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Social Psychology
Tenth Edition

Elliot Aronson

Timothy D. Wilson

Samuel R. Sommers
Portfolio Manager: Kelli Strieby Art/Designer: Blair Brown
Content Producer: Cecilia Turner/Lisa Mafrici Digital Studio Course Producer: Lindsay Verge
Content Developer: Thomas Finn Full-Service Project Manager: Angel Chavez
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Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this
textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 545–548.

Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission
should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval
system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Aronson, Elliot, author. | Wilson, Timothy D., author. | Sommers, Sam,
author.
Title: Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Samuel R.
Sommers.
Description: Tenth edition. | New York, NY : Pearson, [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017037187 | ISBN 9780134641287 (softcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Social psychology.
Classification: LCC HM1033 .A78 2019 | DDC 302—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017037187

1 18

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To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo. My hope is that your capacity
for empathy and compassion will help make the world a better place.
—E.A.

To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson

—T.D.W.

To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun,
educational, and unpredictable.
—S.R.S.
This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 10 Attraction and Relationships:
From Initial Impressions to
2 Methodology: How Social Long-Term Intimacy 296
Psychologists Do Research 23
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do
3 Social Cognition: How We Think People Help? 333
About the Social World 51
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt
4 Social Perception: How We Come Other People? Can We Prevent It? 365
to Understand Other People 83
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences,
5 The Self: Understanding and Cures 402
Ourselves in a Social Context 119
Social Psychology in
6 Cognitive Dissonance and the Action 1 Using Social Psychology
Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 149 to Achieve a Sustainable
and Happy Future 440
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change:
Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 181 Social Psychology in
Action 2 Social Psychology
8 Conformity and Obedience: and Health 461
Influencing Behavior 216
Social Psychology in
9 Group Processes: Influence in Action 3 Social Psychology
Social Groups 262 and the Law 481

v
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface xiii New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 43
About the Authors xix Culture and Social Psychology 43
Special Tips for Students xxi Social Neuroscience 44
Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 45
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 Summary 48 • Test Yourself 49

Defining Social Psychology 3

TRY IT! Conflicting Social Influences 4 3 Social Cognition: How We Think
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, About the Social World 51
and Common Sense 4 On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53
How Social Psychology Differs From Its People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic
Closest Cousins 5 Thinking With Schemas 53
TRY IT! Social Situations and Shyness 7 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility
The Power of the Situation 9 and Priming 55
Underestimating the Power of the Situation 10 Making Our Schemas Come True: The
The Importance of Construal 11 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 57
#trending What’s in a Name? 14 #trending Do You Believe in Astrology? 59
Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 15 Types of Automatic Thinking 61
The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good Automatic Goal Pursuit 61
About Ourselves 16 Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the
SUFFERING AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION Body and the Mind 62
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental
to Be Accurate 17 Heuristics 63
HOW EASILY DOES IT COME TO MIND? THE AVAILABILITY
Why Study Social Psychology? 19
HEURISTIC • HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE
Summary 20 • Test Yourself 21 REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC •
PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC

2 Methodology: How Social TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz 68

Psychologists Do Research 23 Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 69
Cultural Determinants of Schemas 70
Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 70
TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction? 25 Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 72
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 26 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73
INSPIRATION FROM PREVIOUS THEORIES AND RESEARCH •
HYPOTHESES BASED ON PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS
TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future? 74
Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 75
Research Designs 27
Improving Human Thinking 76
The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28
ETHNOGRAPHY • ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS • LIMITS OF TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason? 77
THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD Watson Revisited 78
The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 29 Summary 80 • Test Yourself 81
SURVEYS • LIMITS OF THE CORRELATIONAL
METHOD: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION
TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the 4 Social Perception: How We Come to
Difference 33 Understand Other People 83
The Experimental Method: Answering
Nonverbal Communication 85
Causal Questions 34
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES •
TRY IT! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 86
INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS • EXTERNAL VALIDITY Facial Expressions of Emotion 86
IN EXPERIMENTS • FIELD EXPERIMENTS • REPLICATIONS EVOLUTION AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS • WHY IS
AND META-ANALYSIS DECODING SOMETIMES DIFFICULT?
#trending Correlation Does Not Equal Causation 41 Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal
BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH Communication 89
vii
viii Contents

First Impressions: Quick But Long-Lasting 91

6 Cognitive Dissonance and the
#trending First Impressions Formed Online 92
Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 149
The Lingering Influence of Initial
Impressions 93 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Protecting
Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question 96 Our Self-Esteem 150
The Nature of the Attribution Process 97 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 153
The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External DISTORTING OUR LIKES AND DISLIKES • THE
Attributions 98 PERMANENCE OF THE DECISION • CREATING THE
ILLUSION OF IRREVOCABILITY
The Fundamental Attribution Error: People
as Personality Psychologists 100 The Justification of Effort 155
THE ROLE OF PERCEPTUAL SALIENCE IN THE Counterattitudinal Behavior 157
FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR • THE TWO-STEP COUNTERATTITUDINAL BEHAVIOR TOWARD CONSEQUENTIAL
ATTRIBUTION PROCESS ISSUES • THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT: JUSTIFYING ACTS
OF KINDNESS • DEHUMANIZING THE ENEMY: JUSTIFYING
Self-Serving Attributions 106
CRUELTY
The “Bias Blind Spot” 107
TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 161
Culture and Social Perception 110 JUSTIFYING OUR OWN IMMORAL ACTS
Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 110
Avoiding Temptations 163
SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE EVIDENCE
The Hypocrisy Paradigm 165
Cultural Differences in the Fundamental
Dissonance Across Cultures 166
Attribution Error 112
Culture and Other Attributional Biases 113 Advances and Extensions of Cognitive Dissonance
Theory 167
Summary 115 • Test Yourself 117
Self-Affirmation Theory 167
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves TRY IT! Values Affirmation Writing Exercise 169
in a Social Context 119 Dissonance in Close Relationships: Self-Evaluation
Maintenance Theory 169
The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 120 Some Concluding Thoughts on Dissonance and
Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 122 Self-Esteem 172
TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and #trending Politics and Cognitive Dissonance 172
Interdependence 123 Overcoming Dissonance 174
Functions of the Self 124 Narcissism and the Dangers of Too Much
Self-Knowledge 125 Self-Esteem 174
Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection 125 TRY IT! Measuring Your Narcissism 175
FOCUSING ON THE SELF: SELF-AWARENESS THEORY
Summary 178 • Test Yourself 179
TRY IT! Measure Your Private
Self-Consciousness
JUDGING WHY WE FEEL THE WAY WE DO: TELLING
127
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change:
MORE THAN WE CAN KNOW Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 181
Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 183
Own Behavior 128
Where Do Attitudes Come From? 183
SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY • UNDERSTANDING OUR
COGNITIVELY BASED ATTITUDES • AFFECTIVELY BASED
EMOTIONS: THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION •
ATTITUDES
FINDING THE WRONG CAUSE: MISATTRIBUTION OF
AROUSAL • INTRINSIC VERSUS EXTRINSIC TRY IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 186
MOTIVATION • MIND-SETS AND MOTIVATION BEHAVIORALLY BASED ATTITUDES
#trending Growth Mindset in the Classroom 137 Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes 187
Using Other People to Know Ourselves 137 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 188
KNOWING OURSELVES BY COMPARING OURSELVES Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 189
TO OTHERS • KNOWING OURSELVES BY ADOPTING
Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 189
OTHER PEOPLE’S VIEWS
SPECIFIC ATTITUDES • SUBJECTIVE NORMS •
Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 141 PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL
Impression Management: All the World’s #trending Predicting Environmentally Friendly Action 191
a Stage 143 How Do Attitudes Change? 192
Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 144
Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior:
Culture, Impression Management, and Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 193
Self-Enhancement 145
Persuasive Communications and Attitude
Summary 146 • Test Yourself 147 Change 193
 Contents ix

THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO Other Tactics of Social Influence 245
PERSUASION • THE MOTIVATION TO PAY ATTENTION
TO THE ARGUMENTS • THE ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION
Obedience to Authority 248
TO THE ARGUMENTS • HOW TO ACHIEVE LONG-LASTING The Milgram Study 249
ATTITUDE CHANGE The Role of Normative Social Influence 252
Emotion and Attitude Change 199 The Role of Informational Social Influence 253
FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS • EMOTIONS AS Other Reasons Why We Obey 254
A HEURISTIC • EMOTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES
ADHERING TO THE WRONG NORM • SELF-
OF ATTITUDES
JUSTIFICATION • THE LOSS OF PERSONAL
Attitude Change and the Body 201 RESPONSIBILITY
The Power of Advertising 203 The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 256
How Advertising Works 204 Summary 258 • Test Yourself 260
Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 204
DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS ABOUT SUBLIMINAL
ADVERTISING • LABORATORY EVIDENCE FOR
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social
SUBLIMINAL INFLUENCE Groups 262
TRY IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 206 What Is a Group? 264
Advertising and Culture 207 Why Do People Join Groups? 264
Resisting Persuasive Messages 208 The Composition and Functions of Groups 265
Attitude Inoculation 209 SOCIAL NORMS • SOCIAL ROLES • GROUP
Being Alert to Product Placement 209 COHESIVENESS • GROUP DIVERSITY

Resisting Peer Pressure 210 #trending Diversity Research and the Affirmative
When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Action Controversy 268
Reactance Theory 211 Individual Behavior in a Group Setting 269
Summary 213 • Test Yourself 214 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others
Energizes Us 269
8 Conformity and Obedience: SIMPLE VERSUS DIFFICULT TASKS • AROUSAL AND THE

Influencing Behavior 216 DOMINANT RESPONSE • WHY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS

CAUSES AROUSAL
Conformity: When and Why 218 Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know Relaxes Us 272
What’s “Right” 221 Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing:
The Importance of Being Accurate 223 Who Slacks Off the Most? 273
When Informational Conformity Backfires 224 Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 274
DEINDIVIDUATION MAKES PEOPLE FEEL LESS
When Will People Conform to Informational
ACCOUNTABLE • DEINDIVIDUATION INCREASES
Social Influence? 226 OBEDIENCE TO GROUP NORMS • DEINDIVIDUATION
WHEN THE SITUATION IS AMBIGUOUS • WHEN THE ONLINE
SITUATION IS A CRISIS • WHEN OTHER PEOPLE ARE EXPERTS
Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 228
Better Than One? 277
Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch
Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit
Line-Judgment Studies 230
Good Problem Solving 277
The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 233
FAILURE TO SHARE UNIQUE INFORMATION •
The Consequences of Resisting Normative GROUPTHINK: MANY HEADS, ONE MIND
Social Influence 235 Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 281
TRY IT! Unmasking Normative Social Influence Leadership in Groups 282
by Breaking the Rules 236 LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY • LEADERSHIP STYLES •
When Will People Conform to Normative THE RIGHT PERSON IN THE RIGHT SITUATION • GENDER
AND LEADERSHIP • CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP
Social Influence? 236
WHEN THE GROUP IS IMPORTANT • WHEN ONE HAS Conflict and Cooperation 286
NO ALLIES IN THE GROUP • WHEN THE GROUP’S Social Dilemmas 287
CULTURE IS COLLECTIVISTIC
TRY IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 288
#trending Social Norms and Bigotry 239 INCREASING COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER’S
Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 240 DILEMMA

Conformity Tactics 241 Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 289

The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 241 EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION

Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the Negotiation and Bargaining 291
“Boomerang Effect” 244 Summary 293 • Test Yourself 294
x Contents

10 Attraction and Relationships: From Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior:

When Will People Help? 349
Initial Impressions to Long-Term Environment: Rural Versus Urban 349
Intimacy 296 Residential Mobility 350
What Predicts Attraction? 298 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 351
The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 298 NOTICING AN EVENT • INTERPRETING THE EVENT
Similarity 300 AS AN EMERGENCY • ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY •
KNOWING HOW TO HELP • DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT
OPINIONS AND PERSONALITY • INTERESTS AND
THE HELP
EXPERIENCES • APPEARANCE • GENETICS • SOME
FINAL COMMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY Diffusion of Responsibility in Cyberspace 356
#trending “Hook-Up Culture” and Today’s Youth 302 Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics 357
Reciprocal Liking 302 How Can Helping Be Increased? 358
Physical Attractiveness 303 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders
WHAT IS ATTRACTIVE? • CULTURAL STANDARDS Will Intervene 358
OF BEAUTY • THE POWER OF FAMILIARITY • Increasing Volunteerism 360
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE
Summary 361 • Test Yourself 363
Evolution and Mate Selection 307
EVOLUTION AND SEX DIFFERENCES • ALTERNATE
PERSPECTIVES ON SEX DIFFERENCES
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other
People? Can We Prevent It? 365
Making Connections in the Digital World 311
Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 311 Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? 366
The Promise and Pitfalls of Meeting People Online 312 The Evolutionary View 367
AGGRESSION IN OTHER ANIMALS
Love and Close Relationships 314
Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 315 Culture and Aggression 369
CHANGES IN AGGRESSION ACROSS TIME AND
TRY IT! Passionate Love Scale 316 CULTURES • CULTURES OF HONOR
Culture and Love 317 Gender and Aggression 371
Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships 318 PHYSICAL AGGRESSION • RELATIONAL AGGRESSION
Your Body and Brain in Love 320 Learning to Behave Aggressively 373
Assessing Relationships: Satisfaction and Some Physiological Influences 375
Breaking Up 322 THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL • THE EFFECTS OF PAIN AND HEAT
Theories of Relationship Satisfaction 322 Social Situations and Aggression 377
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY • EQUITY THEORY
Frustration and Aggression 377
The Process and Experience of Breaking Up 327 Provocation and Reciprocation 379
Summary 330 • Test Yourself 331
TRY IT! Insults and Aggression 380

11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do

Weapons as Aggressive Cues
Putting the Elements Together: The Case of
380

People Help? 333 Sexual Assault 381

Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: MOTIVATIONS FOR RAPE • SEXUAL SCRIPTS AND
THE PROBLEM OF CONSENT
Why Do People Help? 334
Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 335 Violence and the Media 383
KIN SELECTION • THE RECIPROCITY NORM Studying the Effects of Media Violence 384
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES • LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
TRY IT! The Dictator Game 336
GROUP SELECTION
The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 386
Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping 337 How to Decrease Aggression 389
Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 338 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 389
USING PUNISHMENT ON VIOLENT ADULTS
Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why
Can We Release Anger by Indulging It? 390
Do Some People Help More Than Others? 342
THE EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE ACTS ON SUBSEQUENT
Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 342 AGGRESSION • BLAMING THE VICTIM OF OUR
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 343 AGGRESSION
TRY IT! Empathic Concern 344 What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 392
Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 345 VENTING VERSUS SELF-AWARENESS
Religion and Prosocial Behavior 346 TRAINING IN COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING
SKILLS
#trending Helping Across the Political Divide 347
TRY IT! Controlling Your Anger 393
The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 347
GETTING APOLOGIES RIGHT • COUNTERING
EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL GOOD, DO GOOD •
DEHUMANIZATION BY BUILDING EMPATHY
FEEL BAD, DO GOOD
 Contents xi

#trending “Re-accommodation”: The United Inducing Hypocrisy 450

Airlines Debacle 395 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 452
Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 396 Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 454
Summary 398 • Test Yourself 401 What Makes People Happy? 454
SATISFYING RELATIONSHIPS • FLOW: BECOMING
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, ENGAGED IN SOMETHING YOU ENJOY • ACCUMULATE
EXPERIENCES, NOT THINGS • HELPING OTHERS
and Cures 402
TRY IT! Applying the Research to Your Own Life 456
Defining Prejudice 403
Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 457
The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 404
Summary 458 • Test Yourself 459
ARE POSITIVE STEREOTYPES GOOD?

TRY IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 406

The Affective Component: Emotions 408
Social Psychology in Action 2
The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 409 Social Psychology and Health 461
TRY IT! Identifying Your Prejudices 409 Stress and Human Health 462
INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCRIMINATION • EVERYDAY
Resilience 463
DISCRIMINATION • FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION
Effects of Negative Life Events 464
Detecting Hidden Prejudices 414
LIMITS OF STRESS INVENTORIES
Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 414
TRY IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 465
Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 415
Perceived Stress and Health 466
The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim 417
Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 417 Control 467
Social Identity Threat 419 INCREASING PERCEIVED CONTROL IN NURSING HOMES •
Causes of Prejudice 421 DISEASE, CONTROL, AND WELL-BEING

Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 421 Coping with Stress 472

#trending Everyday Discrimination in Gender Differences in Coping with Stress 472
Professional Sports 423 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 473
Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 423 TRY IT! Social Support 474
ETHNOCENTRISM • IN-GROUP BIAS • OUT-GROUP Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 475
HOMOGENEITY • BLAMING THE VICTIM • JUSTIFYING
FEELINGS OF ENTITLEMENT AND SUPERIORITY
Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 476
Realistic Conflict Theory 427 Summary 478 • Test Yourself 479

Reducing Prejudice 429

The Contact Hypothesis 430 Social Psychology in Action 3
WHERE CONTACT CAN GO WRONG Social Psychology and the Law 481
Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw
Eyewitness Testimony 483
Classroom 433
Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? 483
WHY DOES JIGSAW WORK?
ENCODING • STORAGE • RETRIEVAL
TRY IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 435
Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken 488
THE GRADUAL SPREAD OF COOPERATIVE AND
INTERDEPENDENT LEARNING RESPONDING QUICKLY • POST-IDENTIFICATION FEEDBACK

Summary 437 • Test Yourself 439 TRY IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 491
The Recovered Memory Debate 491
Social Psychology in Action 1 Juries: Group Processes in Action 494
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a How Jurors Process Information during the Trial 494
Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? 495
Sustainable and Happy Future 440
Deliberations in the Jury Room 497
Applied Research in Social Psychology 443
Summary 498 • Test Yourself 499
Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 444
ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS • Glossary 501
POTENTIAL RISKS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTIONS
Social Psychology to the Rescue 446 References 507
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future 447 Credits 545
Conveying and Changing Social Norms 447
Name Index 549
TRY IT! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 448
Keeping Track of Consumption 449 Subject Index 568
Introducing a Little Competitiveness 450
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

W
hen we began writing this book, our overriding one video in Chapter 9 tells the story of how a student
goal was to capture the excitement of social psy- learned to avoid process loss in her study groups. These
chology. We have been pleased to hear, in many videos are in the Revel version of the text, placed along-
kind notes and messages from professors and students, that side the relevant concepts.
we succeeded. One of our favorite responses was from a A second new feature, called #trending, is a brief
student who said that the book was so interesting that she analysis of a current event that illustrates a key princi-
always saved it for last, to reward herself for finishing her ple in each chapter. In Chapter 11 on Prosocial Behavior,
other work. With that one student, at least, we succeeded in for example, we describe an incident in which a White
making our book an enjoyable, fascinating story, not a dry dentist from Texas, in town for Donald Trump’s inaugu-
report of facts and figures. ration, left a $450 tip for an African American waitress.
There is always room for improvement, however, and Students are asked to think about how concepts in the
our goal in this, the tenth edition, is to make the field of chapter might help explain why the man acted so gen-
social psychology an even better read. When we teach the erously, such as Batson’s empathy-altruism hypothesis.
course, there is nothing more gratifying than seeing the Importantly, these examples will be updated frequently
sleepy students in the back row sit up with interest and in the Revel version of the text, such that students will al-
say, “Wow, I didn’t know that! Now that’s interesting.” We ways be able to connect what they are reading to current,
hope that students who read our book will have that same real-world events.
reaction. Third, every chapter now begins with a feature called,
“What do YOU think?” where students answer a survey
question designed to illustrate a concept in that chapter. In

What’s New in This Edition? Chapter 6, for example, students are asked, “Have you ever
joined a group that required you to do something humili-
First a word about what has not changed. As mentioned, ating or dangerous in order to gain membership?” In the
we have done our best to tell the story of social psychol- Revel version of the text, students get immediate feedback
ogy in an engaging way that will resonate with students. on how other students have answered (23% said yes to this
We also have retained features that help students learn question). Then, at the end of the chapter, there is a writing
and retain the material. As before, each chapter begins exercise tied to the survey question that instructors can as-
with learning objectives, which are repeated in the sec- sign if they wish. In Chapter 6, for example, the question
tions of the chapter that are most relevant to them and in is, “How does justification of effort help explain why haz-
the chapter-ending summary. All major sections of every ing and initiation rites are common across so many different
chapter end with review quizzes. Research shows that group types?”
students learn material better when they are tested fre- Lastly, we have expanded a feature that proved to be
quently; thus, these section quizzes, as well as the test very popular with users of the Revel version of the previ-
questions at the end of every chapter, should be helpful ous edition, namely videos that recreate classic experiments
learning aids. In the Revel version of the text, instructors in social psychology. These videos, recorded exclusively for
have the option of assigning these quizzes and giving this book, give students a vivid and contemporary look at
course credit for correct answers. Each chapter also has how an experiment was done and what it found.
our Try It! feature that invites students to apply what And, of course, we have updated the tenth edition sub-
they have learned to their own lives. Several of these Try stantially, with numerous references to new research. Here
It! features have been updated. is a sampling of the new research that is covered:
We are pleased to add several new features to the
tenth edition that we believe will appeal to students • Chapter 1: This chapter contains updated examples,
and make it even easier for them to learn the material. a new Try It!, and a new section on the role of bio-
The first is called #SurvivalTips which are brief videos logical approaches and evolutionary theory in social
recorded by students who have taken a social psychol- psychology.
ogy class. Each one tells a personal story relaying how • Chapter 2: A signature of our book continues to be a
the student applied social psychology to better navigate readable, student-friendly chapter on research methods
or “survive” a real situation in their lives. For example, in social psychology. This chapter has been updated

xiii
xiv Preface

for the tenth edition with new references and examples can vary in predicting outcomes when it comes to
and a discussion of the replication debate in social evaluation of job résumés based on applicant name.
psychology. A new interactive feature is also included to explain
• Chapter 3, “Social Cognition: How We Think About the formula for persuasion according to the Yale
the Social World,” has been updated with more than Attitude Change approach.
40 new references. There is a new section on the plan- • Chapter 8, “Conformity and Obedience: Influencing
ning fallacy and discussions of recent research find- Behavior,” now opens with a more positive focus on
ings, such as a study on counterfactual thinking and social influence, in the form of Pete Frates and the
people’s belief in God. ALS ice bucket challenge. We have added a discus-
• Chapter 4, “Social Perception: How We Come to sion of the proliferation of “fake news” in the section
Understand Other People,” now includes several new on informational social influence. The chapter also
features, including a new opening drawing on the Black features a new interactive video demonstrating stu-
Mirror television series, an interactive photo gallery on dents employing various social influence techniques
using first impressions to your advantage, a discussion and added discussion of contemporary criticism of
of cross-cultural attitudes regarding karma and beliefs Milgram’s research.
in a just world, and a reorganized discussion of Kelley’s • Chapter 9, “Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups,”
covariation model. now opens with an analysis of problematic group deci-
• Chapter 5, “The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a sion making and strategizing in Hilary Clinton’s 2016
Social Context,” has been updated with more than 35 campaign team. We have also added coverage of recent
new references. The chapter headings have also been research on combating the problematic effects on deindi-
reorganized into three major sections, which should viduation online and group polarization via social media
make the material clearer to students. There is a new feeds. The chapter also includes expanded and updated
opening example about children raised by animals and discussion of the prisoner’s dilemma and a new photo
how they might have influenced their sense of self. gallery regarding resource dilemmas.
Lastly, the section on self-esteem has been updated and • Chapter 10, “Attraction and Relationships: From
moved to Chapter 6. Initial Impressions to Long-Term Intimacy,” has
• Chapter 6, “Cognitive Dissonance and the Need to a new title to better reflect the balanced focus be-
Protect Our Self-Esteem,” is one of the most exten- tween initial attraction and relationship trajectory/
sively revised chapters in this edition. This chap- satisfaction. A new interactive photo gallery explores
ter has always been a signature of the book; we are the relationship between mere exposure and liking,
the only text to devote an entire chapter to cogni- and a new interactive video illustrates the matching
tive dissonance theory and self-esteem maintenance. hypothesis in attraction. We have added coverage
We proudly retain this chapter in our tenth edition, (including an interactive figure) of Sternberg’s
continuing to present classic work in cognitive disso- triangular theory of love and have reorganized and
nance in a highly readable manner with compelling updated the concluding section on relationship
examples designed to draw students in. At the same satisfaction and breaking up.
time we have updated the chapter, adding a major • In Chapter 11, “Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People
new section on advances and extensions of dissonance Help?” includes more than 30 new references, expanded
theory that includes discussions of self-affirmation discussions of empathy and altruism and volunteerism,
theory and self-evaluation maintenance theory. There and a revised discussion of religion and prosocial
is also a section on narcissism and self-esteem, which behavior.
previously appeared in Chapter 5. Lastly the chapter • Chapter 12, “Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other
has two new Try It! exercises that students will enjoy: People? Can We Prevent It?,” has significant content
In one they complete a values affirmation writing ex- updates in addition to covering new research. Our
ercise, and in another they can take a short version of discussion of testosterone and aggression is more nu-
the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and get feed- anced, disentangling some aspects of gender and hor-
back on their score. mones and introducing the other sex hormone related
• Chapter 7, “Attitudes and Attitude Change: to aggression, estradiol. We also introduce and evalu-
Influencing Thoughts and Feelings,” includes a new ate two formal evolutionary theories of aggression:
opening story, new examples from Election 2016 in the challenge hypothesis and dual-hormone theory.
the discussion of affectively based attitudes, and new We also streamlined the section on sexual assault
discussion of how implicit versus explicit attitudes to make this important section clearer. Overall, the
 Preface xv

chapter narrative now emphasizes the convergent fact inspired the creation of Revel: an interactive learning
evidence for the role of impulsivity in aggression environment designed for the way today’s students read,
across biological and psychological evidence. think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and
• In Chapter 13, “Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, students nationwide, Revel is the newest, fully digital way
and Cures,” has undergone a major organizational to deliver respected Pearson content. Revel enlivens course
and content update. We generalized the discussion content with media interactives and assessments—icluding
of prejudice from the strong focus on Black-White an interactive figure) of ntegrated directly within the au-
and male-female relations to relate more generally thors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students
to other ethnic, gender, and stigmatized identities. to read about and practice course material in tandem. This
Nonetheless, we maintain an important dialog on immersive educational technology boosts student engage-
anti-Blackness, including a discussion of police shoot- ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and
ings and activist groups. We expanded the discussion improved performance throughout the course.
of emotions as a core component of prejudice, through
which we included more physiological research on Learn More about Revel
prejudice into the chapter. Under the ways to reduce http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/
prejudice, we have extended the discussion of inter- Rather than simply offering opportunities to read
group contact to teach students about indirect contact, about and study social psychology, Revel facilitates
and we have streamlined the discussion of the jigsaw deep, engaging interactions with the concepts that mat-
classroom. The entire chapter was updated with new ter most. By providing opportunities to improve skills
examples from recent popular culture and interactive in analyzing and interpreting sources of psychological
components in Revel. evidence, for example, Revel engages students directly
• Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social and immediately, which leads to a better understanding
Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy of course material. A wealth of student and instructor
Future,” “Social Psychology and Health,” and “Social resources and interactive materials can be found within
Psychology and the Law”—have been updated with Revel. Some of our favorites are mentioned in the infor-
many references to new research, but remain shorter mation that follows.
chapters. When we teach the course, we find that stu- For more information about all the tools and resources
dents are excited to learn about these applied areas. in Revel and access to your own Revel account for Social
At the same time, we recognize that some instructors Psychology, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/revel.
have difficulty fitting the chapters into their courses.
As with the previous edition, our approach remains to Instructor Resources
maintain a shortened length for the applied chapters to We know that instructors are “tour guides” for their stu-
make it easy to integrate these chapters into different dents, leading them through the exciting world of social
parts of the course in whatever fashion an instructor psychology in the classroom. As such, we have invested
deems best. SPA1, “Using Social Psychology to Achieve tremendous effort in the creation of a world-class collection
a Sustainable and Happy Future,” includes an updated of instructor resources that will support professors in their
opening example about the effects of climate change mission to teach the best course possible.
and new examples of ways in which students can both Coauthor Sam Sommers guided the creation of this
act in sustainable ways and maximize their well-being. supplements package, which has been reviewed and up-
In SPA2, “Social Psychology and Health,” we updated dated for the tenth edition. Here are the highlights of the
coverage on perceived control interventions among supplements we are pleased to provide:
nursing home residents and included a new interactive
on coping with stress. SPA3, “Social Psychology and PRESENTATION TOOLS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Law,” has a new video about attentional blindness and • Social Psychology PowerPoint Collection (0134700732)
an interactive feature on best practices in eyewitness The PowerPoints provide an active format for pre-
identification procedures. senting concepts from each chapter and incorpo-
rating relevant figures and tables. Instructors can
Revel for Social Psychology choose from three PowerPoint presentations: a lec-
ture presentation set that highlights major topics
Revel™ from the chapters, a highly visual lecture presenta-
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more ef- tion set with embedded videos, or a PowerPoint
fectively and perform better in their courses. This simple collection of the complete art files from the text. The
xvi Preface

PowerPoint files can be downloaded from www work starts on the eleventh edition), and for frequently pro-
.pearsonhighered.com. viding excellent real-life examples that illustrate social psy-
• Instructor’s Resource Manual (0134700694) The chological concepts. He also gives special thanks to all of his
Instructor’s Manual includes key terms, lecture ideas, teachers of social psychology, for introducing him to the field,
teaching tips, suggested readings, chapter outlines, for continued support, and for serving as role models as in-
student projects and research assignments, Try It! exer- structors, mentors, researchers, and writers.
cises, critical-thinking topics and discussion questions, No book can be written and published without the
and a media resource guide. It has been updated for help of many people working with the authors behind the
the tenth edition with hyperlinks to ease facilitation of scenes, and our book is no exception. We need to give a
navigation within the Instructor’s Resource Manual. special thanks to Elizabeth Page-Gould for her tremendous
help in revising two of the chapters. Her deep knowledge
ASSESSMENT RESOURCES of social psychology and wonderful writing style contrib-
• Test Bank (0134700740) Each of the more than 2,000 uted greatly to this edition. We would also like to thank the
questions in this test bank is page-referenced to the text many colleagues who read one or more chapters of this edi-
and categorized by topic and skill level. Each question tion and of previous editions of the book.
in the test bank was reviewed by several instructors
to ensure that we are providing you with the best and Reviewers of the Tenth Edition
most accurate content in the industry. Jim Allen, State University of New York, College at Geneseo;
• MyTest Test Bank (0134677897) This Web-based test- Kathryn Anderson, Our Lady of the Lake University; Anila
generating software provides instructors “best in class” Bhagavatula, California State University–Long Beach; Amy
features in an easy-to-use program. Create tests and Bradshaw-Hoppock, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University;
easily select questions with drag-and-drop or point- Ngoc Bui, University of La Verne; Bernardo Carducci, Indiana
and-click functionality. Add or modify test questions University Southeast; Alex Czopp, Western Washington
using the built-in Question Editor, and print tests in a University; Keith Davis, University of South Carolina;
variety of formats. The program comes with full techni- Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville;
cal support. Heidi English, College of the Siskiyous; Joe Ferrari, DePaul
University; Christine Floether, Centenary College; Krista
Forrest, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Allen Gorman,
Acknowledgments Radford University; Jerry Green, Tarrant County College;
Dana Greene, University of North Carolina; Donnell Griffin,
Elliot Aronson is delighted to acknowledge the collabora-
Davidson County Community College; Lisa Harrison,
tion of Carol Tavris. He would also like to acknowledge the
California State University, Sacramento; Gina Hoover, Ohio
contributions of his best friend (who also happens to be his
State University; Jeffrey Huntsinger, Loyola University
wife of 60 years), Vera Aronson. Vera, as usual, provided in-
Chicago; Alisha Janowsky, University of Central Florida;
spiration for his ideas and acted as the sounding board for
Bethany Johnson, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Deborah
and supportive critic of many of his semiformed notions,
Jones, Columbia University; Suzanne Kieffer, University of
helping to mold them into more sensible analyses.
Houston; Marvin Lee, Tennessee State University; Alexandra
Tim Wilson would like to thank his graduate mentor,
Luong, University of Minnesota Duluth; Robyn Mallett,
Richard E. Nisbett, who nurtured his interest in the field
Loyola University Chicago; Brian Meier, Gettysburg College;
and showed him the continuity between social psychologi-
Andrea Mercurio, Boston University; Lori Nelson, University
cal research and everyday life. He also thanks the many stu-
of Iowa; Darren Petronella, Nassau Community College;
dents who have taken his course in social psychology over
Jennifer Rivers, Elms College; Kari Terzino, Des Moines Area
the years, for asking fascinating questions and providing
Community College; T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University; Angela
wonderful examples of social psychological phenomena in
Walker, Quinnipiac University; Chrysalis Wright, University
their everyday lives. Lastly, he thanks the many graduate
of Central Florida; Garry Zaslow, Nassau Community College;
students with whom he has had the privilege of working
Jie Zhang, University at Buffalo
for joining him in the ever-fascinating discovery of new so-
cial psychological phenomena.
Sam Sommers would like to acknowledge, first and fore-
Reviewers of Past Editions
most, the Sommers ladies, Marilyn, Abigail, and Sophia, for Jeffrey B. Adams, Saint Michael’s College; Bill Adler,
being patient with round-the-clock revision sessions, for tol- Collin County Community College; John R. Aiello, Rutgers
erating the constantly expanding mass of papers and books University; Charles A. Alexander, Rock Valley College;
on the floor of the study (he promises to clean them up before Sowmya Anand, Ohio State University; Nathan Arbuckle,
 Preface xvii

Ohio State University; Art Aron, State University of New St. John Fisher College; William Rick Fry, Youngstown State
York, Stony Brook; Danny Axsom, Virginia Polytechnic University; Russell Geen, University of Missouri; Glenn
Institute and State University; Joan W. Baily, Jersey City State Geher, State University of New York at New Paltz; David
College; Norma Baker, Belmont University; Austin Baldwin, Gersh, Houston Community College; Frederick X. Gibbons,
University of Iowa; John Bargh, New York University; Iowa State University; Cynthia Gilliland, Louisiana State
William A. Barnard, University of Northern Colorado; Doris University; Genaro Gonzalez, University of Texas; Jessica
G. Bazzini, Appalachian State University; Arthur Beaman, Gonzalez, Ohio State University; Sara Gorchoff, University
University of Kentucky; Gordon Bear, Ramapo College; Susan of California, Berkeley; Beverly Gray, Youngstown State
E. Beers, Sweet Briar College; Kathy L. Bell, University of University; Gordon Hammerle, Adrian College; H. Anna
North Carolina at Greensboro; Leonard Berkowitz, University Han, Ohio State University; Judith Harackiewicz, University
of Wisconsin–Madison; Ellen S. Berscheid, University of of Wisconsin–Madison; Elaine Hatfield, University of Hawaii,
Minnesota; John Bickford, University of Massachusetts, Manoa; Vicki S. Helgeson, Carnegie Mellon University; Joyce
Amherst; Thomas Blass, University of Maryland; C. Hemphill, Cazenovia College; Tracy B. Henley, Mississippi
George Boeree, Shippensburg University; Lisa M. Bohon, State University; Ed Hirt, Indiana University; Harold
California State University, Sacramento; Jennifer Bosson, The Hunziker Jr., Corning Community College; David E. Hyatt,
University of Oklahoma; Chante C. Boyd, Carnegie Mellon University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Marita Inglehart, University
University; Peter J. Brady, Clark State Community College; of Michigan; Carl Kallgren, Behrend College, Pennsylvania
Kosha Bramesfeld, Pennsylvania State University; Kelly State University, Erie; Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University;
A. Brennan, University of Texas, Austin; Richard W. Brislin, Bill Klein, Colby College; James D. Johnson, University of
East-West Center of the University of Hawaii; Jeff Bryson, North Carolina, Wilmington; Lee Jussim, Rutgers University;
San Diego State University; Melissa Burkley, Oklahoma State Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University; Fredrick Koenig,
University; Amy Bush, University of Houston; Amber Bush Tulane University; Alan Lambert, Washington University,
Amspoker, University of Houston; Brad Bushman, Iowa State St. Louis; Emmett Lampkin, Kirkwook Community College;
University; Thomas P. Cafferty, University of South Carolina, Elizabeth C. Lanthier, Northern Virginia Community
Columbia; Melissa A. Cahoon, Wright State University; College; Patricia Laser, Bucks County Community College; G.
Frank Calabrese, Community College of Philadelphia; Michael Daniel Lassiter, Ohio University; Dianne Leader, Georgia
Caruso, University of Toledo; Nicholas Christenfeld, Institute of Technology; John Lu, Concordia University;
University of California, San Diego; Margaret S. Clark, Stephanie Madon, Iowa State University; John Malarkey,
Carnegie Mellon University; Russell D. Clark, III, University Wilmington College; Andrew Manion, St. Mary’s University
of North Texas; Susan D. Clayton, Allegheny College; of Minnesota; Allen R. McConnell, Michigan State University;
Megan Clegg-Kraynok, West Virginia University; Brian M. Adam Meade, North Carolina State University; Joann M.
Cohen, University of Texas, San Antonio; Florette Cohen, Montepare, Tufts University; Richard Moreland, University
Rutgers University; Jack Cohen, Camden County College; of Pittsburgh; Dave Nalbone, Purdue University–Calumet;
Steven G. Cole, Texas Christian University; Eric J. Cooley, Carrie Nance, Stetson University; Todd D. Nelson, Michigan
Western Oregon State University; Diana Cordova, Yale State University; Elaine Nocks, Furman University; Matylda
University; Traci Craig, University of Idaho; Jack Croxton, Osika, University of Houston; Cheri Parks, Colorado Christian
State University of New York, Fredonia; Keith E. Davis, University; W. Gerrod Parrott, Georgetown University; David
University of South Carolina, Columbia; Mary Ellen Dello Peterson, Mount Senario College; Mary Pritchard, Boise State
Stritto, Ball State University; Dorothee Dietrich, Hamline University; Cynthia K. S. Reed, Tarrant County College; Dan
University; Kate Dockery, University of Florida; Susann Richard, University of North Florida; Neal Roese, University
Doyle, Gainesville College; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; of Illinois; Darrin L. Rogers, Ohio State University; Joan
Michael G. Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Rollins, Rhode Island College; Paul Rose, Southern Illinois
Karen G. Duffy, State University of New York, Geneseo; Valerie University Edwardsville; Lee D. Ross, Stanford University;
Eastman, Drury College; Tami Eggleston, McKendree College; Alex Rothman, University of Minnesota; M. Susan Rowley,
Timothy Elliot, University of Alabama–Birmingham; Steve L. Champlain College; Delia Saenz, Arizona State University;
Ellyson, Youngstown State University; Cindy Elrod, Georgia Brad Sagarin, Northern Illinois University; Fred Sanborn,
State University; Kadimah Elson, University of California, San North Carolina Wesleyan College; Connie Schick, Bloomsburg
Diego/Grossmont College; Rebecca S. Fahrlander, University University; Norbert Schwartz, University of Michigan;
of Nebraska at Omaha; Alan Feingold, Yale University; Gretchen Sechrist, University at Buffalo; Richard C.
Edward Fernandes, East Carolina University; Phil Finney, Sherman, Miami University of Ohio; Paul Silvia, University
Southeast Missouri State University; Susan Fiske, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Randolph A. Smith, Ouachita
of Massachusetts; Robin Franck, Southwestern College; Denise Baptist University; Linda Solomon, Marymount Manhattan
Frank, Ramapo College of New Jersey; Timothy M. Franz, College; Janice Steil, Adelphi University; Jakob Steinberg,
xviii Preface

Fairleigh Dickinson University; Mark Stewart, American We also thank the wonderful editorial staff of Pearson
River College; Lori Stone, University of Texas at Austin; for their expertise and professionalism, including Dickson
JoNell Strough, West Virginia University; T. Gale Thompson, Musslewhite (Editorial Director), Cecilia Turner (Content
Bethany College; Scott Tindale, Loyola University of Chicago; Producer), Christopher Brown (Executive Product
David M. Tom, Columbus State Community College; David Marketing Manager), Louis Fierro (Editorial Assistant),
Trafimow, New Mexico State University; Ruth Warner, St. and Angel Chavez (Project Manager). We would especially
Louis University; Anne Weiher, Metropolitan State College like to thank Thomas Finn (Developmental Editor), who
of Denver; Gary L. Wells, Iowa State University; Jackie provided expert guidance with constant good cheer and
White, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Paul L. insight even through barrages of e-mail exchanges and at-
Wienir, Western Michigan University; Kipling D. Williams, tachments, and Amber Chow (Portfolio Manager), whose
University of Toledo; Tamara Williams, Hampton University; smart vision for the book, and commitment to making it as
Paul Windschitl, University of Iowa; Mike Witmer, Skagit good as it can be, have truly made a difference. Finally, we
Valley College; Gwen Wittenbaum, Michigan State University; thank Mary Falcon, but for whom we never would have
William Douglas Woody, University of Northern Colorado; begun this project.
Clare Zaborowski, San Jacinto College; William H. Zachry, Thank you for inviting us into your classroom. We wel-
University of Tennessee–Martin; Leah Zinner, University of come your suggestions, and we would be delighted to hear
Wisconsin–Madison your comments about this book.

Elliot Aronson
elliot@cats.ucsc.edu

Tim Wilson
tdw@virginia.edu

Sam Sommers
sam.sommers@tufts.edu
About the Authors

Elliot Aronson real-world problems. Dr. Aronson’s own recent books for general
audiences include Mistakes Were Made (but not by ME), with
When I was a kid, we were the only Jewish family in a vir- Carol Tavris, and a memoir, Not by Chance Alone: My Life as
ulently anti-Semitic neighborhood. I had to go to Hebrew a Social Psychologist.
school every day, late in the afternoon. Being the only
youngster in my neighborhood going to Hebrew school
made me an easy target for some of the older neighborhood Tim Wilson
toughs. On my way home from Hebrew school, after dark, One day when I was 8, a couple of older kids rode up on
I was frequently waylaid and roughed up by roving gangs their bikes to share some big news: They had discovered an
shouting anti-Semitic epithets. abandoned house down a country road. “It’s really neat,”
I have a vivid memory of sitting on a curb after one they said. “We broke a window and nobody cared!” My
of these beatings, nursing a bloody nose or a split lip, feel- friend and I hopped onto our bikes to investigate. We had
ing very sorry for myself and wondering how these kids no trouble finding the house—there it was, sitting off by
could hate me so much when they didn’t even know me. I itself, with a big, jagged hole in a first-floor window. We
thought about whether those kids were taught to hate Jews got off of our bikes and looked around. My friend found a
or whether, somehow, they were born that way. I wondered baseball-sized rock lying on the ground and threw a per-
if their hatred could be changed—if they got to know me fect strike through another first-floor window. There was
better, would they hate me less? I speculated about my own something exhilarating about the smash-and-tingle of shat-
character. What would I have done if the shoe were on the tering glass, especially when we knew there was nothing
other foot—that is, if I were bigger and stronger than they, wrong with what we were doing. After all, the house was
would I be capable of beating them up for no good reason? abandoned, wasn’t it? We broke nearly every window in
I didn’t realize it at the time, of course, but eventually I the house and then climbed through one of the first-floor
discovered that these were profound questions. And some windows to look around.
30 years later, as an experimental social psychologist, I had It was then that we realized something was terribly
the great good fortune to be in a position to answer some of wrong. The house certainly did not look abandoned. There
those questions and to invent techniques to reduce the kind were pictures on the wall, nice furniture, books in shelves.
of prejudice that had claimed me as a victim. We went home feeling frightened and confused. We soon
Elliot Aronson is Professor Emeritus at the University of learned that the house was the home of an elderly couple
California at Santa Cruz and one of the most renowned social psy- who were away on vacation. Eventually, my parents dis-
chologists in the world. In 2002, he was chosen as one of the 100 covered what we had done and paid a substantial sum to
most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century. Dr. Aronson repair the windows. For years, I pondered this incident:
is the only person in the 120-year history of the American Psycho- Why did I do such a terrible thing? Was I a bad kid? I didn’t
logical Association to have received all three of its major awards: think so, and neither did my parents. How, then, could a
for distinguished writing, distinguished teaching, and distin- good kid do such a bad thing? Even though the neighbor-
guished research. Many other professional societies have honored hood kids said the house was abandoned, why couldn’t my
his research and teaching as well. These include the American friend and I see the clear signs that someone lived there?
Association for the Advancement of Science, which gave him its How crucial was it that my friend was there and threw
highest honor, the Distinguished Scientific Research award; the the first rock? Although I didn’t know it at the time, these
American Council for the Advancement and Support of Educa- reflections touched on several classic social psychological
tion, which named him Professor of the Year of 1989; the Society issues, such as whether only bad people do bad things,
for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, which awarded him whether the social situation can be powerful enough to
the Gordon Allport prize for his contributions to the reduction of make good people do bad things, and the way in which
prejudice among racial and ethnic groups; and the William James our expectations about an event can make it difficult to see
Award from the Association for Psychological Science. In 1992, it as it really is. Fortunately, my career as a vandal ended
he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- with this one incident. It did, however, mark the beginning
ences. A collection of papers and tributes by his former students of my fascination with basic questions about how people
and colleagues, The Scientist and the Humanist, celebrates his understand themselves and the social world—questions I
contributions to social psychological theory and its application to continue to investigate to this day.

xix
xx About the Authors

Tim Wilson did his undergraduate work at Williams College had watched was of an actor, and in some versions of the
and Hampshire College and received his PhD from the University study he mentioned having a girlfriend. In other versions,
of Michigan. Currently Sherrell J. Aston Professor of Psychology he mentioned a boyfriend. What the researchers were actu-
at the University of Virginia, he has published numerous articles ally studying was how this social category information of
in the areas of introspection, attitude change, self-knowledge, and sexual orientation would influence participants’ attitudes
affective forecasting, as well as a recent book, Redirect: The Sur- about the interaction.
prising New Science of Psychological Change. His research And then she took out a tape measure.
has received the support of the National Science Foundation and The tape measure was to gauge how close to my part-
the National Institute for Mental Health. He has been elected ner’s chair I had placed my own chair, the hypothesis being
twice to the Executive Board of the Society for Experimental So- that discomfort with a gay partner might manifest in terms
cial Psychology and is a Fellow in the American Psychological of participants placing their chairs farther away. Greater
Society and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. In comfort with or affinity for the partner was predicted to
2009, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts lead to more desire for proximity.
and Sciences. In 2015 he received the William James Fellows And at that, I was hooked. The little voice in my head
Award from the Association for Psychological Science. Wilson had grown from a whisper to a full-throated yell that this
has taught the Introduction to Social Psychology course at the was a field I could get excited about. First of all, the re-
University of Virginia for more than 30 years. In 2001 he was searchers had tricked me. That, alone, I thought was, for
awarded the University of Virginia All-University Outstand- lack of a better word, cool. But more important, they had
ing Teaching Award, and in 2010 was awarded the University of done so in the effort to get me and my fellow participants
Virginia Distinguished Scientist Award. to reveal something about our attitudes, preferences, and
tendencies that we never would have admitted to (or per-

Sam Sommers haps even would have been aware of) had they just asked
us directly. Here was a fascinatingly creative research de-
I went to college to major in English. I only found myself in sign, being used in the effort to study what struck me as an
an Intro to Psychology course as a second-semester fresh- incredibly important social issue.
man because, well, it just seemed like the kind of thing you Like I said, I was hooked. And I look forward to help-
did as a second-semester freshman. It was when we got to ing to introduce you to this field that caught me by surprise
the social psychology section of the course that a little voice back when I was a student and continues to intrigue and
in my head starting whispering something along the lines inspire me to this day.
of, Hey, you’ve gotta admit this is pretty good stuff. It’s a lot like Sam Sommers earned his BA from Williams College and his
the conversations you have with your friends about daily life, but PhD from the University of Michigan. Since 2003 he has been a
with scientific data. faculty member in the Department of Psychology at Tufts Uni-
As part of the class, we had the opportunity to partici- versity in Medford, Massachusetts. His research examines is-
pate in research studies for course credit. So one day I found sues related to stereotyping, prejudice, and group diversity, with
myself in an interaction study in which I was going to work a particular interest in how these processes play out in the legal
on solving problems with a partner. I walked in and it was domain. He has won multiple teaching awards at Tufts, includ-
clear that the other guy had arrived earlier—his coat and ing the Lerman-Neubauer Prize for Outstanding Teaching and
bag were already hanging on the back of a chair. I was led to Advising and the Gerald R. Gill Professor of the Year Award. He
another, smaller room and shown a video of my soon-to-be was also inducted into the Tufts Hall of Diversity for his efforts
partner. Then I was given a series of written questions about to promote an inclusive climate on campus for all students. He
my perceptions of him, my expectations for our upcoming has testified as an expert witness on issues related to racial bias,
session together, and so forth. Finally, I walked back into the jury decision making, and eyewitness memory in criminal trial
main area. The experimenter handed me a chair and told proceedings in eight states. He has written two general audience
me to put it down anywhere next to my partner’s chair, and books related to social psychology: Situations Matter: Under-
that she would go get him (he, too, was presumably com- standing How Context Transforms Your World (2011) and
pleting written questionnaires in a private room). This Is Your Brain on Sports: The Science of Underdogs,
So I did. I put my chair down, took a seat, and waited. the Value of Rivalry, and What We Can Learn from the
Then the experimenter returned, but she was alone. She T-shirt Cannon (2016). He is also co-author of Invitation to
told me the study was over. There was no other participant; Psychology (7th edition), along with Carole Wade, Carol Tavris,
there would be no problem solving in pairs. The video I and Lisa Shin.
Special Tips for Students

“T
here is then creative reading as well as crea- to other people. Still others are short quizzes that illustrate
tive writing,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson in social psychological concepts.
1837, and that aptly sums up what you need to Watch the videos. Our carefully curated collection of in-
know to be a proficient student: Be an active, creative con- terviews, news clips, and research study reenactments is
sumer of information. How do you accomplish that feat? designed to enhance, and help you better understand, the
Actually, it’s not difficult. Like everything else in life, it just concepts you’re reading. If you can see the concept in ac-
takes some work—some clever, well-planned, purposeful tion, it’s likely to sink in a little deeper.
work. Here are some suggestions about how to do it.

Get to Know the Textbook Just Say No to the Couch

Believe it or not, in writing this book, we thought carefully
about the organization and structure of each chapter. Things
Potato Within
are presented as they are for a reason, and that reason is to Because social psychology is about everyday life, you might
help you learn the material in the best way possible. Here lull yourself into believing that the material is all common
are some tips on what to look for in each chapter. sense. Don’t be fooled. The material presented in this book
is more complicated than it might seem. Therefore, we want
Key terms are in boldface type in the text so that you’ll
to emphasize that the best way to learn it is to work with it
notice them. We define the terms in the text, and that defi-
in an active, not passive, fashion. You can’t just read a chap-
nition appears again in the margin. These marginal defini-
ter once and expect it to stick with you. You have to go over
tions are there to help you out if later in the chapter you
the material, wrestle with it, make your own connections to
forget what something means. The marginal definitions are
it, question it, think about it, interact with it. Actively work-
quick and easy to find. You can also look up key terms in
ing with material makes it memorable and makes it your
the alphabetical Glossary at the end of this textbook.
own. Because it’s a safe bet that someone is going to ask you
Make sure you notice the headings and subheadings. The about this material later and you’re going to have to pull it
headings are the skeleton that holds a chapter together. They out of memory, do what you can to get it into memory now.
link together like vertebrae. If you ever feel lost, look back to Here are some techniques to use:
the previous heading and the headings before it—this will
• Go ahead and highlight lines in the text—you can do
give you the “big picture” of where the chapter is going. It
so in Revel by clicking and dragging the cursor over
should also help you see the connections between sections.
a sentence; you can even choose your own color, and
The summary at the end of each chapter is a succinct short- add a note! If you highlight important points, you will
hand presentation of the chapter information. You should read remember those important points better and can scroll
it and make sure there are no surprises when you do so. If any- back through them later.
thing in the summary doesn’t ring a bell, go back to the chap- • Read the chapter before the applicable class lecture, not
ter and reread that section. Most important, remember that the afterward. This way, you’ll get more out of the lecture,
summary is intentionally brief, whereas your understanding which will likely introduce new material in addition to
of the material should be full and complete. Use the summary what is in the chapter. The chapter will give you the big
as a study aid before your exams. When you read it over, ev- picture, as well as a lot of detail. The lecture will en-
erything should be familiar. When you have that wonderful hance that information and help you put it all together.
feeling of knowing more than is in the summary, you’ll know If you haven’t read the chapter first, you may not un-
that you are ready to take the exam. derstand some of the points made in the lecture or real-
Be sure to do the Try It! exercises. They will make concepts ize which points are most important.
from social psychology concrete and help you see how they • Here’s a good way to study material: Write out a key
can be applied to your own life. Some of the Try It! exercises concept or a study in your own words, without look-
replicate social psychology experiments. Others reproduce ing at the book or your notes. Or say it out loud to
self-report scales so you can see where you stand in relation yourself—again in your own words, with your eyes

xxi
xxii Special Tips for Students

closed. Can you do it? How good was your version? of a social psychologist—and try to apply what you
Did you omit anything important? Did you get stuck are learning to the behavior of friends, acquaintances,
at some point, unable to remember what comes next? If strangers, and, yes, even yourself. In each chapter you
so, you now know that you need to go over that infor- will see how other students have done this in brief
mation in more detail. You can also study with some- videos called #SurvivalTips. Make sure you use the
one else, describing theories and studies to each other Try It! exercises. You will find out how much social
and seeing if you’re making sense. psychology can help us understand our lives. When
• If you have trouble remembering the results of an im- you read the news, think about what social psychol-
portant study, try drawing your own version of a graph ogy has to say about current events and behaviors; we
of the findings (you can use our data graphs for an idea believe you will find that your understanding of daily
of how to proceed). You will probably find that you life is richer. If you notice a news article that you think
remember the research results much better in pictorial is an especially good example of “social psychology
form than in words. Draw the information a few times in action,” please send it to us, with a full reference to
and it will stay with you. where you found it and on what page. If we decide to
use it in the next edition of this book, we’ll list your
• Remember, the more you work with the material, the
name in the Acknowledgments.
better you will learn and remember it. Write it in your
own words, talk about it, explain it to others, or draw We realize that 10 years from now you may not re-
visual representations of it. member all the facts, theories, and names you learn now.
• Last but not least, remember that this material is a Although we hope you will remember some of them, our
lot of fun. You haven’t even started reading the book main goal is for you to take with you into your future a
yet, but we think you’re going to like it. In particu- great many of the broad social psychological concepts pre-
lar, you’ll see how much social psychology has to tell sented herein—and, perhaps more important, a critical and
you about your real, everyday life. As this course pro- scientific way of thinking. If you open yourself to social
gresses, you might want to remind yourself to observe psychology’s magic, we believe it will enrich the way you
the events of your daily life with new eyes—the eyes look at the world and the way you live in it.
Chapter 1
Introducing Social
Psychology

Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

Defining Social Psychology Where Construals Come From: Basic Human
LO 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from Motives
other disciplines. LO 1.3 Explain what happens when people’s need to feel
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common good about themselves conflicts with their need to
Sense be accurate.
How Social Psychology Differs From Its Closest The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About
Cousins Ourselves
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate
The Power of the Situation
LO 1.2 Summarize why it matters how people explain and Why Study Social Psychology?
interpret events, as well as their own and others’ LO 1.4 Explain why the study of social psychology is
behavior. important.
Underestimating the Power of the Situation
The Importance of Construal

1
2 Chapter 1

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Survey What Do You Think?

Revel Interactive
SURVEY RESULTS

Do you consider yourself good at predicting how people around you will behave and
react under different circumstances?

Yes
No

It is a pleasure to be your tour guides as we take you on a journey through the world of
social psychology. As we embark on this journey, our hope is to convey our excitement
about social psychology—what it is and why it matters. Not only do we, the authors,
enjoy teaching this stuff (which we’ve been doing, combined, for more than 100 years),
we also love contributing to the growth and development of this field. In addition to
being teachers, each of us is a scientist who has contributed to the knowledge base that
makes up our discipline. Thus, not only are we leading this tour, we also helped create
some of its attractions. We will travel to fascinating and exotic places like prejudice,
love, propaganda, education, conformity, aggression, compassion… all the rich variety
and surprise of human social life. Ready? OK, let’s go!
Let’s begin with a few examples of the heroic, touching, tragic, and puzzling
things that people do:

• Jorge Munoz is a school bus driver during the day but works a different “job” at
night: Feeding the hungry. When he gets home from his last school bus run, he
and his family cook meals for dozens of people using donated food and their own
money. They then serve the food to people down on their luck who line up at a
street corner in Queens, New York. Over a 4-year period Munoz has fed more than
70,000 people. Why does he do it? “When they smile,” Munoz says, “That’s the
way I get paid.” (http://www.karmatube.org/videos.php?id=1606)
• Kristen has known Martin for 2 months and feels that she is madly in love with
him. “We’re soul mates!” she tells her best friend. “He’s the one!” “What are you
thinking?” says the best friend. “He’s completely wrong for you! He’s as different
from you as can be—different background, religion, politics; you even like differ-
ent movies.” “I’m not worried,” says Kristen. “Opposites attract. I know that’s
true; I read it on Wikipedia!”
• Janine and her brother Oscar are arguing about fraternities. Janine’s college
didn’t have any, but Oscar is at a large state university in the Midwest, where he
has joined Alpha Beta. He went through a severe and scary hazing ritual to join,
and Janine cannot understand why he loves these guys so much. “They make
the pledges do such stupid stuff,” she says. “They humiliate you and force you
to get sick drunk and practically freeze to death in the middle of the night. How
can you possibly be happy living there?” “You don’t get it,” Oscar replies. “Alpha
Beta is the best of all fraternities. My frat brothers just seem more fun than most
other guys.”
• Abraham Biggs Jr., age 19, had been posting to an online discussion board for
2 years. Unhappy about his future and that a relationship had ended, Biggs an-
nounced on camera that he was going to commit suicide. He took an overdose
of drugs and linked to a live video feed from his bedroom. None of his hun-
dreds of observers called the police for more than 10 hours; some egged him on.
Paramedics reached him too late, and Biggs died.
 Introducing Social Psychology 3

• In the mid-1970s, several hundred members of the Peoples Temple, a

California-based religious cult, immigrated to Guyana under the guidance of their
leader, the Reverend Jim Jones, where they founded an interracial community
called Jonestown. But within a few years some members wanted out, an outside
investigation was about to get Jones in trouble, and the group’s solidarity was
waning. Jones grew despondent and, summoning everyone in the community,
spoke to them about the beauty of dying and the certainty that everyone would
meet again in another place. The residents willingly lined up in front of a vat con-
taining a mixture of Kool-Aid and cyanide, and drank the lethal concoction. (The
legacy of this massacre is the term “drinking the Kool-Aid,” referring to a person’s
blind belief in ideology.) A total of 914 people died, including 80 babies and the
Reverend Jones.

Why do many people help complete strangers? Is Kristen right that opposites at-
tract or is she just kidding herself? Why did Oscar come to love his fraternity brothers
despite the hazing they had put him through? Why would people watch a troubled
young man commit suicide in front of their eyes, when, by simply flagging the video
to alert the website, they might have averted a tragedy? How could hundreds of peo-
ple be induced to kill their own children and then commit suicide?
All of these stories—the good, the bad, the ugly—pose fascinating questions about
human behavior. In this book, we will show you how social psychologists go about Social Psychology
answering them. The scientific study of the way in
which people’s thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors are influenced by
the real or imagined presence of

Defining Social Psychology other people

Social Influence
LO 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from other disciplines.
The effect that the words, actions,
The task of the psychologist is to understand and predict human behavior. To do or mere presence of other people
so, social psychologists focus on the influence other people have on us. More for- have on our thoughts, feelings,
mally, social psychology is the scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, attitudes, or behavior
feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the
real or imagined presence of other people
(Allport, 1985). When we think of social in-
fluence, the kinds of examples that readily
come to mind are direct attempts at persua-
sion, whereby one person deliberately tries
to change another person’s behavior or atti-
tude. This is what happens when advertisers
use sophisticated techniques to persuade us
to buy a particular brand of deodorant, or
when our friends try to get us to do some-
thing we don’t really want to do (“Come on,
have another beer!”), or when the bullies use
force or threats to get what they want.
The study of direct attempts at social
influence is a major part of social psychol-
ogy and will be discussed in our chap-
ters on conformity, attitudes, and group
processes. To the social psychologist, how-
ever, social influence is much broader than
attempts by one person to change another Our thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by our immediate surroundings,
person’s behavior. Social influence shapes including the presence of other people—even mere strangers.
4 Chapter 1

Try It!
Conflicting Social Influences

Think of situations in which you feel conflicting pressures: your altogether different. Are there situations like this in which you
parents (or other influential adults in your life) would like you to feel conflicting pressures from your parents versus your friends?
do one thing, but your friends would like you to do something How do you decide how to act in these situations?

our thoughts and feelings as well as our overt acts, and takes many forms other than
deliberate attempts at persuasion. For example, we are often influenced merely by the
presence of other people, including perfect strangers who are not interacting with us.
Other people don’t even have to be present: We are governed by the imaginary ap-
proval or disapproval of our parents, friends, and teachers and by how we expect
others to react to us. Sometimes these influences conflict with one another, and social
psychologists are especially interested in what happens in the mind of an individual
when they do. For example, conflicts frequently occur when young people go off to
college and find themselves torn between the beliefs and values they learned at home
and the beliefs and values of their professors or peers. (See the Try It! above) We will
spend the rest of this introductory chapter expanding on these issues, so that you will
get an idea of what social psychology is, what it isn’t, and how it differs from other,
related disciplines.

Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science,

and Common Sense
Throughout history, philosophy has provided many insights about human nature.
Indeed, the work of philosophers is part of the foundation of contemporary psychol-
ogy. Psychologists have looked to philosophers for insights into the nature of con-
sciousness (e.g., Dennett, 1991) and how people form beliefs about the social world
(e.g., Gilbert, 1991). Sometimes, however, even great thinkers find themselves in dis-
agreement with one another. When this occurs, how are we supposed to know who
is right?
We social psychologists address many of the same questions that philosophers do,
but we attempt to look at these questions scientifically—even questions concerning
that great human mystery, love. In 1663, the Dutch philosopher Benedict Spinoza of-
fered a highly original insight. In sharp disagreement with the hedonistic philosopher
Aristippus, he proposed that if we fall in love with someone whom we formerly hated,
that love will be stronger than if hatred had not preceded it. Spinoza’s proposition was
beautifully stated, but that doesn’t mean it is true. These are empirical questions, mean-
ing that their answers should be derived from experimentation or measurement rather
than by personal opinion (Aronson, 1999; Wilson, 2015).
Now let’s take another look at the examples that opened this chapter. Why did
these people behave the way they did? One way to answer would simply be to ask
them. We could ask Jorge Munoz why he spends so much time and money feeding the
poor; we could ask the people who observed Abraham Biggs’s suicide why they didn’t
call the police; we could ask Oscar why he enjoys fraternity life. The problem with this
approach is that people are often unaware of the reasons behind their own responses
and feelings (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977; Wilson, 2002). People might come up with plenty
of justifications for not calling the police to rescue Biggs, but those justifications might
not be the reason they did nothing.
Another approach is to rely on common sense or folk wisdom. Social psycholo-
gists are not opposed to folk wisdom—far from it. The primary problem with relying
 Introducing Social Psychology 5

entirely on such sources is that they often

disagree with one another. Consider what
folk wisdom has to say about the factors
that influence how much we like other peo-
ple. We know that “birds of a feather flock
together.” Of course, we say, thinking of the
many examples of our pleasure in hanging
out with people who share our backgrounds
and interests. But folk wisdom also tells
us—as it persuaded lovestruck Kristen—
that “opposites attract.” Of course, we say,
thinking of all the times we were attracted to
people with different backgrounds and in-
terests. Well, which is it? Similarly, are we to
believe that “out of sight is out of mind” or
that “absence makes the heart grow fonder”?
Social psychologists would suggest that
there are some conditions under which birds
NATO-led soldiers inspect the site of a suicide attack in Afghanistan. What causes
of a feather do flock together, and other con- a person to become a suicide bomber? Popular theories say such people must be
ditions under which opposites do attract. mentally ill, alienated loners, or psychopaths. But social psychologists would try
Similarly, in some conditions absence does to understand the circumstances and situations that drive otherwise healthy, well-
make the heart grow fonder, and in others educated, bright people to commit murder and suicide for the sake of a religious or
“out of sight” does mean out of mind. But political goal.
it’s not enough to say both proverbs can be
true. Part of the job of the social psychologist is to do the research that specifies the
conditions under which one or another is most likely to take place.
Thus, in explaining why two people like each other—or any other topic of
interest—social psychologists would want to know which of many possible explana-
tions is the most likely. To do this, we have devised an array of scientific methods
to test our assumptions, guesses, and ideas about human social behavior, empirically
and systematically rather than by relying on folk wisdom, common sense, or the opin-
ions and insights of philosophers, novelists, political pundits, and our grandmothers.
Doing experiments in social psychology presents many challenges, primarily because
we are attempting to predict the behavior of highly sophisticated organisms in com-
plex situations. As scientists, our goal is to find objective answers to such questions as:
What are the factors that cause aggression? What causes prejudice, and how might we
reduce it? What variables cause two people to like or love each other? Why do certain
kinds of political advertisements work better than others? In Chapter 2 we discuss the
scientific methods social psychologists use to answer questions such as these.

How Social Psychology Differs From Its

Closest Cousins
Social psychology is related to other disciplines in the physical and social sciences,
including biology, neuroscience, sociology, economics, and political science. Each ex-
amines the determinants of human behavior, but important differences set social psy-
chology apart—most notably in its level of analysis. For biologists and neuroscientists,
the level of analysis might be genes, hormones, or physiological processes in the brain.
Although social psychologists sometimes draw on this approach to study the relation-
ship between the brain and social behavior, their emphasis is, as we will see, more on
how people interpret the social world.
Other social psychologists draw on the major theory of biology—evolutionary
theory—to generate hypotheses about social behavior. In biology, evolutionary theory
is used to explain how different species acquired physical traits, such as long necks.
6 Chapter 1

In an environment where food is scarce, giraffes that happened to have long necks
could feed on foliage that other animals couldn’t reach. These giraffes were more likely
to survive and reproduce offspring than were giraffes with shorter necks, the story
goes, such that the “long neck” gene became dominant in subsequent generations.
But what about social behaviors, such as the tendency to be aggressive toward
a member of one’s own species or the tendency to be helpful to others? Is it possible
that social behaviors also have genetic determinants that evolve through the process of
natural selection, and if so, is this true in human beings as well as other animals? These
Evolutionary Psychology are the questions posed by evolutionary psychology, which attempts to explain social
The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the prin-
behavior in terms of genetic fac- ciples of natural selection. The core idea is that evolution occurs very slowly, such that
tors that have evolved over time social behaviors that are prevalent today, such as aggression and helping behavior, are
according to the principles of a result, at least in part, of adaptations to environments in our distant past (Brown &
natural selection Cross, 2017; Buss, 2005; Neuberg, Kenrick, & Schaller, 2010). We will discuss in upcom-
ing chapters how evolutionary theory explains social behavior (e.g., Chapter 10 on in-
terpersonal attraction, Chapter 11 on prosocial behavior, and Chapter 12 on aggression).
We note here that a lively debate has arisen over the testability of evolutionary
hypotheses. Because current behaviors are thought to be adaptations to environmental
conditions that existed thousands of years ago, psychologists make their best guesses
about what those conditions were and how specific kinds of behaviors gave people a
reproductive advantage. But these hypotheses are obviously impossible to test with
the experimental method. And just because hypotheses sound plausible does not
mean they are true. For example, some scientists now believe that giraffes did not
acquire a long neck to eat leaves in tall trees. Instead, they suggest, long necks first
evolved in male giraffes to gain an advantage in fights with other males over access to
females (Simmons & Scheepers, 1996). Which of these explanations is true? It’s hard to
tell. Evolutionary explanations can’t be tested directly, because after all, they involve
hypotheses about what happened thousands of years ago. They can, however, suggest
novel hypotheses about why people do what they do in today’s world, which can then
be put to the test, as we will see in later chapters.
Well, if we aren’t going to rely solely on an evolutionary or biological approach,
how else might we explain why people do what they do, such as in the examples
that opened this chapter? If you are like most people, when you read these examples
you assumed that the individuals involved had some weaknesses, strengths, and
personality traits that led them to respond as they did. Some people are leaders and
others are followers; some people are public-spirited and others are selfish; some
are brave and others are cowardly. Perhaps the people who failed to get help for
Abraham Biggs were lazy, timid, selfish, or heartless. Given what you know about
their behavior, would you loan them your car or trust them to take care of your
new puppy?
Explaining people’s behavior in terms of their traits is the work of personality
psychologists, who generally focus on individual differences, that is, the aspects of peo-
ple’s personalities that make them different from others. Research on personality in-
creases our understanding of human behavior, but social psychologists believe that
explaining behavior primarily through personality traits ignores a critical part of the
story: the powerful role played by social influence.
Consider again the tragedy at Jonestown. Remember that it was not just a hand-
ful of people who committed suicide there, but almost 100% of them. It is highly im-
probable that they were all mentally ill or had the same constellation of personality
traits. If we want a richer, more thorough explanation of this tragic event, we need to
understand what kind of power and influence a charismatic figure like Jim Jones pos-
sessed, the nature of the impact of living in a closed society cut off from other points of
view, and other factors that could have caused mentally healthy people to obey him. In
fact, as social psychologists have shown, the social conditions at Jonestown were such
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
clear above all others, and thrilled to his very heart, so strongly did it remind
him of his sister Salvör. Thoughts of the past filled his mind and kept him
awake for hours, but he fell asleep again, and slept on, till he was roused up in
the morning by the girl. She brought with her a suit of fine clothes, and bade
him put them on.
“To-day is Sunday,” she added, “and you must stay here till to-morrow.” She
then left the room.
While Biarni was putting on his clothes, a little boy in a green coat, and very
nicely dressed, came into the room and wished him good morning. “What has
brought you here, so far away from home?” said the little fellow to him.
“I have come to look for some sheep that I have lost.”
“Well, I have not seen them in this valley. But I hope you won’t go to look for
them to-day. Father is going to hear service in the church, and you must be
there too.”
Before Biarni had time to reply, some one called the boy away, saying, “Sveinn,
come here, and don’t plague the stranger with your nonsense.”
At breakfast, Biarni was waited on by the girl who had treated him so well the
evening before.
Towards mid-day, people began to come from far and near, to join in the
public service in the church close by. The boy came for Biarni, and led him by
the hand into the church and showed him to a seat. On looking about, what
was his surprise to see by his side the man in the red clothes whom he had
seen, ten years before, among the mountains! But, his surprise was greater still,
on discovering that the clergyman who conducted the service, was no other
than the man in the black dress who had travelled with the other. The church
was full of people. Most of the men were tall and strongly built, but had
something forbidding about their looks. Some wore brown knitted garments
of undyed wool. Biarni said nothing to his neighbour, but took out the gilt box
and offered him a pinch of snuff. This he took, but without seeming to
recognize Biarni.
By and by, Biarni saw, seated just in front of the pulpit, a comely well dressed
woman who seemed the very picture of his sister. When their eyes met, she
was overcome with emotion and began to smile and weep by turns. Biarni now
felt confident that it was indeed his beloved sister Salvör whom he now saw
before him.
The service decently performed to the end and the blessing pronounced, the
boy again took Biarni by the hand and led him out. In passing the church
door, an old ill looking man, who sat there, tripped Biarni up and made him
fall. On this, the man in the red clothes came forward and chastised the
offender, while Biarni went with the boy into the farm house. The two men
whom Biarni had met among the mountains, shortly after came in and saluted
him.
“Do you know us, Biarni!” said they to him kindly.
“Yes,” replied he. But not another word could he utter for emotion.
A moment after, the woman, he had seen in the church and taken for his
sister, entered the room. She flew into his arms and pressed him to her bosom
saying,
“Before we were born we lay in each other’s arms, I was taken weeping from
thy embrace, and now I return laughing to thy arms, my brother.”
It was a joyful meeting.
When Biarni recovered himself, he told his sister about his parents, and also all
that had happened in Skagafiord since her departure. The man in red clothes
then addressed himself to Biarni, and said,
“Whilst thou wert asleep among the mountains, I took thy sister away from
thee and gave her in marriage to this man in the black dress, who is my son.
He is the clergyman of the valley and I am the sysselman. It was I that took
away the sheep and led thee astray to this place, that brother and sister might
meet again. To-night thou must stay here with thy sister. To-morrow I shall
give thee back thy lost sheep and go with thee part of the way to Skagafiord.”
Biarni spent a happy evening with Salvör. In the morning he took leave of her
with many tears, and departed under the guidance of her husband and of her
father-in-law, who gave him back his sheep, and helped him to drive them. On
reaching the inhabited part of the country, his new friends parted with him and
bade him an affectionate farewell; but not before they had made him promise
to leave Skagafiord and live with them.
“You must come and settle in the valley beside us,” said they to him, “we shall
return next summer and lead you and your friends to your sister’s home.”
On getting to Skagafiord, Biarni told his wife and mother all that had
happened to him, when away, and also the promise he had made to remove to
the mountains; but charged them to say nothing to the neighbours about it.
His parents were rejoiced to learn that Salvör was still alive, and promised to
go with him and his wife.
In June of the next year, three men, from the mountains, rode up one night to
Biarni’s house. The night following, Biarni, and his parents, and all his
household went away with them and in due time reached the valley where
Salvör lived. How it rejoiced Sveinn and his wife to see again their long lost
daughter! They settled in the valley and died there, at a good old age.
Biarni lived there too, for many years, but he could never forget the beautiful
Skagafiord; so when age came upon him, he returned to his old home, and
spent his latter years among the friends of his youth.

UNA THE FAIRY.

Many many years ago, a strapping young fellow, called Geir, was settled in the
farm of Randafell, on the south slope of the Eyafialla mountains, near the sea-
coast. Every thing prospered with him; for he was active and industrious, and
scorned to eat the bread of idleness. His wife was as industrious as himself, but
unfortunately, she took ill and died, shortly after their marriage. At the hay-
making season, which came on soon after, he missed his wife greatly; for the
maid servants were too few to look after the house and make the hay.
One day, when they had a good deal more work before them than they were
able to get through, a strange woman made her appearance in the hay field,
and, without so much as saying, “by your leave,” began at once to handle the
rake; and cleverly she handled it, too, for she got through more work than any
two of them. She was young and handsome, but silent as the grave. Not a
word could Geir, or any one else, get out of her the live long day. At night she
disappeared, no one knew where; but, when morning came, there was she, first
in the field, ready to take her place among the women.
Things went on in this way till the end of the harvest, when Geir went up to
her, and thanked her kindly for the help she had given them.
She took what he said in good part, and no longer refused to talk with him.
They had a long chat together, but Geir was not made a bit the wiser, as to
where she lived, or whose daughter she was. She told him, however, that her
name was Una.
“Una,” said he to her at last, “I am greatly in want of a housekeeper; I don’t
know any body so likely to suit as you; will you take the situation?”
“I have no objection to do so,” she replied, “when do you want me?”
“The sooner the better.”
“Well, I shall come with my luggage to-morrow, and take up my abode with
you.” She then disappeared.
Next morning, she walked into the farm house, and set down a large chest, full
of clothes, which she had brought with her. This she put out of the way in the
closet, and then began to bustle about the house, looking after household
duties.
And now things began to prosper again with the Randafell farmer. Una was a
capital manager, and soon became famous all over the country side for her
good butter, and her well ordered house. Geir was delighted with his
housekeeper; but one thing distressed him—he could not persuade her to go
to church.
When Christmas Eve came round, Geir and all the servants went to church, to
the vesper service. Geir was anxious that Una should go too. But no! she
would not budge, excusing herself by saying, that she was needed at home to
look after the house. It was morning before the church goers got back, for the
church was a good three hours’ ride from Randafell. On returning they found
Una busy preparing the Christmas feast. The ordinary work of the house was
done, so that they had nothing to do but to take a few hours rest, before
sitting down to enjoy themselves.
By the time the third winter came round, Geir began to think of taking a wife,
and who so likely to suit him as Una! And so thought all the neighbours too.
Many a talk they had about her, when gathered together in the churchyard, on
the Sundays, waiting the arrival of the clergyman. After discussing her good
qualities, “Isn’t it strange,” the one would say to the other, “that we can’t find
out who Una is, or where she comes from?”
“Aye! that is true,” another would say, “but isn’t it stranger still, that all the time
she has been at Randafell, she has never once entered the church door?”
Geir was very fond of her, but could not make up his mind to ask her to marry
him, so long as she refused to bend her knee in prayer to God.
On the third Christmas Eve, Geir set out, with all his household, to the
midnight service in the church. Una as usual remained at home. When they
were on the road, Geir’s serving man suddenly complained of severe pain. He
lay down on the spot, and said he would rest there till he got better; so Geir
and the others went on without him.
As soon as they were out of sight, the man got up to his feet, mounted his
horse and rode back again to the farm. His sickness was only feigned, in order
to get the chance of finding out what could tempt Una always to stay at home,
at a time when every true hearted Icelander made a point of joining his
neighbours, in the house of God, to commemorate the anniversary of that
blessed night when Christ was born in Bethlehem.
On reaching the farm, he unsaddled the horse, and slipped quietly in, taking
care to hide in a dark corner where he could see all that was going on, without
being himself seen. Una was busy sweeping and cleaning the house; and so
cleverly did she go about her work that everything was put to rights in a very
short time. After washing herself, she went to the store-closet and put on a
dress which the man had never seen till now, and which was more befitting a
king’s daughter than a poor farmer’s housekeeper. Never before had Una
looked so handsome and beautiful.
She now took out of her chest a piece of red cloth, which she put under her
arm. Shutting her chest and the closet door, she left the house and ran down
the meadow, till she came to a pool of water. Here she spread out the red
cloth, and placed herself upon it. At this instant the man, who had been
breathlessly following her, came up, and unseen by her just succeeded in
getting his foot on a corner of the cloth. And now they sunk down and down
into the earth, with a feeling as if they were going through smoke. By and by
they landed on a green plain, not far from a splendid farm house. Una took up
the cloth, put it under her arm, and went up to the house. The man walked
softly behind, taking care to keep out of her sight. A great many people came
out of doors to welcome Una, who seemed rejoiced to see them, and saluted
them kindly.
Great preparations were going on inside for a feast. The guest chamber was
swept and garnished, and the table laid. As soon as the people took their
places several dishes were brought, and abundance of good wine. The serving
man, who had slipped in with the others unknown to Una, took his place
among the guests. Among other things he was presented with a fine rib of
smoked mutton, which he took and preserved, for he had never seen so fat a
rib before. After supper the people amused themselves with games of different
kinds, and were all very happy.
Just as day began to break, Una told her friends, she would have to go away, as
her master, the peasant, would soon be back from church. So she took a kind
leave of every one, and walked to the spot where she had alighted, on coming
down.
The man followed her, and again succeeded in getting his foot on the cloth,
without being seen. So they ascended together through the dark earth, till they
came to the pool of water again. Una took up the cloth, and went straight to
the store-room to change her dress. After that she went into the house, to
await the return of the peasant, and make ready the Christmas feast.
The serving man had, meantime, taken up his place at the spot where he had
been left behind the night before. When the farmer came up he asked him
how he was.
“I am almost well again,” said the man, “and quite able to go home with you.”
So they all rode together to Randafell.
Una received them with a smiling face, and told them that the feast was quite
ready. So they were not long in taking their places. As is usual on such
occasions, the principal dish was smoked mutton. As this happened to be very
fine, the farmer took up a large rib, and holding it up said,
“Have any of you ever seen such a rib as this?”
“I think I have; what think you of that,” said the serving man, as he held up
before them the rib he had got the night before.
As soon as Una saw this, she changed colour, went out without saying a single
word, and was never afterwards seen.

GILITRUTT.

Once on a time, a smart active young peasant occupied a farm under the
Eyafialla mountains. As his pasture land was good, he kept many sheep. These
yielded him no small store of wool, and yet, it was no easy matter for him to
keep a coat on his back; for the wife whom he had lately married, though
young and healthy, was lazy to a degree, and gave herself little concern about
the affairs of the house. Her husband was greatly dissatisfied, but could not
induce her to mend her ways.
At the close of summer he gave her a large bundle of wool, and told her to be
sure to spin it and work it up into coarse wadmal during the winter months.
“Very well,” she said, “I’ll see about it bye and bye;” but at the same time
looked as if she would far rather have nothing to do with it. She let it lie in a
corner untouched, spite of the hints she got every now and then, from her
husband. It was mid-winter before she fully made up her mind to set to work;
and then she began to perplex herself, as to how she could get so much wool
worked up, before the close of winter.
Just then, an ugly old woman came to the door, begging for alms.
“Can you do any work for me in return,” asked the peasant’s wife.
“Perhaps I can,” replied the old woman.
“But what kind of work would you have me to do?”
“I want you to make some coarse cloth for me, out of this wool.”
“Very well, let me have the wool then.”
And so, the peasant’s wife handed the large bag of wool to the old woman,
who, without more ado, tossed it up on her back, at the same time saying,
“You may depend on my coming back with the cloth, the first day of
summer.”
“But what payment will you ask for your work when you bring the cloth,” said
the peasant’s wife.
“I won’t take any payment; but you must tell me what my name is, in three
guesses.”
The peasant’s wife, too lazy to spin and weave for herself, agreed to this
strange condition, and so the old woman departed.
As the winter months passed on, the peasant often asked what had become of
the wool.
“Give yourself no concern about it,” said the wife, “you’ll have it back, all spun
and woven, by the first day of summer.”
As he never could get any other answer, he at last ceased to talk about the
wool. All this time his wife was trying to find out the old woman’s name, but
all her efforts were unavailing. By the time the last month of winter came
round she became so anxious and uneasy that she could neither eat nor sleep.
Her husband was greatly distressed at the change which had come over her,
and begged her to let him know what ailed her. Unable longer to keep the
matter secret, she told him the whole.
He was very much startled at what he heard, and told her how very imprudent
she had been, as the old woman was, most certainly, a witch, and would take
her away if she failed in her bargain.
A day or two after this conversation, he had occasion to go up the adjoining
mountain. He was so bowed down with grief, at the thought of losing his wife,
that he scarcely knew what he was about; and so wandered from the road, till
he came to the bottom of a lofty cliff. While he was considering how he could
get into the right road again, he thought he heard a sound as of a voice inside
the hill. Following the sound he discovered a hole in the face of the cliff. On
peeping through this hole, he saw a tall old woman sitting weaving with the
loom between her knees; and, as she beat the treadles, every now and then
breaking into a snatch of song,
“Ha! Ha! and Ho! Ho!
The good wife does not know
That Gilitrutt is my name.”

“Aha!” muttered the peasant to himself, “if she does not know now, she will
know bye and bye;” for he felt quite sure that was the same old hag who had
so imposed on his poor foolish wife.
All the way home, he kept repeating the word Gilitrutt, and, as soon as he got
in doors, he wrote it down on a piece of paper, that he might not forget it. But
he did not, at that time, give his wife the least inkling of what had befallen him.
The poor woman grew more and more sorrowful, as the days passed on; and,
when the closing day of winter came, she was so woe-begone that she had not
the heart even to put on her clothes. In the course of the day, her husband
enquired if she had found out her visitor’s name yet.
“Alas, no! Would to God I could find it out! for I am like to die of grief.”
“There is no occasion for that,” he replied cheerfully, “I’ve found out the
name for you; so you need not be afraid to meet the old hag.” With that, he
handed her the piece of paper, and at the same time told about his adventure
on the mountain. She took the paper, with a trembling hand, for at first she
feared that the news was too good to be true; and, though her husband’s story
comforted her not a little, she could not get rid of a suspicion that the name
might not be the true one.
She wanted her husband to stay indoors the next day, so as to be present when
the old woman called.
“No! no!” said he, “you kept your own counsel when you gave her the wool,
so, you must do without me when you take in the cloth, and pay her the wages
agreed on.”
He then left the house.
And now came the first day of summer. The peasant’s wife was in the house
alone, and lay a-bed, listening with a beating heart for the first sound of the
old hag’s footsteps. She had not long to wait; for, before the morning passed, a
trampling noise was heard, and in stalked the old woman with a bundle on her
back, and a scowl on her face. As soon as she got within the room, she threw
down the big bundle of cloth, and, in an angry tone, called out,
“What is my name now? What’s my name?”
The peasant’s wife, who was almost dead with fear, said “Signy!”
“That my name! That my name! guess again, good wife.”
“Asa,” said she.
“That my name! That my name! No indeed. You must guess again; but
remember this is your last chance.”
“Are you not called Gilitrutt?” said the woman timorously.
This answer came like a thunderbolt on the old hag, who fell down with a
great noise on the floor, and lay there for sometime. She then got up, and,
without speaking a word, went her way out of the house, and was never more
seen in the country-side.
As for the peasant’s wife, she was full of joy at her deliverance, and, ever after,
was a changed woman. She became a pattern of industry and good
management, and henceforth always worked her own wool herself.

HILDUR THE FAIRY QUEEN.

Once on a time a farmer settled in a mountainous part of the country, but the
particular spot is not mentioned, nor has his name come to us; but we do
know that he was a bachelor, and had a housekeeper named Hildur.
Who Hildur was, neither the farmer nor any of the neighbouring gossips could
find out: but as she took good care of the household and discharged her duties
faithfully, she was allowed to keep her own secret. All the servants liked her,
and the farmer thought himself very fortunate in having fallen in with such a
housekeeper. She was of a quiet disposition, but always kind and obliging.
The farmer’s affairs were in a flourishing state: his sheep throve and
multiplied, and he had nothing to annoy him except this, that he had great
difficulty in getting shepherds to enter his service. The cause of this was not
that the farmer treated his shepherds badly, but that, one after another, they
were found dead in bed, on Christmas morning.
In olden times, it was the custom for the Icelanders, on Christmas Eve, to
meet together at midnight for public worship; and any one who absented
himself from church, on that occasion, was considered as much to blame as if
he were keeping away on Christmas day itself. Those living up among the
mountains, and who had long weary roads to go, had often great difficulty in
getting to church in time; especially those who were not able to leave home
before the Pleiades could be seen in the south-eastern heavens.
In this farm, the shepherds did not usually get home from work before that
time, so that they generally missed the opportunity of attending the Christmas
Eve service. Hildur never went on those occasions, as she preferred staying at
home to watch the house—as is customary for some one to do on Christmas
Eve—and attend to the preparations for the Christmas feast. She was always
busily occupied in this way till the night was far advanced, so that the church-
goers were back from the services and asleep in bed, before she retired for the
night.
As often as Christmas morn came round, the farmer’s shepherd, whoever he
might be, was found dead in bed. This strange fatality was well known over all
the country side. No wonder, then, that shepherds were afraid of entering the
farmer’s service, even though offered better wages than they could get
elsewhere. No mark of violence was ever seen on the body of the unfortunate
shepherd, so that no blame could be attached either to the farmer, or to any
one in the house. At last the farmer declared that he could not find it in his
heart to engage shepherds, with the prospect of certain death before them,
and that he would, for the future, leave his sheep to take care of themselves.
When things had reached this pass, there came to him, one day, an active hardy
man, who offered his services as shepherd.
“I am not so much in want of your services as to be willing to take you.”
“Have you engaged a shepherd for next winter?” asked the stranger.
“No, I have not,” replied the farmer, “but surely you have heard how sad has
been the end of all that have been before you.”
“Oh yes, I’ve heard all about it; but their fate will not hinder me from taking
care of your sheep, if you are only willing to engage me.”
At last, the farmer complied with his entreaties, and engaged him as shepherd.
He soon shewed that he was in every respect fitted for the place. He was kind
and obliging; and both able and willing to lend a hand at any farm work, so
that he soon became a favourite with everybody.
Till Christmas-tide, nothing extraordinary happened. On Christmas Eve, the
farmer went to church as usual with his domestics. The housekeeper alone
stayed at home, and the shepherd was left in charge of the sheep. Towards
evening the shepherd came in from his work, and after partaking of dinner, lay
down to rest in bed. He took care, however, not to drop asleep; for, though
free from fear, he thought it only prudent to keep awake. When the night was
advanced he heard the church-goers come in, and take some refreshment
before going to bed. Up till this time, he had not remarked anything unusual;
but when the others had fallen asleep, he felt languid and weary. He was afraid
lest he should be overpowered with sleep, and did his best to keep awake. A
little while after, some one, whom he believed to be the housekeeper Hildur,
stealthily approached the bed-side. Thinking he was asleep, she began to try to
put something in his mouth. He felt certain that it must be a magic-bridle, and
so, pretending to be quite unconscious of what was going on, he let himself be
quietly bridled.
As soon as the bridle was on, she led him out very easily; mounting on his
back, she rode away at a smart pace till they reached a yawning chasm in the
earth. Then she dismounted beside a stone, and letting go her hold of the
bridle, disappeared into the chasm. The shepherd did not want to lose sight of
her, and so tried to follow; but he soon found that that was out of his power,
so long as he had on the bridle. By dint however of rubbing his head against
the stone, he got rid of the bridle, and leaving it behind, he threw himself into
the chasm into which Hildur had sprung.
As far as he could judge, he had not gone very deep down till he saw Hildur
again. She was then landed on a fine level meadow, along which she was
walking quickly. From what he saw he came to think that all was not right with
Hildur, and that she was not the woman she had seemed to be in the farmer’s
house. In order to keep her from seeing him as he followed her over the plain,
he took out of his pocket a stone which had the wonderful property of making
him invisible so long as he held it in his hand. With this stone of darkness in
his left-palm, he made after her as fast as he could, and kept close behind her
the rest of the way.
After walking some distance over the plain, there appeared in sight a splendid
palace of great size, towards which Hildur directed her steps. A great crowd of
people came out to meet her. Foremost among them was a man dressed in
purple and gold, who bade her welcome, at the same time calling her his
beloved wife, and embracing her very affectionately. Those who attended him
saluted her as their queen, and received her with every mark of respect. By the
king’s side were two children, of eight or ten years of age, who ran joyfully into
Hildur’s arms, and called her mother.
On entering the palace, Hildur was very honourably received. She was dressed
in a royal robe, and had rings of gold put upon her hand. The shepherd
followed the crowd into the palace, and took up his place where he could see
all that was going on without running the risk of being found out. The
furniture was rich and gorgeous beyond conception, so that he was completely
dazzled with the sight.
In the principal saloon a table was set out and a feast prepared, the splendour
of which cannot be described.
Hildur then made her appearance, magnificently attired, and sat down on the
throne beside the king, while the other guests took their places on each side.
At the close of the feast, the table was removed, and soon the guests began to
pass the time in dancing, or other amusements. The king and queen paid no
heed to what was going on, but sat alone, engaged in a close conversation
which seemed to the shepherd to be at once kind and sorrowful.
While the king and queen were thus occupied, three children, younger than
those before mentioned, came forward, and their mother Hildur, who received
them kindly, took the youngest on her knee and fondled it. But, as the child
was restless and uneasy, she set it down again. She then drew a ring from her
finger, and gave it to the child as a plaything. The child amused itself for some
time with it, and then dropped it on the floor. The shepherd, who was
standing close by, at the time, hastily snatched it up and put it into his pocket,
without being observed by any one. As soon as the ring was missed, a careful
search was made for it, but, to the great astonishment of everybody but the
shepherd, it was nowhere to be found.
As the night was now far advanced, the queen—Hildur—began to prepare for
her departure. Those present were sorry to see this, and begged her to stay
longer with them. The king also added his entreaties, but all without effect.
Before this time, the shepherd had noticed an ill-looking woman, who sat all
alone in a corner of the room. She was the only one that had failed to give
Hildur a joyful welcome to the palace, or ask her to prolong her stay. As soon
as the king saw that Hildur was bent on going, he stepped up to this old
woman, and said, “Take back your words, mother! at my humble entreaty, so
that my queen may no longer be bound to absent herself from home, and
from those nearest and dearest to her.”
The old woman replied angrily, “All my words shall stand, I will by no means
retract them.”
With a sorrowful heart, he went back to the queen, and, folding his arms
around her, begged her in words of kindness not to leave him again.
“Alas,” said she, “I cannot stay here, in consequence of the spell by which your
mother has bound me, and who knows if I shall ever see you more.”
She then told him she had killed so many men it could no longer be concealed,
and that she would certainly be punished, even though what she had done was
sore against her will.
While she was lamenting her unhappy lot, the shepherd, seeing how matters
stood, made the best of his way out of the palace, and went straightway to the
bottom of the chasm. He reached the top, with the greatest ease. After that, he
put the stone of darkness in his pocket, and putting the bridle in his mouth
again, waited patiently on Hildur. It was not long before Hildur made her
appearance, looking very sorrowful. Taking a hold of the bridle, she mounted
on his back and rode quickly back to the farm.
On her arrival she laid the shepherd quietly in bed, and unbridled him, and
then slipped away to her own bed, where she lay down to sleep. Although the
shepherd had been all this time wide awake, he feigned sleep so well that
Hildur was quite deceived. After she had gone to bed, he was no longer on his
guard, but fell asleep, and as might be expected slept till it was broad day. The
farmer was astir early in the morning, for he was anxious to know if this
Christmas, like so many that was gone, was to be a season of mourning in
place of a season of rejoicing. The most of the servants got up early too, but,
while they were dressing, he went quietly to the shepherd’s bed, and touching
him with his hand, found that he was alive and apparently well. This rejoiced
the heart of the farmer, who falling down on his knees, praised God loudly for
his great goodness. The shepherd, shortly after, got up in the best of health.
As soon as he was dressed, the people of the house gathered about him, to ask
if anything unusual had befallen him during the night.
“Nothing,” said he, “except that I had a very wonderful dream.”
“What kind of a dream?”
The shepherd began with the tale, as it is here told; how Hildur came to his
bed and bridled him; and every thing exactly, as far as he could recollect. When
he had done, all were silent except Hildur, who said,
“If you tell the truth, show us some token to prove what you say.”
The shepherd, noways daunted by this demand, shewed them the ring, which
he had picked up from the floor of the fairy palace during the night, and said,
“Though I am not bound to bring forward proofs, I can easily do so, for there
is token sufficient that I have been with the fairies. Is not that your ring,
Queen Hildur?”
“To be sure it is,” replied Hildur “and may good fortune ever attend you, for
you have delivered me from the spell by which my cruel mother-in-law bound
me, and through which I have been compelled to do so many bad deeds which
my soul abhorred.”
Then queen Hildur told her story as follows. “I was a fairy maid of low degree,
but the present fairy king fell in love with me. The marriage was so displeasing
to his mother, that she became furious with rage and told him that he would
have to part with me soon, and that, after that, we could enjoy each other’s
society only at rare intervals and for a short time together. But me she bound
with such a spell, that I was forced to become a servant in the world of woe,
and, every Christmas Eve, to kill a man. I was to bridle him when asleep, and
ride on his back along the same road that I took with the shepherd last night
in going to meet the king. This I was to do till I was convicted of murder and
put to death, unless, before that, I should fall in with a man so courageous as
to dare to go with me to the world of Fairies, and then be able to show plain
proofs that he had been there and seen what was done. Now, it is clear that all
the other shepherds of this farmer have suffered death for my sake, but, as it
was not in my power to prevent it, I hope their deaths will not be laid to my
charge. This stout-hearted man is the first who dared to venture into the dark
road that leads to Fairyland. I shall yet reward him for delivering me from the
spell of my cruel mother-in-law. I thank you all for your kindness to me, during
the years I have been among you. But I must stay here no longer, for I long for
my proper home.”
After these words Queen Hildur disappeared, and since then, she has never
once been seen in the world of mankind.
Of the shepherd, it is told, that he married and settled down on a farm, in the
following spring. He was generously treated by the farmer, who, when they
parted, stocked his farm free of all cost to him. Ere long he became noted as
one of the best farmers of the neighbourhood, and was often called upon for
his advice and assistance in matters of difficulty. He was beloved by all, and
successful beyond all his expectations in whatever he undertook. None of his
neighbours could boast of such thriving flocks and herds as his. But his
wonderful good fortune did not make him proud, for, as he often said, he
owed all his success to Hildur the Fairy Queen.

A CLERGYMAN’S DAUGHTER MARRIED TO A FAIRY MAN.

In a certain district of Iceland, there lived a clergyman who had a daughter in

the early bloom of womanhood. One day, when the conversation turned on
the subject of elves or fairies, the young woman happened to say,
“I should like to be married to a fairy man, if he were only a brave one.”
Her father was very angry at her words, and gave her a good scolding and a
box on the ear besides. Shortly afterwards, a child about the parsonage saw a
man ride up to the door of the house, and then dismount. Watching his
opportunity, the man stepped indoors, and soon reappeared, leading the
clergyman’s daughter by the hand. Before he could be prevented, he mounted
on horseback and rode off with her. Her sorrowful parents searched for her
throughout all the neighbouring country, but nowhere could she be found.
It is told, that three winters after this time, a shepherd who had been long in
the clergyman’s service, and had loved his daughter dearly, one day lost his way
and all the sheep. After wandering about for hours, he found himself at the
door of a farm house he had never before seen. The farmer, a fine manly
looking fellow, came out, and after listening to his story offered him a bed for
the night. He accepted the offer gladly, but at the same time lamented over the
loss of the sheep.
“Don’t bother yourself about them to-night,” said the farmer, “be sure they
will turn up again;” and with that he led him to a room up stairs. There he saw
an old man and woman, and two children who were playing on the floor. But,
besides these, he saw the clergyman’s lost daughter who was now the wife of
the man who had asked him in.
The shepherd was entertained with the best that was in the house; and when
bed-time came, was shown to a private sleeping room. The clergyman’s
daughter then went to him, and handing him a leather bag, asked him faithfully
to deliver to her mother some valuables she had put in it. She also bade him
tell her mother that though her husband was a fairy man, he did not hinder her
from saying her prayers every night. On the shepherd asking her if ever she
went to church, she said she was there just as often as himself, and that she
always sat under the pulpit, with her husband, beside the altar.
“How does it come that nobody ever sees you in church?”
“Oh, the reason is,” she replied, “that we always leave the church before the
blessing. But don’t tell anybody what I have now mentioned. Only deliver the
leather bag to my mother; for if you blab what I’ve told you, be sure you will
be an unfortunate man.”
He gave her a promise of secrecy; on that, she left the room. On getting up in
the morning, he was glad to learn that his lost sheep had turned up. The
farmer, who had fed them on hay during the night, delivered them up to him,
and put him on the right road. He got home with the sheep in safety, and after
a very short journey; but he never could tell which way he came. As for the
promise of secrecy, he paid no attention to it; but on the contrary gave a full
and exact account of everything he had seen and heard.
Now, the clergyman, who was anxious to find his daughter, bethought himself
of a plan, and that was, to pronounce the blessing before she could have time
to get out of church. So he went round among his parishioners, and told them
not to be shocked if they should hear him the next Sunday pronounce the
blessing at an earlier stage of the service than usual. When next Sunday came,
his daughter occupied her customary seat, though not visible to any one in the
church. In the middle of the service the clergyman stopped and pronounced
the blessing. His daughter, thus caught unawares, was obliged to discover
herself. He did what he could to induce her to stay, but all in vain.
“If you try to force me,” said she, “the consequences will be very serious; and
besides, it would not be right in me to leave a husband who has always treated
me so kindly.”
Of the shepherd, it is told, that he was from that day unfortunate in all that he
had to do with. But one cannot be sorry for him, as he brought his troubles on
his own head through his want of truthfulness.

THE CLERGYMAN’S DAUGHTER IN PRESTSBAKKI.

In Prestsbakki, in the Skaptáfells district, there once lived a clergyman, named

Einar. He was well to do in the world, and had a numerous family. No one
cared less about fairy tales than he did. In fact, he used to speak of fairies as if
there were no such beings. In his idle moments he would tauntingly dare them
to shew themselves to him; and then, as they did not choose to obey his
orders, he would boast that there were no fairies to come.
Well, on one night while asleep, he dreamed that a man came to his bedside
and said to him,
“You have provoked the fairies long, but now they will have their revenge.
From this time forward you shall not dare to deny their existence. I will take
away your eldest daughter, and you shall never see her more.”
And sure enough, in the morning, when the clergyman awoke, he found that
his eldest daughter, who was twelve years of age, had disappeared. Search was
made for her in all directions, but nowhere could she be found. As time passed
on, she often made her appearance among her brothers and sisters, while they
were playing in the meadows. Again and again, they tried to prevail on her to
go home with them; but, just as she seemed willing to do so, she always
became invisible. When asked as to her welfare, she always said that she was in
good health, and kindly treated by her new friends. Her father frequently saw
her in his dreams, and to him she told the same story, only adding that she was
to be married, bye and bye, to the fairy clergyman’s son. Some time after she
appeared to her father again in a dream, and invited him to come to her
marriage, which was to take place on the following day. This was the last time
he ever dreamed about her, and never after did she show herself among her
brothers and sisters.

THE CHANGELING.

It was a common belief, in olden times, that the fairies often took away infant
children who happened to be left alone, and changed them for decrepit old
men or women who were made to appear as children. These changelings,
however, neither grew nor spoke after the manner of children, and were very
apt to become idiots. It once happened that all the people of a certain farm
were working in the meadows, except the mistress of the house who was at
home looking after the house and her little son, a boy three or four years old.
Up to that time the boy had thriven amazingly. He could talk well, and was a
clever promising child. As there was no one to assist the mother with the
household work, one day, she was obliged to leave the boy by himself for a
short time, while she went to wash the milk pails in a brook close by. On
returning soon after, she was surprised to find the boy, at the door, weeping
and howling in a strange uncouth way, very different from his wonted manner.
Usually he was very quiet, gentle and obedient, but now she could not get a
word out of him. Time passed on, but the child remained silent, restless, and
thoroughly untractable. His body ceased to grow, and his behaviour was like
that of an idiot. His mother could not account for the strange change that had
come over him. In the midst of her grief, she at last bethought herself of going
to take the advice of a neighbour woman who was famous for her prudence
and skill. The neighbour listened attentively to all she had to say about the boy,
and then said to her,
“Don’t you think, good wife, that the boy is a changeling? for, it seems to me,
that the fairies must have taken away your own boy the day you left him alone,
and have put another in his place.”
“How could I find out, if what you say is true?” said the surprised mother.
“Oh, very easily, just go home, and take the first opportunity of leaving the
boy alone beside something that is likely to call forth his surprise. When his
eye catches what you have put purposely in his way, if nobody is within sight,
he is sure to make some remark about it to himself. You must listen to what he
says, and if you find anything strange or suspicious about it, go in at once and
flog him without mercy, till something comes out of it.”
The boy’s mother thanked her neighbour humbly for her advice, and went
away home to put it into practice. The first thing she did on returning was to
place the little porridge pot in the middle of the kitchen floor. She then bound
a great many sticks together, so as to make a long rod, and fastened the spurtle
to one of the ends. The rod was so big, that when the spurtle rested in the pot,
the upper end was away up the chimney. Leaving it in this position, she went
away and fetched the boy to the kitchen, and then left him all alone. On going
out, she drew the door behind her; but not so closely as to prevent her from
peeping in to see what was going on.
As soon as the boy thought he was alone, he began to trip round the pot,
wondering greatly what could be the meaning of the long spurtle. At last he
said, “Well, old as I am, and I am no chicken now, as my grey beard and my
eighteen children in Fairyland can testify, I never, in all my born days, did see
such a long spurtle for such a little porridge pot.”
This was enough for the mother, who was not long of making her appearance
in the kitchen with a good sized stick in her hand. Seizing hold of the
changeling, she flogged him unmercifully for a long while, spite of his heart-
rending cries.
Bye and bye a strange old woman walked in, holding on her arms a little boy
whom she fondled kindly. Addressing the farmer’s wife, she said, “Why should
you treat my husband so cruelly. Your conduct is a sorry recompense for the
care I have bestowed on this little boy of yours.” So saying, she laid the little
boy at his mother’s feet, and took her husband away with her.
The fairy man and woman were never more seen again. The now recovered
boy remained with his parents, and grew up a fine manly youth, the joy of his
mother’s heart.[47]
 II.

SPECIMENS OF ICELANDIC POEMS.

FROM THE “VÖLUSPÁ”

In the “Völuspá,”[48] from the older Edda, we have a sublime description of
chaos; of creation; an account of a period of strife, crime, and suffering; dire
conflicts between the powers of good and evil; of the destruction of the world
of Odin and the dissolution and conflagration of the universe; of the Regnarök
or twilight of the Gods; of the renovated world, the descent of Baldur the
Good, the punishment of the wicked, and the happiness of the good in Gimlé
or Heaven. From this poem—the most remarkable in the whole range of
Scandinavian mytho-cosmogony—the following verses are extracted:
“It was time’s morning
When Ymer lived.
There was no sand, no sea;
No cooling billows;
Earth there was none,
No lofty heaven;
Only the Gulph of Ginunga,
But no grass.

· · · ·

The sun knew not

Where was his dwelling;
The stars knew not
That they had a firmament;
The moon knew not
What powers she possessed.

· · · ·

The tree Yggdrasil

Bears a sorer burden
Than men know of.
Above the stags bite it;
On its sides age rots it;
Nighögg gnaws below.
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