derived in the general sense of study-
ing Eq. (65) independently, and its intrinsic uniqueness property was
14 It seems that a direct precursor of Eq. (65) is relation (2.13) with thus revealed for the first time in Refs. [78,114,121,122] from different
Eqs. (2.11) and (2.15) in Ref. [115], which says that the Jaumann rate contexts. Regrettably, Profs. Lehmann, Guo, and Zhilin were not able
of h should exactly give D in some cases; see also Refs. [110,111]. to realize the publication of their works and their seminal ideas.

123
Large deformation plasticity

plastic variable, it is a common practice to refer to this sum as and the Hencky strains of Lagrangian and Eulerian type with
an additive decomposition of the strain tensor into its elastic Eqs. (46) and (49) for m = 0.
and plastic parts. This class would be further generalized if we introduce as
Besides the additive decomposition of the stretching dis- additional requirements
cussed so far, an alternative approach to a finite deformation
theory was presented in Refs. [128,129]. This approach was lim g(χ ) = ∞ , lim g(χ ) = −∞ , (73)
χ →∞ χ →0
shortly later modified Refs. [130,131] by adding so-called
director triads and the notion of an isoclinic intermediate
and thus take into account in a more realistic way the phys-
configuration. In contrast to Green and Naghdi’s approach in
ical properties of a deforming body. This, however, would
these papers a multiplicative decomposition of the deforma-
exclude several classical measures, e.g., the Green strain Eq.
tion gradient into elastic and plastic parts is assumed.
(72), and underline the importance of the Hencky strain.
Recently, in Ref. [132] a further generalization was intro-
3.1 Basic facts for a deforming continuous body
duced in which a combination of two functions was proposed:
We now switch to some relevant facts in finite deformation 1
kinematics of continua. For a deformable body in the pure g(χ ) = (χ m 1 − χ −m 2 ) , m 1 m 2 ≥ 0 . (74)
m1 + m2
mechanical sense, as basic field variables, the deformation
gradient F and the Cauchy or true stress σ at each particle With various strain measures, various stress measures may
characterize the local deformation state relative to a reference be introduced via the unified concept of work conjugacy.
configuration and the local stressed state, respectively. Let X This idea was exemplified in Ref. [58] and fully developed in
and x = χ(X, t) be the reference and the current position Refs. [56,57,94]. Hill [57] also introduced the notion of work
vector of a material particle, respectively. Then, the defor- conjugacy, although work rate or stress power are discussed
mation gradient is given by (see also Sect. 2 of this article) (see also the Appendix of Ref. [56]).
∂χ
F= . (69) 3.2 Eulerian formulations with the logarithmic rate
∂X

We consider the local deformation state occurring at the This subsection is primarily devoted to the development of
infinitesimal neighborhood of each particle with dX and dx, the Prandtl-Reuss relations—or in other words—the additive
the reference and the current line element, respectively. At decomposition of the stretching during the 1980s when with
the infinitesimal neighborhood of each particle, we have the the rapid development of fast and powerful computers in
transformation formula between the line elements: conjunction with efficient numerical methods (e.g. the FEM)
new trends in plasticity were initiated.
dx = F dX, det F > 0 . (70) The basic Prandtl-Reuss relations (refer to Eqs. (21) and
(22)) were formulated in Sect. 1. Several steps towards a
The particle velocity and the velocity gradient are v = ẋ and more general theory were undertaken shortly later. To this
L, respectively. end scalar-valued and second-order tensor-valued internal
A general class of strain measures is defined through a variables have been introduced to model these phenomena by
smooth increasing function g(χ ) with g(1) = g  (1)− 21 = 0, means of the evolution of these variables. Thus, the history of
where the χσ are the distinct eigenvalues of either B or C. a process is represented by these internal variables and their
Their forms can be given by (see Eqs. (47) and (48)) history. Here, we also should mention Refs. [133,134] where
starting out from the additive decomposition (21) a rate-type

n
1 description of elastic-plastic behavior was introduced. Scalar
e(m) = g(B) = g(χσ )B σ = (B m − I) , and tensorial internal variables were used to account for the
2m
σ =1 (71) isotropic and kinematic hardening during plastic flow. The
 n
1
E (m) = g(C) = g(χσ )C σ = (C m − I), elastic part is modeled as hypoelastic material with De lin-
2m ◦
σ =1 early related to an objective corotational rate of the stress σ ,
i.e.,
defining Lagrangian and Eulerian strain tensors. Two impor-
tant examples are the Green strain of Lagrangian type for ◦
σ = C: De . (75)
m=1

1 1 Herein, Tokuoka has taken a Jaumann rate—without men-

E (1) = E = (C − I) = (F T F − I) (72) tioning this source.
2 2

123
 O. T. Bruhns

Thus, the extension of Eqs. (21) and (22) seems to be These are the Prandtl-Reuss equations for a material with
canonical. Likewise, however, it should be borne in mind that linear kinematic and non-linear isotropic work hardening.
neither the material time derivatives incorporated in the solid- For a temperature-dependent material, we will finally
like elastic part of Eq. (22) meet the principle of objectivity adopt the hyperelasticity of the above derived relation (77).
nor does a hypoelastic material in general really behave like Thus, following the procedure outlined before for small
an elastic material. deformations, a complementary thermo-hyperelastic poten-
We will reformulate the Prandtl-Reuss relations for large tial W̄ (τ , T ) may be introduced, such that the reversible part
deformation within the context of an Eulerian description. of the logarithmic strain he is derivable from this potential
Therefore, in Eqs. (22) and (5) we replace the material time with respect to the work-conjugated stress τ , i.e.,
derivative by a logarithmic rate and moreover, for physical
reasons, the Cauchy stress σ by the Kirchhoff stress τ = J σ , ∂ W̄ (τ , T )
he = ln V e = , (83)
namely ∂τ

◦ 1 ∂F and its time derivative

D = De + Dp = C−1 : τ log + Λ . (76)
2 ∂τ ∂ 2 W̄ (τ , T ) ◦ log ∂ 2 W̄ (τ , T )
De = :τ + Ṫ . (84)
This leads to a constitutive relation whose hypoelastic part ∂τ 2 ∂τ ∂ T
De is exactly integrable to deliver an elastic relation:
This thermoelastic potential W̄ (τ , T ) is part of a comple-
−1 mentary free enthalpy function g = g(τ , T , α, κ) per unit
he = C :τ . (77)
reference volume (refer to Ref. [59]):

In the same way, if, e.g., according to Eq. (13)2 an addi- g = ϕ − T η − τ : he , (85)
tional tensorial variable α is introduced, with reference to
Prager’s stationarity condition, this should read containing a formal elastic Hencky strain he . Then, the
◦
energy balance relation may be formulated as
α log = c Dp , (78)
ġ = τ : D − J ∇· q + r − η Ṫ − T η̇ − τ :˙he . (86)
since Ref. [135] could show that in an Eulerian description, if
different rates are used, these rates must be the same, namely, Hence, similar as for small deformations, we may recast the
logarithmic rates. Planck inequality (30) in the form
Finally the evolution equation for the scalar-valued inter-
◦
nal variable κ may be taken as D = τ : Dp − (ġ + η Ṫ ) − τ log : he ≥ 0 . (87)

κ̇ = ẇ p = τ : Dp , (79) Upon introducing here

corresponding to Eq. (14). ∂ g ◦ log ∂ g ∂ g ◦ log ∂ g

ġ = :τ + Ṫ + :α + κ̇, (88)
As yield condition the v. Mises condition (13)1 will be ∂τ ∂T ∂α ∂κ
used with
the above inequality takes the form

F = (τ  − α): (τ  − α) − κ 2 = 0 .  
(80) ∂g ◦ log ∂g
D = − he + :τ − η + Ṫ
∂τ ∂T
From the condition of consistency Ḟ = 0, we thus get ∂ g ◦ log ∂ g
+ τ : Dp − :α − κ̇ ≥ 0, (89)
∂α ∂κ
∂ F ◦ log ∂ F ◦ log dκ p
:τ + :α − 2 ẇ = 0 . (81)
∂τ ∂α dw p and the corresponding equations of state are

Introducing here Eqs. (78) and (79) allows to eliminate ∂g ∂g

expression Λ from Eq. (76): he = − and η = − . (90)
∂τ ∂T
◦ The complementary thermoelastic potential W̄ (τ , T ) is
D = De + Dp = C−1 : τ log
◦ log part of this enthalpy function g = g(τ , T , α, κ) (see Ref.
(τ  − α): τ
+ dκ τ : (τ  − α)
(τ  − α) . (82) [136]). We now introduce the above state equations into Eq.
2cκ + dw p (88)

123
Large deformation plasticity

◦
ġ = −he : τ log − η Ṫ − Di , (91) would be no longer applicable [138] and merely of formal
sense.
to describe the enthalpy production, where The logarithmic rate in its present form (67) is not
undisputed, especially when applied to large elastoplastic
∂ g ◦ log ∂ g deformations, e.g., in metal forming. Very recently, Jiao and
Di = − :α − κ̇, (92)
∂α ∂κ Fish [139] have presented a generalization of this rate, intro-
ducing their so-called kinetic logarithmic spin:
is the dissipation due to the inelastic deformation of the inter-
nal structure. Introducing here the balance into Eq. (86), the Ω klog = W + Alog (B k (τ ), D) , (97)
entropy production may be reformulated:
replacing in the sum on the right-hand side of Eq. (66) the left
T η̇ = τ : Dp − J ∇· q + r + Di . (93) Cauchy green tensor B by a new k
√ variable B , as function of
the stress τ . To this end, V k = B k is defined as exponential
With the help of the above state equations, this result may be function of the Hencky elastic potential (95)
converted to an evolution equation for the temperature:
V k = exp [he (τ )] . (98)
∂ he ◦ log
cT Ṫ = −T : τ − J ∇ · q + r + τ : Dp + Di
∂T This kinetic extension is intended to avoid errors that may
∂Di occur when calculating a cyclic process with extremely high
−T , (94)
∂T loading and unloading using the logarithmic rate. We note,
however, that at least one requirement for applying the log-
where arithmic rate was violated in this comparison: The reference
frame should be kept fixed.
∂2g
cT = −T ,
∂T 2 3.3 Lagrangian formulations with plastic strain
is the specific heat.
Towards modeling different elastoplastic features of a In contrast to the aforementioned Eulerian formulation, a
material, suitable forms of the elastic potential W̄ in the elas- Lagrangian-type formulation of finite deformations was pro-
tic rate Eq. (84) and of the yield function (80) in the flow rule posed in Ref. [99].16 This theory represents the first effort
should be presented in a sense consistent with experimen- towards a rigorous treatment of finite elastoplasticity within
tal facts. It may be essential to note that a given form of W̄ the framework of continuum thermodynamics.
is merely applicable for a certain range of deformation and As extension of the classical small deformation theory to
would have no relevance to any realistic material behavior finite deformations, a perhaps more direct idea is to use a
in an extreme case far beyond this range, irrespective of the finite strain measure and its conjugate stress. Let A be any
fact that from a formal mathematical standpoint, it may be given Lagrangian strain. Then we may define
well defined over the whole range of deformation.
A simple isothermal form of the complementary potential A = Ae + Ap , (99)
W̄ is quadratic and referred to as Hencky elastic potential,
namely, where Ae and Ap are labeled elastic and plastic parts of A,
respectively, with the intention that in conjunction with the
∂ W̄ (τ ) conjugate stress of A, they will be used as basic variables to
he = = C−1 : τ . (95) formulate an elastic relation and a flow rule.
∂τ
It is known that the additive separation of a total strain into
Prior to the initial yielding, the integration produces a finite elastic and plastic parts is restricted to very particular cases.
strain hyperelastic equation of Hookean type: In general, such separation might be of formal sense only. On
account of the difficulties involved in defining a plastic strain,
∂ W̄ (τ ) Green and Naghdi [99] introduced a strain-like variable of
h= = C−1 : τ . (96) Lagrangian type, denoted E p , and regarded it as a primitive
∂τ
variable, “stating certain of its properties but not defining
Equation (96) is known as Hencky’s elastic equation [137]. it explicitly, and thus relegated its explicit identification to
It is known that this equation can well represent moderate special assumptions or situations.”
elastic deformations with each principal stretch falling within
the range [0.7,1.3]. Beyond this range, however, Eq. (96) 16 For details, we refer to Ref. [13].

123
 O. T. Bruhns

This variable is associated with the total Green strain E as well as hardening and softening behavior (see, e.g., Ref.
as given in Eq. (72). Well understanding the limited applica- [13]). The evolution equations for the hardening variable κ
bility of the additive separation of E, they did not interpret and for the back stress α are given in the forms:
the difference E − E p as an elastic strain or part but as an  
∂g
alternative convenient variable used for well-motivated pur- κ̇ = ζ : Ė λ(E, E p , α, κ) , (103)
∂E
poses.  
With the plastic strain E p as additional variable, the set of ∂g
α̇ = ζ : Ė β(E, E p , α, κ) . (104)
basic variables entering the constitutive formulations will be ∂E
given by (E, E p , α, κ). Note that herein α and κ are internal
Here, λ and β are additional scalar- and tensor-valued con-
variables representing the progress of the plastic deforma-
stitutive functions.
tions by suitably defined evolution equations. In accord with
Within the general context of the above Lagrangian theory,
the general setting of their theory, the tensor-valued internal
Naghdi and coworkers made a rigorous, systematic study of
variable α is introduced as back stress of Lagrangian type
the consequences implied by the work postulate and broad-
to model the Bauschinger effect, whereas the isotropic hard-
ened the scope of Ilyushin’s postulate, introducing
ening is modeled through the evolution of κ. Alternatively,
the sets (E − E p , E p , α, κ) as well as (S, E p , α, κ) may be t f
useful for certain specific purposes. For instance, the latter is S: Ė dt ≥ 0 , (105)
used in a stress-space formulation. t0
The set (E, E p , α, κ) of basic variables is representing a
strain-space formulation (see, e.g., Refs. [140–142]).17 for every homogeneous finite strain cycle. From this postu-
In general, it is assumed that the conjugate stress of the late, the essential structure of the Green-Naghdi theory was
Green strain E, i.e., the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor derived. For simplicity, these results here are presented in the
S, is determined by the foregoing set of basic variables. This absence of a back stress α.
leads to the total stress-strain relation It is demonstrated that there is a stress potential ψ̂(E,
E p , κ) such that the general relation (100) for the stress
S = Ŝ(E, E p , α, κ) , (100) response is reduced to
∂ ψ̂
where Ŝ is a tensor-valued constitutive function relying on S= . (106)
∂E
all four variables. It is assumed that this tensor function is
twice differentiable and establishes a one-one relationship In a general context, Refs. [143,144] have demonstrated that
between the stress tensor S and the total strain E. Then, the such a relation holds true with ψ̂ being a fully general elastic
inverted form of Eq. (100) yields potential relying on the “prior history of inelastic deforma-
tion” and with (S, E) any given work-conjugate pair.
E = Ê(S, E p , α, κ) . (101) Moreover, it is shown that the constitutive function (E,
E p , κ) characterizing the flow rule is related to the yield
In addition, g(E, E p , α, κ) is a yield function in a strain- function g(E, E p , κ) and the stress potential ψ̂(E, E p , κ) as
space formulation. It is assumed that the time derivative of well as the hardening function λ(E, E p , κ) in the following
each of the three variables E p , α, and κ is linear in Ė with manner:
coefficients that are functions of the whole set of variables.
Thus, the flow rule is given by ∂ 2 ψ̂ ∂ 2 ψ̂ ∂g
σ̂ ≡ : + λ = −γ , (107)
  ∂ Ep∂ E ∂κ∂ E ∂E
∂g
Ė p = ζ : Ė (E, E p , α, κ) , (102) where γ is an undetermined scalar function relying on (E,
∂E
E p , κ). From the above, it follows that the tensor-valued con-
where is a tensor-valued constitutive function, and ζ is the stitutive function (E, E p , κ) is obtainable from three scalar
plastic multiplier differentiating elastic behavior (including constitutive functions, i.e., the yield function g(E, E p , κ),
unloading) from elastic-plastic one by taking the values 0 the stress potential ψ̂(E, E p , κ), and the hardening function
and 1, respectively. λ(E, E p , κ), if the second gradient ∂ 2 ψ̂/∂ E p ∂ E is invert-
The loading-unloading criterion in strain space is shown ible.
to possess a simple, unified form for perfect elastic-plastic A direct relation between the stress rate and the total strain
rate is derivable
17For a discussion of the pros and cons of the strain-space formulation,
we refer to Ref. [13]. Ṡ = K: L: Ė , (108)

123
Large deformation plasticity

and its inverse is (see, e.g., Ref. [13]) Extending our previous considerations, we consider a
continuous material body with initial configuration B0
Ė = (K: L)−1 : Ṡ , (109) experiencing finite elastic-plastic deformations in the cur-
rent configuration B. According to Ref. [145], we may
where L is the tensor of elasticity and K is a second fourth- introduce a straining-destressing experiment: “Following
order material tensor elastic-plastic deformation from the undisturbed configura-
tion X to x, destressing to zero stress occurs from x to p
  · · · . Since the configuration p is unstressed, the elastic strain
∂ 2 ψ̂ ∂f ∂g
L= 2 , K=I+ζ σ̂ ⊗ = I + ζ σ̂ ⊗ : L−1 . there is zero and the strain in p is therefore totally plastic.”
∂E ∂S ∂E
Here, X and x are the position vectors of a generic material
(110)
particle in the initial and current configurations B0 and B,
respectively, and p is the position vector of the same particle
Here, f = f(S, E p , κ) is the yield function in stress space, in the unstressed configuration.
which is obtained by substituting the inverted form (101) into In the above cited statement, the total elastic-plastic defor-
the yield function g = g(E, E p , κ) in strain space, and the mation F from X to x is actually undergone by the material
fourth-order tensor I is the identity transformation over the body, while the plastic deformation from X to p and the
symmetric second-order tensor space. elastic deformation from p to x, denoted F e and F p , are
The critical point within this theory is mainly hidden in introduced by an imaginary destressing procedure and hence
its setting, namely, in the additive splitting of the total strain not actually undergone by the material body. F e and F p will
E to determine the elastic-like quantity E e , if the plastic serve as additional deformation-like variables. The question
strain is introduced as a primitive variable E p . This point as to how the destressing procedure is achieved is at the
has been addressed first in Ref. [128] and has led to a long moment left open and will be discussed later.
discussion about the admissibility or even the significance The deformation gradient F is related to a local affine
of the additivity of strains in a finite deformation theory, in configuration and based upon the notion of line elements at
order to achieve an effective uncoupling of elastic and plastic the infinitesimal neighborhood of a particle. Following Ref.
properties. In this respect, we refer, e.g., to Refs. [145,146]. [145], the deformation of a material line element dX in the
A second issue is related with the specific free Helmhol- aforementioned straining-destressing experiment is given by
tz energy function ψ̂(E, E p , κ) or ψ̂(E − E p , E p , κ) in an
alternative form which is incorporated as an essential quan- d p = F p dX , dx = F e d p , → dx = F dX ,
tity of this theory. It might be not clear how this function
(111)
apart from some very special cases will be determined. While
forms of this energy function for elastic and even thermoelas- In the above, dx and d p are the (actual) spatial line element
tic solids are well established, the introduction of plastic, i.e. in the current configuration B and the line element in the fic-
irreversible, processes into this function will produce new if titious unstressed configuration, which are the counterparts
not intractable problems. of the material line element dX in B0 after experiencing the
actual elastic-plastic deformation and the plastic deforma-
3.4 Formulations with unstressed configurations tion induced by the destressing procedure, respectively. The
transformation relations yield the widely used multiplicative
In recent years the multiplicative separation of elastic-plastic separation:
deformations has become popular and found increasing
applications in the phenomenological study of finite elasto- F = Fe Fp . (112)
plasticity. This was initiated by Refs. [128,129], and use was
made by Refs. [147–149], and [150] et al., albeit it may be Once the above separation could unambiguously be estab-
traced back to earlier works by Refs. [151–153], and [154], lished, the elastic and plastic deformations F e and F p would
et al.; see Ref. [155] and the references therein. be separated exactly from the total elastic-plastic deforma-
It is not derived merely from the direct extension of the tion F and hence endowed with the desired physical features.
small deformation case but motivated by physical consider- Therefore, F e and F p could be employed as additional vari-
ations. The central idea is the notion of a local intermediate ables to realize physically pertinent formulations of elastic
unstressed configuration at each particle defined by an imag- and plastic behavior. However, a central issue with the sepa-
inary destressing process. If such configuration could be ration is the non-uniqueness in the following sense: If F e and
defined, then at each particle elastic and plastic deformations F p obey the separation (112), then the same may be true for
could be separated from the total elastic-plastic deformation F e Q T and Q F p with an arbitrary rotation Q. This means
in a definite and accurate manner. that the rotational parts of F e and F p , i.e., Re and Rp , would

123
 O. T. Bruhns

be rendered indeterminate. In other words, a non-unique sep- in but separated from the elastic-plastic behavior as a single
aration (112) would fail to separate the just-mentioned two entity.
rotations, refer to Ref. [156]. For a physically pertinent formulation of plastic flow, it
Sometimes the rotational parts incorporated in F e and F p is desirable to have a proper separation of the total deforma-
and even in F are loosely said to be superimposed rigid body tion rate D into elastic and plastic parts, as shown in Eq. (21).
rotations. This expression may produce an impression as if Although the separation (112) could realize the decoupling of
these rotations might be not so essential. However, essential elastic and plastic deformation except for an arbitrary rota-
difference exists between each such rotation and any truly tion, a definite deformation rate separation based on it has
rigid body rotation. The latter is constant at all points in a proved to be not so clear and simple. In fact, we have
body and should have no effect on both basic equations of
motion and constitutive formulations of material behavior, D = sym( Ḟ e F e −1 ) + sym(F e Ḟ p F p −1 F e −1 )
(116)
whereas the former varies from point to point and exhibits = sym( Ḟ e F e −1 ) + sym( Ḟ p F p −1 ) ,
essential effects on both. In fact, the rotational parts of F and
F e and F p are inseparable parts of deformations and defor- where the last two terms may be called the elastic and plastic
mation rates and incorporated in constitutive formulations deformation rates and will be denoted D̄e and D̄p .
for both elastic and plastic behaviors. The above inequality shows that the total deformation rate
The decoupling represented by Eq. (112) enables us to D cannot be split into the sum of the two rates D̄e and D̄p . We
accomplish a direct formulation of elastic behavior. Now, also refer to the discussions of Refs. [158–163]. Moreover,
the Kirchhoff stress τ may be specified by a single variable, the non-uniqueness property of Eq. (112) leaves each rate
i.e., the elastic deformation F e . Emphasizing the substantial term in Eq. (116) unspecified. With F e = V e Re and F p =
invariance property of the elastic moduli in the process of Rp U p , the following relations make this clear:
elastic-plastic deformations, Lee [129] assumed the follow-
ing invariable elastic relation: Ḟ e F −1 = V̇ e V −1 T −1
e e + V e Ṙ e R e V e ,
−1 −1 (117)
Ḟ p F p = Ṙp R p + Rp U̇ p U p R p T .
T
∂ψ
τ = 2F e FeT . (113)
∂ Ce
They show that each rate term in Eq. (116) is essentially
Note that all elastic domains correspond to the same elastic dependent on either the elastic rotation Re or the plastic
potential ψ = ψ(C e ) with C e = F e T F e . This means that rotation Rp or on both. To resolve this difficulty, additional
the elastic behavior will be described by that for the initial assumptions and procedures would be needed. It has been
elastic domain prior to the occurrence of yielding. shown (see Refs. [145,162]) that the deformation rate sep-
The foregoing non-uniqueness renders Eq. (113) incom- aration (21) may be re-established by assuming the extra
plete. To eliminate this, an extra condition was introduced condition (114) and defining the elastic and plastic deforma-
(see, e.g., Refs. [128,129] and [156])18 : tion rates by

FeT = Fe . (114) De = K̂−1 : ( Ḃ e + B e W − W B e ),

Dp = K̂−1 : (2V e D̄p V e ) , (118)
and then the elastic relation (113) in the case of isotropy
would become
with K̂ a fourth-order tensor given by
∂ψ
τ = 2B e . (115)
∂ Be K̂i jkl = 2(B e )ik δ jl = 2(B e ) jl δik . (119)

We note that in this specific case, we also have C e = V 2e = With the deformation rate separation described above, the
F e F e T = B e , i.e., the left and right Cauchy-Green tensors isotropic elastic relation (115) may be reformulated in an
are equal. Moreover, for an isotropic material, V e , B e , and equivalent Eulerian rate form as given by
∂ψ/∂ B e have the same principal axes so that the products
are commutative. ◦
De = (L̂: K̂)−1 : τ J , (120)
The relation (113), in particular Eq. (115), assumes the
standard form for the classical hyperelastic relation, which ◦J
is usually regarded to describe the elastic behavior included where τ is the Jaumann rate of τ and
   
18 Here, Re = I was used. An alternative approximation has been
∂ψ ∂ 2ψ
L̂i jkl = 2δik + 2(B e )im . (121)
introduced in Ref. [157] with W p = 0. ∂ Be jl ∂ B 2e m jkl

123
Large deformation plasticity

We note that the material tensor N = L̂ : K̂ herein has the the present released configuration, i.e., the unstressed con-
same major and minor symmetry properties as the elasticity figuration, such a triad ξ is rotating as the former is changing,
tensor L, namely, Ni jkl = Nkli j = Ni jlk = N jikl . so that it determines the orientation of the former by speci-
It appears that within the context of the general constitu- fying the related rotation. Such a triad is said to be a director
tive formulation sketched above, the consequences implied triad. Further, if a particular director triad ξ 0 = (d 01 , d 02 , d 03 )
by the work postulate have not yet been derived. Results have is chosen in such a manner that it always keeps the same
been given, e.g., in Refs. [164,165], assuming maximal plas- orientation with respect to the fixed axes, then it may be
tic dissipation principles. In this case, the normality rule is called an isoclinic triad. Accordingly, the unstressed config-
accepted as a plausible assumption, but the convexity prop- uration with the orientation specified by an isoclinic triad ξ 0
erty of the yield surface may or may not be assumed. With is referred to as an isoclinic configuration.
the normality rule, the total stress rate-strain rate relationship Evidently, the isoclinic configuration with a well defined
is established as follows: isoclinic triad ξ 0 results in a unique separation (112), and
  as such the elastic and plastic deformations F e and F p
1 ∂f ∂f ◦ are accordingly specified. Now the constitutive relations
D = N+ζ ⊗ : τ J
, (122)
h ∂τ ∂τ are formulated in a somewhat different way. It is assumed
that the potential ψ relies on both the elastic Green strain
where f = f(τ , α, κ) is the yield surface in stress space and E e = 21 (F eT F e − I) and the internal variables, whereas the
h is a hardening function, which can be derived from the yield function f depends on the stress
normality rule for the plastic deformation rate Dp , the con-
sistency condition of plasticity, and the evolution equations Se = F −1 −T
e τ Fe , (123)
of the internal variables α and κ. For details we refer e.g. to
Ref. [1]. As before ζ is a plastic multiplier, differentiating and the internal variables. Here Se is the so-called Mandel
the cases of loading and unloading. stress, acting on the unstressed intermediate configuration.
Similar to the situation with the Green-Naghdi theory, a Then, the elastic relation (113) is converted to
long discussion evolved about different issues related with
this multiplicative decomposition or the Lee theory.19 ∂ψ
Se = . (124)
∂ Ee
3.5 Director triads and isoclinic configurations
Besides, the flow rule is non-symmetric and formulated for
With the particular assumption (114), a complete elastic- Ḟ p F −1
p in a 9-dimensional space.
20

plastic formulation may be established, but it is confined The formulation with an isoclinic triad ξ 0 may, finally,
to the case of an isotropic elastic potential ψ. Towards a be changed to a more general type with an arbitrary direc-
more general treatment, one approach is to use director tri- tor triad ξ = Qξ 0 and a rotation variable Q. Such general
ads and isoclinic configurations, which originated from Refs. results involve the corotational rate relative to the triad ξ , and
[170,171] and the following works [130,131,163,172,173]. the rotation Q will enter as an additional variable into each
The main idea is quoted as follows: “... to determine in some constitutive function.
way the orientation of the present (stressed or released) con- An observation on the notion of director triad is as fol-
figuration, so that an orientation variable must be added to lows. Let ξ be an arbitrary director triad embedded in the
the state variables. We shall use the following mode of ori- unstressed configuration. At the initial instant t0 , it is given
entation. We consider a material plane of unit normal n, and by the fixed triad ξ 0 in the undeformed configuration B0 .
in this plane a material direction m (a unit vector). The ele- Since a director triad is always orthogonal at any instant t,
ment is oriented ... by the orthonormal triad formed from m i.e., d i · d j = 0 for i = j, and Eq. (111)1 yields d i = F p d i0 ,
and n, and which will be called a director triad” [173] and we deduce d i0 · (F p T F p )d 0j = 0 for i = j. This implies that
then “we assume that at time t the material element is very 0
the three orthonormal vectors  d i are just the eigenvectors of
rapidly unloaded ... This unloading process is elastic ... We
the plastic stretch U p = F Tp F p . From this and the right
thus obtain a present released configuration (κ) which is only
polar decomposition of F p , we may infer
defined up to an arbitrary rotation.” This idea may be realized
by selecting a triad formed by three orthonormal vectors, say,
ξ = (d 1 , d 2 , d 3 ), for each material element. Embedded in 20 There might, however, be some doubt about the physical pertinence
of such non-symmetric flow rule in a 9-dimensional space. It would
imply that nine, instead of six, rate equations governing plastic flow
19 This discussion was primarily between the two schools and their should be needed even in the case of infinitesimal deformation, except
followers and lasted several years. We therefore refer to Refs. [166– for some particular cases. We also refer to Ref. [172] and the discussion
169] and the instructive discussion therein. therein.

123
 O. T. Bruhns


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