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Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page i

Nicolai M. Josuttis

C++ Move Semantics - The Complete Guide

First Edition
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page ii

C++ Move Semantics - The Complete Guide

First Edition

Nicolai M. Josuttis

This version was published on 2020-12-19.

© 2020 by Nicolai Josuttis. All rights reserved.

This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the author prior
to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.

This book was typeset by Nicolai M. Josuttis using the LATEX document processing system.

This book is for sale at http://leanpub.com/cppmove.

This is a Leanpub book. Leanpub empowers authors and publishers with the Lean Publishing
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Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page iii

Contents
Preface xi
An Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Versions of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

About This Book xv

What You Should Know Before Reading This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Overall Structure of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
How to Read This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
The Way I Implement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
The C++ Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Example Code and Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii

Part I: Basic Features of Move Semantics 1

1 The Power of Move Semantics 3

1.1 Motivation for Move Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Example with C++03 (Before Move Semantics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Example Since C++11 (Using Move Semantics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Implementing Move Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.1 Using the Copy Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.2 Using the Move Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Copying as a Fallback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Move Semantics for const Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.1 const Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

iii
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iv Contents

1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 Core Features of Move Semantics 25

2.1 Rvalue References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Rvalue References in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.2 Rvalue References as Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 std::move() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Header File for std::move() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 Implementation of std::move() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.1 Valid but Unspecified State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Reusing Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3 Move Assignments of Objects to Themselves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Overloading by Different References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.1 const Rvalue References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Passing by Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3 Move Semantics in Classes 35

3.1 Move Semantics in Ordinary Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 When is Move Semantics Automatically Enabled in Classes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.1.2 When Generated Move Operations Are Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Implementing Special Copy/Move Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Copy Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Move Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.3 Copy Assignment Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.4 Move Assignment Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.5 Using the Special Copy/Move Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Rules for Special Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.1 Special Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2 By Default, We Have Copying and Moving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.3 Declared Copying Disables Moving (Fallback Enabled) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.4 Declared Moving Disables Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.5 Deleting Moving Makes No Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3.6 Disabling Move Semantics with Enabled Copy Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
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Contents v

3.3.7 Moving for Members with Disabled Move Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.3.8 Exact Rules for Generated Special Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 The Rule of Five or Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4 How to Benefit From Move Semantics 59

4.1 Avoid Objects with Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1.1 When You Cannot Avoid Using Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2 Avoid Unnecessary std::move() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Initialize Members with Move Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.1 Initialize Members the Classical Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3.2 Initialize Members via Moved Parameters Passed by Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.3 Initialize Members via Rvalue References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3.4 Compare the Different Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.5 Summary for Member Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3.6 Should We Now Always Pass by Value and Move? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4 Move Semantics in Class Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4.1 Implementing a Polymorphic Base Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4.2 Implementing a Polymorphic Derived Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5 Overloading on Reference Qualifiers 79

5.1 Return Type of Getters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1.1 Return by Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1.2 Return by Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.1.3 Using Move Semantics to Solve the Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Overloading on Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3 When to Use Reference Qualifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.1 Reference Qualifiers for Assignment Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.2 Reference Qualifiers for Other Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

6 Moved-From States 89
6.1 Required and Guaranteed States of Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.1.1 Required States of Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
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vi Contents

6.1.2 Guaranteed States of Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6.1.3 Broken Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.2 Destructible and Assignable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2.1 Assignable and Destructible Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2.2 Non-Destructible Moved-From Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.3 Dealing with Broken Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3.1 Breaking Invariants Due to a Moved Value Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3.2 Breaking Invariants Due to Moved Consistent Value Members . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.3 Breaking Invariants Due to Moved Pointer-Like Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7 Move Semantics and noexcept 107

7.1 Move Constructors with and without noexcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.1.1 Move Constructors without noexcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.1.2 Move Constructors with noexcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.1.3 Is noexcept Worth It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2 Details of noexcept Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2.1 Rules for Declaring Functions with noexcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.2.2 noexcept for Special Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.3 noexcept Declarations in Class Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3.1 Checking for noexcept Move Constructors in Abstract Base Classes . . . . . . . . 120
7.4 When and Where to Use noexcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

8 Value Categories 125

8.1 Value Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1.1 History of Value Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.1.2 Value Categories Since C++11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.1.3 Value Categories Since C++17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.2 Special Rules for Value Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.2.1 Value Category of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.2.2 Value Category of Data Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.3 Impact of Value Categories When Binding References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.3.1 Overload Resolution with Rvalue References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.3.2 Overloading by Reference and Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
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Contents vii

8.4 When Lvalues become Rvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

8.5 When Rvalues become Lvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.6 Checking Value Categories with decltype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.6.1 Using decltype to Check the Type of Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.6.2 Using decltype to Check the Value Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Part II: Move Semantics in Generic Code 139

9 Perfect Forwarding 141

9.1 Motivation for Perfect Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1.1 What we Need to Perfectly Forward Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2 Implementing Perfect Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.2.1 Universal (or Forwarding) References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.2.2 std::forward<>() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.2.3 The Effect of Perfect Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.3 Rvalue References versus Universal References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.3.1 Rvalue References of Actual Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.3.2 Rvalue References of Function Template Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.4 Overload Resolution with Universal References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.4.1 Fixing Overload Resolution with Universal References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.5 Perfect Forwarding in Lambdas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

10 Tricky Details of Perfect Forwarding 153

10.1 Universal References as Non-Forwarding References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.1 Universal References and const . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.2 Universal References in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.1.3 Universal References of Specific Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2 Universal or Ordinary Rvalue Reference? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.2.1 Rvalue References of Members of Generic Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.2.2 Rvalue References of Parameters in Class Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
10.2.3 Rvalue References of Parameters in Full Specializations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.3 How the Standard Specifies Perfect Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.3.1 Explicit Specification of Types for Universal References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
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viii Contents

10.3.2 Conflicting Template Parameter Deduction with Universal References . . . . . . . 166

10.3.3 Pure RValue References of Generic Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.4 Nasty Details of Perfect Forwarding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.4.1 “Universal” versus “Forwarding” Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.4.2 Why && for Both Ordinary Rvalues and Universal References? . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
10.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

11 Perfect Passing with auto&& 171

11.1 Default Perfect Passing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.1.1 Default Perfect Passing in Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.2 Universal References with auto&& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.2.1 Type Deduction of auto&& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.2.2 Perfectly Forwarding an auto&& Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.3 auto&& as Non-Forwarding Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.3.1 Universal References and the Range-Based for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11.4 Perfect Forwarding in Lambdas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.5 Using auto&& in C++20 Function Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

12 Perfect Returning with decltype(auto) 183

12.1 Perfect Returning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12.2 decltype(auto) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
12.2.1 Return Type decltype(auto) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
12.2.2 Deferred Perfect Returning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.2.3 Perfect Forwarding and Returning with Lambdas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Part III: Move Semantics in the C++ Standard Library 191

13 Move-Only Types 193

13.1 Declaring and Using Move-Only Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.1.1 Declaring Move-Only Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
13.1.2 Using Move-Only Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
13.1.3 Passing Move-Only Objects as Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
13.1.4 Returning Move-Only Objects by Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page ix

Contents ix

13.1.5 Moved-From States of Move-Only Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

13.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

14 Moving Algorithms and Iterators 199

14.1 Moving Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
14.2 Removing Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
14.3 Move Iterators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
14.3.1 Move Iterators in Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14.3.2 Move Iterators in Constructors and Member Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
14.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

15 Move Semantics in Types of the C++ Standard Library 209

15.1 Move Semantics for Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
15.1.1 String Assignments and Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
15.2 Move Semantics for Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
15.2.1 Basic Move Support for Containers as a Whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
15.2.2 Insert and Emplace Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
15.2.3 Move Semantics for std::array<> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.3 Move Semantics for Vocabulary Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.3.1 Move Semantics for Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
15.3.2 Move Semantics for std::optional<> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
15.4 Move Semantics for Smart Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
15.4.1 Move Semantics for std::shared_ptr<> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
15.4.2 Move Semantics for std::unique_ptr<> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
15.5 Move Semantics for IOStreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
15.5.1 Moving IOStream Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
15.5.2 Using Temporary IOStreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
15.6 Move Semantics for Multithreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
15.6.1 std::thread<> and std::jthread<> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
15.6.2 Futures, Promises, and Packaged Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Glossary 231

Index 235
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page x
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Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xi

Preface

Move semantics, introduced with C++11, has become a hallmark of modern C++ programming. However, it
also complicates the language in many ways. Even after several years of support, experienced programmers
struggle with all the details of move semantics, style guides still recommend different consequences for
programming even of trivial classes, and we still discuss semantic details in the C++ standards committee.
Whenever I have taught what I have learned about C++ move semantics so far, I have said, “Somebody
has to write a book about all this,” and the usual answer was: “Yes, please do!” So, I finally did.
As always when writing a book about C++, I was surprised about the number of aspects to be taught, the
situations to be clarified, and the consequences to be described. It really was time to write a book about all
aspects of move semantics, covering all C++ versions from C++11 up to C++20. I learned a lot and I am
sure you will too.

An Experiment
This book is an experiment in two ways:
• I am writing an in-depth book covering a complex core language feature without the direct help of a core
language expert as a co-author. However, I can ask questions and I do.
• I am publishing the book myself on Leanpub and for printing on demand. That is, this book is written
step by step and I will publish new versions as soon there is a significant improvement that makes the
publication of a new version worthwhile.
The good thing is:
• You get the view of the language features from an experienced application programmer—somebody who
feels the pain a feature might cause and asks the relevant questions to be able to motivate and explain the
design and its consequences for programming in practice.
• You can benefit from my experience with move semantics while I am still writing.
• This book and all readers can benefit from your early feedback.
This means that you are also part of the experiment. So help me out: give feedback about flaws, errors,
features that are not explained well, or gaps, so that we all can benefit from these improvements.

xi
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xii

xii Preface

Versions of This Book

Because this book is written incrementally, the following is a history of the major updates (newest first):
• 2020-10-27: Several fixes (see errata)
• 2020-09-18: Using lambdas with template parameters (since C++20)
• 2020-09-15: Fix a bug with full specializations of universal references
• 2020-09-12: std::move() for data members
• 2020-09-10: Fixing deferred perfect returning
• 2020-09-09: Proof reading done and final fixes to go into print
• 2020-09-06: Helper trait is_nothrow_movable for abstract base classes
• 2020-09-06: Value category of (references to) functions
• 2020-09-05: Clarifications on auto&& including using it in C++20 functions
• 2020-08-29: Move assignments of objects to themselves
• 2020-08-28: Move semantics for std::pair<>, std::optional<>, threads, etc.
• 2020-08-28: Unique pointers, IOStreams, and other move-only types
• 2020-08-26: Several clarifications about universal references
• 2020-08-25: Using std::move() when calling member functions
• 2020-08-20: New chapter about move-only types
• 2020-08-19: Discussion of noexcept details
• 2020-08-18: New chapter about moving algorithms and iterators
• 2020-08-10: Description of move semantics for shared pointers
• 2020-08-10: Motivation for the reuse of moved-from objects and clarification of move assignments of
objects to themselves
• 2020-08-09: Recommendation not to return by value with const
• 2020-07-27: Move semantics for strings and containers
• 2020-07-24: General remarks on using reference qualifiers
• 2020-07-23: Description of details of type deduction of universal references and reference collapsing for
perfect forwarding
• 2020-07-07: Description of perfect returning for lambdas
• 2020-06-21: New chapter about perfect returning (with small fixes for perfect forwarding)
• 2020-06-12: Improvements of the chapter about “invalid” states
• 2020-06-08: New chapter about using noexcept
• 2020-06-06: Improvements of the chapter about invalid states
• 2020-05-03: Fixing of move semantics in class hierarchies
• 2020-04-29: Fixing of move semantics for classes and invalid states after review
• 2020-04-25: Fixing of code layout and missing figures in non-PDF versions
• 2020-04-22: New chapter about moved-from states
• 2020-04-13: Discussion of when you cannot avoid using std::move()
• 2020-02-01: Discussion of when automatically generated move operations are broken
• 2020-01-19: Constructors with universal references
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xiii

Acknowledgments xiii

• 2020-01-04: The initial published version of the book

Acknowledgments
First of all, I would like to thank you, the C++ community, for making this book possible. The incredible
design of all the features of move semantics, the helpful feedback, and their curiosity are the basis for the
evolution of a successful language. In particular, thanks for all the issues you told me about and explained
and for the feedback you gave.
I would especially like to thank everyone who reviewed drafts of this book or corresponding slides and
provided valuable feedback and clarification. These reviews increased the quality of the book significantly,
again proving that good things need the input of many “wise guys.” Therefore, so far (this list is still
growing) huge thanks to Javier Estrada, Howard Hinnant, Klaus Iglberger, Daniel Krügler, Marc Mutz,
Aleksandr Solovev (alexolut), Peter Sommerlad, and Tony Van Eerd.
In addition, I would like to thank everyone in the C++ community and on the C++ standards committee.
In addition to all the work involved in adding new language and library features, these experts spent many,
many hours explaining and discussing their work with me, and they did so with patience and enthusiasm.
Special thanks go to the LaTeX community for a great text system and to Frank Mittelbach for solving
my LATEX issues (it was almost always my fault).
And finally, many thanks go to my proofreader, Tracey Duffy, who has done a tremendous job of con-
verting my “German English” into native English.
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xiv

xiv

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Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xv

About This Book

This book teaches C++ move semantics. Starting from the basic principles, it motivates and explains all
features and corner cases of move semantics so that as a programmer, you can understand and use move
semantics correctly. The book is valuable for those who are just starting to learn about move semantics and
is essential for those who are using it already.
As usual for my books, the focus lies on the application of the new features in practice and the book will
demonstrate how features impact day-to-day programming and how you can benefit from them in projects.
This applies to both application programmers and programmers who provide generic frameworks and foun-
dation libraries.

What You Should Know Before Reading This Book

To get the most from this book, you should already be familiar with C++. You should be familiar with
the concepts of classes and references in general, and you should be able to write C++ programs using
components such as IOStreams and containers from the C++ standard library. You should also be familiar
with the basic features of “Modern C++,” such as auto or the range-based for loop.
However, you do not have to be an expert. My goal is to make the content understandable for the average
C++ programmer who does not necessarily know all the details of the latest features. I will discuss basic
features and review more subtle issues as the need arises.
This ensures that the text is accessible to experts and intermediate programmers alike.

Overall Structure of the Book

This book covers all aspects of C++ move semantics up to C++20. This applies to both language and
library features as well as both features that affect day-to-day application programming and features for
the sophisticated implementation of (foundation) libraries. However, the more general cases and examples
usually come first.
The different chapters are grouped, so that didactically you should read the book from beginning to end.
That is, later chapters usually rely on features introduced in earlier chapters. However, cross-references also
help in specific subsequent topics, indicating where they refer to features and aspects introduced earlier.

xv
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xvi

xvi About This Book

The book therefore contains the following parts:

• Part I covers the basic features of move semantics (especially for non-generic code).
• Part II covers the features of move semantics for generic code (especially used in templates and generic
lambdas).
• Part III covers the use of move semantics in the C++ standard library (giving also a good example of
how to use move semantics in practice).

How to Read This Book

Do not be afraid by the number of pages in this book. As always with C++, things can become pretty
complicated when you look into details (such as implementing templates). For a basic understanding, the
first third of the book (Part I, especially chapters 1 to 5) is sufficient.
In my experience, the best way to learn something new is to look at examples. Therefore, you will find
a lot of examples throughout the book. Some are just a few lines of code illustrating an abstract concept,
whereas others are complete programs that provide a concrete application of the material. The latter kind of
examples will be introduced by a C++ comment describing the file containing the program code. You can
find these files on the website for this book at http://www.cppmove.com.

The Way I Implement

Note the following hints about the way I write code and comments.

Initializations
I usually use the modern form of initialization (introduced in C++11 as uniform initialization) with curly
braces:
int i{42};
std::string s{"hello"};
This form of initialization, which is called brace initialization, has the following advantages:
• It can be used with fundamental types, class types, aggregates, enumeration types, and auto
• It can be used to initialize containers with multiple values
• It can detect narrowing errors (e.g., initialization of an int by a floating-point value)
• It cannot be confused with function declarations or calls
If the braces are empty, the default constructors of (sub)objects are called and fundamental data types are
guaranteed to be initialized with 0/false/nullptr.
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xvii

The C++ Standards xvii

Error Terminology
I often talk about programming errors. If there is no special hint, the term error or a comment such as
... // ERROR
means a compile-time error. The corresponding code should not compile (with a conforming compiler).
If I use the term runtime error, the program might compile but not behave correctly or result in undefined
behavior (thus, it might or might not do what is expected).

Code Simplifications
I try to explain all features with helpful examples. However, to concentrate on the key aspects to be taught,
I might often skip other details that should be part of code.
• Most of the time I use an ellipsis (“...”) to signal additional code that is missing. Note that I do not use
code font here. If you see an ellipsis with code font, code must have these three dots as a language feature
(such as for “typename...”).
• In header files I usually skip the preprocessor guards. All header files should have something like the
following:
#ifndef MYFILE_HPP
#define MYFILE_HPP
...
#endif // MYFILE_HPP
So, please beware and fix the code when using these header files in your projects.

The C++ Standards

C++ has different versions defined by different C++ standards.
The original C++ standard was published in 1998 and was subsequently amended by a technical corri-
gendum in 2003, which provided minor corrections and clarifications to the original standard. This “old C++
standard” is known as C++98 or C++03.
The world of “Modern C++” began with C++11 and was extended with C++14 and C++17. The interna-
tional C++ standards committee now aims to issue a new standard every three years. Clearly, that leaves less
time for massive additions, but it brings the changes to the broader programming community more quickly.
The development of larger features, therefore, takes time and might cover multiple standards.
The next “Even more Modern C++” is already on the horizon, as introduced with C++20. Again, several
ways to program will probably change. However, as usual, compilers need some time to provide the latest
language features. At the time of writing this book, C++17 is usually the latest version supported by major
compilers.
Fortunately, the basic principles of move semantics were all introduced with C++11 and C++14. For that
reason, the code examples in this book should usually compile on recent versions of all major compilers. If
special features introduced with C++17 or C++20 are discussed, I will mention that explicitly.
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page xviii

xviii About This Book

Example Code and Additional Information

You can access all example programs and find more information about this book from its website, which has
the following URL:
http://www.cppmove.com

Feedback
I welcome your constructive input—both negative and positive. I have worked very hard to bring you what
I hope you will find to be an excellent book. However, at some point I had to stop writing, reviewing, and
tweaking to “release the new revision.” You may therefore find errors, inconsistencies, presentations that
could be improved, or topics that are missing altogether. Your feedback gives me a chance to fix these issues,
inform all readers about the changes through the book’s website, and improve any subsequent revisions or
editions.
The best way to reach me is by email. You will find the email address at the website for this book:
http://www.cppmove.com

If you use the ebook, you might want to ensure to have the latest version of this book available (remember
it is written and published incrementally). You should also check the book’s Web site for the currently
known errata before submitting reports. In any case, refer to the publishing date of this version when giving
feedback. The current publishing date is 2020-12-19 (you can also find it on page ii, the page directly after
the cover).
Many thanks.
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 1

Part I
Basic Features of Move Semantics
This part of the book introduces the basic features of move semantics that are not specific to generic pro-
gramming (i.e., templates). They are particularly helpful for application programmers in their day-to-day
programming and therefore every C++ programmer using Modern C++ should know them.
Move semantics features for generic programming are covered in Part II.

1
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 2

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Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 3

Chapter 1
The Power of Move Semantics

This chapter demonstrates the basic principles and benefits of move semantics using a short code example.

1.1 Motivation for Move Semantics

To understand the basic principles of move semantics, let us look at the execution of a small piece of code,
first without move semantics (i.e., compiled with an old C++ compiler that supports only C++03) and then
with move semantics (compiled with a modern C++ compiler that supports C++11 or later).

1.1.1 Example with C++03 (Before Move Semantics)

Assume we have the following program:
basics/motiv03.cpp
 
#include <string>
#include <vector>

std::vector<std::string> createAndInsert()
{
std::vector<std::string> coll; // create vector of strings
coll.reserve(3); // reserve memory for 3 elements
std::string s = "data"; // create string object

coll.push_back(s); // insert string object

coll.push_back(s+s); // insert temporary string
coll.push_back(s); // insert string

return coll; // return vector of strings

}

3
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 4

4 Chapter 1: The Power of Move Semantics

int main()
{
std::vector<std::string> v; // create empty vector of strings
...
v = createAndInsert(); // assign returned vector of strings
...
}
 
Let us look at the individual steps of the program (inspecting both the stack and the heap) when we compile
this program with a C++ compiler that does not support move semantics.
• First, in main(), we create the empty vector v:
std::vector<std::string> v;
which is placed on the stack as an object that has 0 as the number of elements and no memory allocated
for elements.
• Then, we call
v = createAndInsert();
where we create another empty vector coll on the stack and reserve memory for three elements on the
heap:
std::vector<std::string> coll;
coll.reserve(3);
The allocated memory is not initialized because the number of elements is still 0.
• Then, we create a string initialized with "data":
std::string s = "data";
A string is something like a vector with char elements. Essentially, we create an object on the stack
with a member for the number of characters (having the value 4) and a pointer to the memory for the
characters.1
After this statement, the program has the following state: we have three objects on the stack: v, coll,
and s. Two of them, coll and s, have allocated memory on the heap:2

1 Internally, strings also store a terminating null character to avoid allocating memory when they are asked for a C
string representation of their value with the member function c_str().
2 With the small string optimization (SSO), the string s might store its whole value on the stack provided the value is
not too long. However, for the general case, let us assume that we do not have the small string optimization or the
value of the string is long enough so that the small string optimization does not happen.
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 5

1.1 Motivation for Move Semantics 5

• The next step is the command to insert the string into the vector coll:
coll.push_back(s);
All containers in the C++ standard library have value semantics, which means that they create copies of
the values passed to them. As a result, we get a first element in the vector, which is a full (deep) copy of
the passed value/object s:
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 6

6 Chapter 1: The Power of Move Semantics

So far, we have nothing to optimize in this program. The current state is that we have two vectors, v and
coll, and two strings, s and its copy, which is the first element in coll. They should all be separate
objects with their own memory for the value, because modifying one of them should not impact any of
the other objects.
• Let us now look at the next statement, which creates a new temporary string and again inserts it into the
vector:
coll.push_back(s+s);
This statement is performed in three steps:
1. We create the temporary string s+s:

2. We insert this temporary string into the vector coll. As always, the container creates a copy of the
passed value, which means that we create a deep copy of the temporary string, including allocating
memory for the value:
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 7

1.1 Motivation for Move Semantics 7

3. At the end of the statement, the temporary string s+s is destroyed because we no longer need it:

Here, we have the first moment where we generate code that is not performing well: we create a copy
of a temporary string and destroy the source of the copy immediately afterwards, which means that we
unnecessarily allocate and free memory that we could have just moved from the source to the copy.
• With the next statement, again we insert s into coll:
coll.push_back(s);
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 8

8 Chapter 1: The Power of Move Semantics

Again, coll copies s:

This is also something to improve: because the value of s is no longer needed some optimization could
use the memory of s as memory for the new element in the vector instead.
• At the end of createAndInsert() we come to the return statement:
return coll;
}
Here, the behavior of the program becomes a bit more complicated. We return by value (the return type
is not a reference), which should be a copy of the value in the return statement, coll. Creating a copy
of coll means that we have to create a deep copy of the whole vector with all of its elements. Thus, we
have to allocate heap memory for the array of elements in the vector and heap memory for the value each
string allocates to hold its value. Here, we would have to allocate memory 4 times.
However, since at the same time coll is destroyed because we leave the scope where it is declared,
the compiler is allowed to perform the named return value optimization (NRVO). This means that the
compiler can generate code so that coll is just used as the return value.
This optimization is allowed even if this would change the functional behavior of the program. If we
had a print statement in the copy constructor of a vector or string, we would see that the program no
longer has the output from the print statement. This means that this optimization changes the functional
behavior of the program. However, that is OK, because we explicitly allow this optimization in the C++
standard even if it has side effects. Nobody should expect that a copy is done here, in the same way that
nobody should expect that it is not, either. It is simply up to the compiler whether the named return value
optimization is performed.
Let us assume that we have the named return value optimization. In that case, at the end of the return
statement, coll now becomes the return value and the destructor of s is called, which frees the memory
allocated when it was declared:
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 9

1.1 Motivation for Move Semantics 9

• Finally, we come to the assignment of the return value to v:

v = createAndInsert();
Here, we really get behavior that can be improved: the usual assignment operator has the goal of giving v
the same value as the source value that is assigned. In general, any assigned value should not be modified
and should be independent from the object that the value was assigned to. So, the assignment operator
will create a deep copy of the whole return value:
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 10

10 Chapter 1: The Power of Move Semantics

However, right after that, we no longer need the temporary return value and we destroy it:

Again, we create a copy of a temporary object and destroy the source of the copy immediately after-
wards, which means that we again unnecessarily allocate and free memory. This time it applies to four
allocations, one for the vector and one for each string element.
For the state of this program after the assignment in main(), we allocated memory ten times and released it
six times. The unnecessary memory allocations were caused by:
• Inserting a temporary object into the collection
• Inserting an object into the collection where we no longer need the value
• Assigning a temporary vector with all its elements
We can more or less avoid these performance penalties. In particular, instead of the last assignment, we
could do the following:
• Pass the vector as an out parameter:
createAndInsert(v); // let the function fill vector v
• Use swap():
createAndInsert().swap(v);
However, the resulting code looks uglier (unless you see some beauty in complex code) and there is not
really a workaround when inserting a temporary object.
Since C++11, we have another option: compile and run the program with support for move semantics.
Josuttis: C++ Move Semantics 2020/12/19 12:33 page 11

1.1 Motivation for Move Semantics 11

1.1.2 Example Since C++11 (Using Move Semantics)

Let us now recompile the program with a modern C++ compiler (C++11 or later) that supports move se-
mantics:
basics/motiv11.cpp
 
#include <string>
#include <vector>

std::vector<std::string> createAndInsert()
{
std::vector<std::string> coll; // create vector of strings
coll.reserve(3); // reserve memory for 3 elements
std::string s = "data"; // create string object

coll.push_back(s); // insert string object

coll.push_back(s+s); // insert temporary string
coll.push_back(std::move(s)); // insert string (we no longer need the value of s)

return coll; // return vector of strings

}

int main()
{
std::vector<std::string> v; // create empty vector of strings
...
v = createAndInsert(); // assign returned vector of strings
...
}
 
There is a small modification, though: we add a std::move() call when we insert the last element into
coll. We will discuss this change when we come to this statement. Everything else is as before.
Again, let us look at the individual steps of the program by inspecting both the stack and the heap.
• First, in main(), we create the empty vector v, which is placed on the stack with 0 elements:
std::vector<std::string> v;
• Then, we call
v = createAndInsert();
where we create another empty vector coll on the stack and reserve uninitialized memory for three
elements on the heap:
std::vector<std::string> coll;
coll.reserve(3);
• Then, we create the string s initialized with "data" and insert it into coll again:
std::string s = "data";
coll.push_back(s);
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
naturally gifted in making friends. He is a financier, and is rapidly
acquiring means. As an artist and penman, he is a prodigy. In the
session of 1884 he was converted to the Christian religion, and was
baptized in the University pool by Rev. E. M. Brawley, D. D., and
joined the St. Phillip Street Baptist Church under Rev. C. O. Boothe,
D. D. On removal to Birmingham in 1886, he united with the
Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, of which Rev. Dr. Pettiford was
pastor.
Last term, he was principal of the Oxmoor public school. He is now
corresponding secretary of the Mt. Pilgrim Sunday School
Convention. On all lines of manhood, Mr. Barker is a genuine
success.
Barton, Rev. J. P., of Talladega, comes of Virginia parentage, and was
born in Colbert county, Ala., October, 1844.
In 1871 he united with the Little Zion Baptist Church in said county,
and was baptized by Rev. W. E. Northcross, of Tuscumbia. In 1877
he entered the work of the gospel ministry in his native section,
doing valuable service within the bounds of the Muscle Shoals
Association, especially in line with the Sunday School work. He has
led to the organization of two Sunday School Conventions and eight
churches, and built five houses of worship. His speeches before our
State Convention have been largely conducive of the sentiment and
system which have given birth to our women’s work and State
mission operations. He has held official positions in connection with
our State Convention and University, and is now chairman of the
Board of Visitors of the Colored Deaf and Dumb Asylum of Alabama.
He is easy in society and pleasing in address. He carries the youth
and the masses, and so uses everything at his command as to
impress one that he is an excellent general as well as a successful
pastor. He is full of movement and plan, and is quick of discernment
and clear in expression. He is a lover of science. He obtained his
education in the Talladega College. Mr. Barton says that he owes
much to his wife, whom the writer would honor as one of our noble
women. Mr. Barton is still full of life and growth.
Our general work has always found in Brother Barton a ready and
generous helper. He deserves credit for his industry and enterprise—
in material as well as in church affairs. He relates the following: “In
the winter of 1876-77 I chanced for the first time to meet the late
Harry Woodsmall in one of his Ministers’ Institutes. He remarked:
‘On to-morrow we will discuss the subject of sanctification; and here
is a little book worth only 15 cents which will be of service to you.’ I
said to myself: ‘What is sanctification?’ I never heard of such a thing
before. I bought the book from Brother Woodsmall, and, coming
upon my subject, I read till late at night, in order that I might be in
line with things next day. When the hour came I was up on the
subject of sanctification, much to the pleasure of the teacher.”
Mr. Barton is ever ready to contend for his views, but is remarkably
free from bitterness in discussion, is hardly ever wrong in his opinion
on things, and is a remarkably winning preacher with the masses.
Mr. Barton is now president of our State Convention.
Bacotes, Rev. Mr.—As the Cyclopedia goes to press the Rev. Mr.
Bacotes comes to the charge of the Marion Academy and Marion
Church. The writer wishes he knew something of the history of one
so much favored and so highly recommended as Mr. Bacotes is. He
has important trusts in hand.
Battle, Rev. Augustus A., of Hurtsboro, Russell county, the son of
Deacon A. A. and Mrs. Jennie Battle, was born in Tuskegee, July 4,
1860. As his parents were pious people, he was very early the
subject of religious impressions, which in 1881 culminated in a public
profession of faith in Christ. On the third Sunday in August he was
baptized by the Rev. Richard Lloyd, of Georgia. In the year 1879,
aspiring for a liberal education, he entered the Talladega College, in
which he graduated from the normal and the theological courses.
He is a young man of high moral tone, and his agreeable manners
have won for him many friends. At present he is pastor at
Sylacauga, and teacher of the city school in Talladega.
P. S.—Since the above was written, our good Bro. Battle has been
called to the Mt. Zion Church in Anniston, and under his industrious
and wise leadership his people have constructed a two-story brick
edifice. To do what he has done in these hard times, in the way of
raising and expending money, is to prove himself a man of no
ordinary parts. The writer has enjoyed the hospitality of his quiet
Christian home, where he has learned that the young minister has
found helpful companionship in the person of a modest, intelligent
wife.
Batts, Rev. J. H., of Florence, is an aspiring young man, and is very
active in the enterprises of the Muscle Shoals Association and
Sunday School Convention. Evidently, he has not enjoyed early
access to books and schools, but his thoughts are orderly and clear,
and he does not hesitate to give expression to his views.
Beavers, Rev. Jasper, was born May 9, 1825, in St. Clair county, Ala.
His father and mother were slaves, and of course, he inherited their
lot. He now lives at Easonville, in the county in which he was born,
and is still a useful, as well as a very pious man. In 1851, he was
baptized by the Rev. Jesse Collins (white), and in 1868 was ordained
to the work of the gospel ministry by Revs. Henry Wood, J. Collins
and T. Bush.
He was the first moderator of the Rushing Springs Association. In
spite of the laws of the master forbidding such things, he, in slavery
time, learned to read and write. By his industry and economy he has
obtained real estate worth about $2,000. Brother Beavers is a man
of fine personal appearance, is modest, genial, industrious, honest,
firm. In the early days of our work, there was no more efficient man
in St. Clair County than he. A large family of children are the support
of his old age.
Since the above was penned, Brother Beavers has passed to the
world that lies beyond. He was the most self-possessed and of the
most commanding figure of any man in the Rushing Springs
Association, though no man among them was more modest and
humble.
Belle, Rev. John, of Courtland, was born in the State of Georgia and
came to Alabama after the close of the war. He says: “In Stuart
county, Ga., in the first part of 1861, I followed the white preacher
to his different preaching stations, and he would preach to the white
people in the morning and I would speak to the colored people in
the evening. I could not say anything about Moses and the children
of Israel.
“I went on preaching without any trouble for some little time, till at
last, as I could read a little, it was decided that I should be hung. As
I was ready for execution, and as I was praying God for help, a
dispute arose between the white people which resulted in my
release. I again went on, till on one occasion when I had displeased
my mistress with reference to some garden work, and when, as she
started to strike me with the rake, and I fled, she reported to her
husband that I had tried to kill her and that she only saved her life
by running into the house out of my reach. Of course, it was decided
at once that I ought to and should die. On the night before I was to
be executed, the lady became very ill and owned that she was only
angry with me for getting out of her way, and that I had done
nothing. She died that night. However, her dying words had set me
free and so I returned to my work for God, feeling that I could not
die till my work should be accomplished.”
Brother Belle has labored in different States, but his principal labors
have been in Northern Alabama, where he has been one of the chief
organizers of our work in this section, beginning his operations here
in 1868.
It appears that Brother Belle was ordained in Helena, Ark., sometime
in 1867, the late Rev. J. T. White, who was then pastor of the First
Colored Baptist Church, being one of the officiating presbytery.
He is still a strong man. For several years past he has been pastor at
Iuka, Miss., and of the Red Bank Church in Lawrence county. His
pleasant manners have always made him an agreeable companion to
his brethren.
 Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, Birmingham, Ala.
Belser, Rev. S. L., pastor of the First Church, Bessemer, deserves the
respect and love of the denomination for his beautiful brotherly spirit
and unassuming manners.
Berry, Rev. G. W.—Although this good man is no longer among us,
his name is still fragrant with his exalted faith and pious life. Like his
stay on earth, his stay in Alabama was short, but useful and
endearing. He was the son of Pickens and Mary Berry, and was born
in Edgefield county, S. C., in 1859. Having studied some time in the
Benedict Institute in that State, he, after doing some effective work
in that State, came to Alabama to take the pastoral oversight of the
church in Eufaula. Here it was that after a short illness he exchanged
the cross for the crown, singing as his soul retired from the earth,
“My Lord calls me and I must go.” To know him was to love him, for
his gentleness of spirit was beautiful to look upon.
Betts, Rev. J. W., of Huntsville, Ala., son of John and Edith Betts, was
born June 4, 1851, near Courtland, in Lawrence county, Ala. In the
fall of 1873 he was baptized into the Courtland Church by the Rev.
Gabriel B. Johnson. Brother Betts is among the younger men of the
Muscle Shoals Association. He is a clear thinker and a lover of books.
He is a business man, industrious and economical, and does not live
of the donations of his people, but the labors of his own hands. His
style is rather didactic for the masses, but it is plain and his doctrine
is in line with the teachings of the “Good Book.”
Berry, Prof. J. S., son of Jack and Clara Berry, of Uniontown, is one
among the most proficient Sunday School workers in Alabama. He is
president of the Sunday School Convention of the Uniontown
Association. His happy, unselfish spirit fills all his work with
pleasantness and sunshine. He is now about 35 years of age.
Blevins, Rev. John, long the leading man and pioneer of Dallas county,
the first pastor of the St. Phillip Street Church after the close of the
war, was for his opportunities and times a very strong man in the
work of organization. May it ever be told of him that he led his
people—his church, to become the foster mother of Selma University
in the time of its infancy and weakness. This fact is one of the
brightest spots upon his memory, and should never be forgotten.
The buildings in which the St. Phillip Street and the Green Street
Churches now worship were built by Mr. Blevins. He died eight or ten
years ago at the age of 65.
Bibb, Rev. Wm. T., son of Linzy and Caroline Bibb, was born in
Montgomery, Ala., in 1853. Brother Bibb is one of the most worthy of
our rising young men. He is not noted for brilliancy, but for constant
application in the race for knowledge, for pushing things to a finish
in search for truth, for the purest life and loftiest piety, he is hardly
to be excelled. Already he has been entrusted with various
pastorates, including one at Marion and another near Birmingham. I
had the best opportunity to learn him while I was pastor at Selma.
Here he was superintendent of my Sunday School and aided me in
my ward prayer-meetings. He completed two courses at the Selma
University, graduating with the title of A. B., and with the highest
confidence of all the faculty. In looking upon his open countenance
one instinctively feels the impress of an honest, earnest man—a man
free from hypocrisy and guile.
Bradford, Rev. William C., pastor of the First Colored Baptist Church,
Union Springs, son of Henry and Elizabeth Bradford, was born in
Montgomery, Ala., in 1862. His early years were spent in the Swayne
school in said city, in which he succeeded in laying the foundation of
a liberal English education. In his eighteenth year, and two years
after his father’s death, he was baptized into the fellowship of the
Columbus Street Baptist Church, Montgomery, by the late Rev.
James A. Foster. Feeling a call to the work of the gospel ministry, he,
with a view to fitting himself for this solemn charge, entered Atlanta
Theological Seminary. In school as well as out among his brethren,
he has managed to occupy a place with those who formed the van.
In the person of his good wife, once Miss M. H. Allen, of Georgia
(daughter of Rev. T. M. Allen, ex-member of the Georgia
Legislature), whom he wedded in 1884, he has found happy and
efficient help in his studies as well as in his calling. For a while Mr.
Bradford followed the tailor’s trade, but at the call of the Gilfield
Church in Wetumpka, the Dexter Avenue Church, Montgomery, in
1886 set him apart to the work of the gospel ministry. At Wetumpka
he built a church edifice worth about $700. While pastor at Clayton
he led to the erection of a building worth $1,000, and just now is
rejoicing with the good people of Union Springs on his entrance into
the new brick structure which was dedicated on the second Sunday
in October, 1892. He was principal of the city school while in Clayton,
and now holds several positions of honor and trust. Mr. Bradford is
one of the strongest and is among the most successful young men in
Alabama. His affable manner commends him to all. He is now at
Tuscaloosa.
Brooks, Rev. G. J., of Selma, Ala., son of Joseph and Nancy Brooks,
was born in 1830 near Richmond, Va., in which city he lived till his
eighteenth year, when he was carried to New Orleans, La., and from
thence to Texas. 1849 was spent in St. Louis, Mo., and in 1850 he
was brought to Huntsville, Ala. In this same year he was baptized
into the Primitive Baptist Church of Huntsville by Rev. Wm. Harris
(colored). [1] Of this period of his life Mr. Brooks says: “By the will of
a Mr. Kenedy I was left free, but as the administrator of the will, a
Mr. Clark, refused to execute this point in the will, I remained a
slave.” In 1867 he united with the Marion Church, under the
pastorate of the Rev. James Childs. Near this town he taught school,
till in 1872 he went to Kentucky, where, in 1873, he was ordained to
the work of the ministry. After serving various offices in the work in
Kentucky, he came to Selma in 1875, where, after a few years, he
became pastor of the St. Philip Street Church. By the assistance of
the white family he learned to read at the age of 14. In Marion he
extended his studies under Prof. Card, and under Presidents
Woodsmall, McAlpine and Brawley he further prosecuted his studies
in the Selma University. Brother Brooks has held various offices of
trust under the State Convention and the Uniontown Association. His
health is now rather below his usual strength, but his love for the
Master’s cause seems nothing abated. His wife, Mrs. Anna, is among
the leading women of Alabama.
[1] It appears that this denomination, Primitive Baptists, had
some one or two ordained colored ministers.

Brown, Rev. Lewis, of Epes, Sumter county, was born near St. Louis,
Mo., March 23, 1835, and came to Alabama in his tenth year. He
united with the church in 1863, and was baptized by a Mr. Edmonds
into the fellowship of the Jones’ Creek Church, by which church he
was called to ordination in the fall of 1868. The chief persons in the
presbytery were Revs. Abner Scarber (white) and Mr. Wright. Mr.
Brown’s main pastoral charges have been Jones’ Creek, nine years;
Sumterville, thirteen years; New Bethel, thirteen years; and Mount
Olive, four years. He has long been moderator of the Bethlehem
Association, and is known and recognized as a firm and tried friend
of education and missions; and his children give evidence of pure
and wise aspirations.
Mr. Brown was married to Mrs. Elizabeth Brown, a slave girl on the
same plantation with himself, in 1852. Seven sons and one daughter
are the fruit of the marriage. He is a very industrious and economical
man, and has possession of valuable property, worth $15,000. Seven
or eight hundred acres of his farm once formed part of the
plantation on which he (with 500 others) worked as a slave till 1865.
He says that his master, Mr. Brown, was a Christian, and that after
the close of the war this plantation gave to this county most of its
religious leaders.
Burwell, L. L., M. D., the son of Charles and Amanda Burwell, was
born in Marengo county, Ala., October 25, 1867. At the age of seven
years he was given to his brother, Charles A. Burwell, of whom the
Doctor says: “To him my success is largely due.” For quite a while he
lived with this brother on a farm in Perry county. He attended the
county schools till he entered Selma University in the winter of 1883-
84. His love for books and his quickness of apprehension were early
manifestations of native talent which, if properly cultivated, would
unfold to his own honor and to the profit of his people. Each
vacation found him upon the farm, earning money with which to re-
enter school. During his entire course at Selma University his mother
was able to spend upon him but $30. In 1886, he graduated from
the above named school with the honors of valedictorian, and in the
fall of the same year he entered Leonard Medical College, Raleigh,
N. C., to take a course in medicine. The course extended through
four years, but he completed it and received his diploma at the close
of the third year, again receiving the honors of valedictorian of his
class. In 1889, he passed an examination before the State Board of
Medical Examiners of Alabama, and began the practice of medicine
in the city of Selma, where he now resides amidst many friends, a
paying practice, and a successful drug business. Commencing
without a dollar, he has saved from his income about $4,000. In
school he was called artist, orator, scholar. He says: “As a doctor I
have for my motto: Crurare Cito.”
Brown, Rev. R. E., of Selma, the pushing, energetic leader of several
associations, deserves honorable mention as a man of pluck and
push—a man of courage and observation.
Bynum, Rev. Henry, of Leighton, Ala., was born in Baltimore, Md.,
January, 1820. In 1851, in Colbert county, Ala., he was led to
exercise faith in Christ by the humble conversation and pious life of a
fellow-slave by the name of Isaac. As his master did not believe in
the Bible and its Christianity, his baptism was delayed till 1854. In
1867 he was set apart to the office of the gospel ministry by two
white ministers, one of whom was Dr. Joseph Shackelford, of Trinity,
Ala. He and Rev. Steven Coleman were the first ordained colored
preachers in northern Alabama. He was married the first time in
1857, but his family were soon taken from him and he has never
seen them since. His present wife is a most excellent lady, and
affords him that help which only a good woman can bestow. He has
good property, and he and his wife keep one of the most hospitable
homes in northern Alabama. Bro. Bynum was the first colored
minister in this section to administer the rite of baptism. He is now
awaiting his change with triumphant hope, and still enjoys fair
health.
Caddell, Rev. Perry, pastor in Shelby, Ala., son of Edmond and Edie
Caddell, was born September 9, 1859, in Centreville, Bibb county,
Ala. He was baptized into the Bethel Baptist Church, Calera, by Rev.
John Trainholm, in February, 1873, and was set apart to the work of
the gospel ministry, December, 1877, by Revs. Henry Wood and
Mack Jackson. He learned his letters at the age of 12 years, and,
though he has never had any help from teachers except such as he
could get at night school, he has been a steadily growing man till the
present time. He feels that he owes his beginning in letters to his
mistress (Mrs. Caddell), who, after the close of the war, taught him
to read, and to write his name. Of his father he says: “He was, no
doubt, a believer; but in slavery time he refused to unite with the
church for the reason that he felt that master and slave all the week
could not be brothers on Sunday. And after the close of the war, he
would not join for the reason that there was no colored Baptist
church near his home.”
Bro. Caddell is an exemplary man in his family. I have found no
family where the mother and children study the Word of God with
more system and regularity. He has a ready command of language,
both in speech and with pen, and is sociable and genial everywhere.
Capers, Rev. J. R., of Elyton (since gone to Oklahoma), was born in
Camden, S. C., April 22, 1828. In 1845 he was baptized into the
Marion Baptist Church (white) by the Rev. Mr. Devotie, and in 1869
he was solemnly set apart to the sacred office of the gospel ministry
by Revs. Henry Wood, of Talladega, and Arthur Hall, of Jonesboro.
He, with Revs. W. H. McAlpine, Berry Ware, Jasper Beavers, and
others, organized the Mt. Pilgrim Association, in Mt. Pilgrim Church,
in 1868. Of this association he was the moderator for eleven years.
Bro. Capers is known among his brethren and neighbors as an
intelligent, industrious, thoughtful, faithful, Christian man and
earnest gospel preacher. He is a successful carpenter, and by
industry, skill and economy has attained to the possession of a good
deal of choice property. No doubt he owes much to his good wife,
whom he married in 1850, and by whom he has a large family of
thrifty children. Bro. Capers was an organizer in the Jefferson county
work, and has left the impress of his decided character upon the
workers of this section. He is now in Oklahoma Territory.
Chapman, Rev. F. A., of Flint, Morgan county, Ala., was born in the
county and State in which he now lives, November 12, 1843. In
1861 he was baptized into the Sand Hill Church by Rev. M. A. Verser,
and in April, 1868, he was set apart to the work of the gospel
ministry by a presbytery which was presided over by the brother
who about eight years before had administered the rite of baptism.
Mr. Chapman is one of the most sober, quiet, pious, earnest, hard-
working preachers in the valley of the Tennessee river. He aided in
the organization of the Muscle Shoals and Flint River Associations.
Most of his time has been spent in mission and pioneer operations.
In 1868 he was wedded to Miss Alabama Garth, by whom he has a
large family of interesting children. Their home is a retreat for weary
preachers and a Christian example in their community.
In a speech which he made before our last State Convention, he
said: “The brethren ordained me in 1868, not because of my fitness
for the work, but in recognition of a necessity. There was need for a
Negro to baptize Negro believers, and I was chosen as an answer to
this want without any examination.”
Chandler, Rev. F. C., is pastor of Walnut Street Church, Rosedale, and
bears a good name.
 Rev. S. L. Belser, Pastor Red Mountain Baptist Church,
Bessemer, Ala.
Clark, Rev. Henry, of Opelika, son of David and Patience Clark, both
of Virginia birth, is one of the fathers of the work in Lee county.
Brother Clark was baptized at Auburn, Ala., by Rev. H. C. Toliver, of
Tuskegee, in 1860. He was set apart to the work of the gospel
ministry June 27, 1868, by Revs. W. E. Lloyd, D. D., and Thomas
Glenn, since which time he has been busy going about and doing
good. He has been a harmless, industrious, pioneer preacher, laying
foundations upon which others have builded. He is a tried and
faithful friend of missions and education. The writer has always felt
that his every pledge was worth every cent it promised.
Notwithstanding he has had no educational advantages, still he has,
by study of books and by association with men of letters, obtained
no inconsiderable store of knowledge.
The churches of Lee county and the Alabama Association owe much
to the faithful, efficient labors of Brother Clark. His loving heart ever
adorns his face with the smiles of peace and good will. Truly, he is a
harmless man, ever ready to do a brotherly deed.
Colley, Rev. Moses, of Talladega, son of Rev. Boney Sawyer, who was
a preacher over fifty years ago, is about 55 years of age. He has
never had any school advantages, but has attained to a fair
knowledge of books. He is a remarkably clear headed man, dignified
and self-possessed. Mr. Colley is a hard working, successful farmer,
and by this calling, he has obtained a comfortable support for
himself and family. He was baptized by Dr. Renfroe in 1856, and was
ordained to the ministry in 1872. He held several important
pastorates in Talladega, and was once moderator of Rushing Springs
Association. He is guarded in speech, but his manners are always
affable. No act of folly or crime mars his good name. For many years
he has held the pastorate at Mardisville, where he is esteemed no
less for his piety than for his sound doctrine.
Collins, Rev. Asa Cyrus, of Hazen, Ala., was born November 1, 1861,
in Dallas county of this State. Lost both parents at the age of 8
years. Was baptized by Rev. A. Waller in his sixteenth year, and soon
began preaching. In September, 1881, he was officially set apart to
the work of the gospel ministry. Mr. Collins has been pastor at
various points, and is held in high esteem by his brethren. For
several years he has been moderator of the Dallas County
Association, over which he presides with credit to himself and with
pleasure to the body. Brother Collins is still a rising young man.
Curry, Rev. J. C., of Mount Meigs, Montgomery county, the son of
Rev. Philip and Venus Curry, was born in Marion, Ala., October 17,
1852. He was baptized at Felix, Ala., by Rev. D. R. Willis in 1873. On
the occasion of his call to the pastorate of the Friendship Church,
Shelby, Ala., he was ordained to the work of the gospel ministry by
Revs. P. Caddell, M. Jackson, and Henry Scott. Mr. Curry is liberally
educated, having been among the first students of Selma University.
He is a close, clear thinker, a forcible speaker and a good preacher.
He has been pastor at Shelby, pastor of the Dexter Avenue Church,
Montgomery, and is now pastor at Mt. Meigs and Tuskegee.
At different times he has been engaged in the newspaper business;
and I am informed that he is now assisting Prof. B. T. Washington in
collecting certain statistics for the Tuskegee school. Mr. Curry is a
man of rare energy and will force, and being endowed with good
intellectual gifts there is no reason why he may not become one
among the strongest men of the State.
Curtis, Hon. A. H., of Marion, Ala., was born in Raleigh, N. C.,
December 29, 1829. He came to Alabama in 1839 with the Haywood
family. He was the property (?) of E. Haywood, and served as a
waiting boy in the store of Stockton & Hunt for many years. He
moved to Marion in 1848 and was the body servant of R. T. Goree
for two years. After this he was barber for some years. Succeeding
by industry and economy in obtaining some cash, he, in 1859, paid
Mrs. E. Haywood $2,000 for his freedom, and during the same year
went to New York and was emancipated. After the war he engaged
in mercantile pursuits and the barber business. In 1870 he was
elected to the lower house of the General Assembly of Alabama, and
in 1872 he was elected State Senator from the Twenty-second
senatorial district. No other colored man ever presided over the
Senate of Alabama. He was connected with the legislature of the
State for eight years, and not only enjoyed the respect of his fellow
legislators of all parties but closed his service in this connection with
growing confidence in his integrity. He was baptized in 1851. In
1850 his marriage occurred. His wife was a suitable helper for him
and is still alive enjoying the honors and success which justly crown
their offspring. The Curtis brothers and sisters are a praise to their
parents. The senator was a strong man in society, in church, in
State. He died near Marion, July 20, 1878, as the result of a bruise
from a fall from his buggy. Three of his sons are successful
physicians; two are north; Dr. A. J. Curtis is in Montgomery.
Davis, Rev. Philip, late of Talladega, was born in 1813, in the State of
Virginia, near the North Carolina line. He was baptized in 1841, and
about the year 1843 he began to speak to his neighbors of the
doctrines and hope of the gospel. Early in life he married, and
became the father of a large family. After he was brought to Calhoun
county, Ala., he continued his labors in the ministry of the gospel, as
he had opportunity, constantly increasing in favor with both God and
man; and this was true of him to the day of his death, which
occurred December 30, 1881. I first met this pious man in
December, 1875, in Talladega. He was not a learned man, but he
knew the holy scriptures, and was wise in the things of salvation.
The more he was known the better he was loved; and his
unassuming, gentle, chastened, self-forgetting spirit, as exhibited at
home and abroad, was simply charming. As I have looked upon this
unmixed, full-blooded representative of the Negro race, arrayed in
the beauty of the Christian spirit, I have felt proud of him as a
witness for my people. He was not fully installed in the ministry until
the close of the war. The late Dr. J. J. D. Renfroe was the leading
man in the presbytery who officially set him apart to the sacred
office. His last words were: “Like one of old, I have finished my
course and am now ready to be offered, and the time of my
departure is come.” He left a pleasant home for his family.
Davis, Rev. C. M., of Flint, Morgan county, was born in the State of
Tennessee. He was led to faith in Christ and was baptized by the
Rev. F. A. Chapman. He says that his early life was rather wild, but
when his eyes were opened he turned with all his heart. In 1885, in
May, he was set apart to the ministry by Revs. F. A. Chapman and C.
C. Matthews. Mr. Davis is one among the most promising young men
in the Flint River Association. He is a discerning, aspiring man, who
believes in studying to know the truth, so that he may not have
reason to feel ashamed of his teaching, nor spend his time and
energies without producing effects. The writer had special
opportunity to know him at the State school, where the former was
teacher and the latter was student. He is clear-headed, kind and
conscientious.
Dawson, Rev. Iverson, of Eutaw, is a man rich in natural endowments,
both of body and mind. Upon no man in Alabama has nature been
more profuse in the bestowment of choice gifts. He is tall, well
proportioned, kind hearted, genial, sociable, magnetic, clear-headed
and ever sanguine. He is, no doubt, the strongest man in the
Bethlehem Association, of which body he has been clerk for many
years; and in every section of the State, and in every phase of
business, he is recognized as a man of power and character. As a
public speaker, he is both pleasing and instructive.
The vote, which in 1887 retained our university at Selma, was
largely owing to his influence and labors.
Mr. Dawson has a pleasant home and an interesting family in the
town of Eutaw, where he now serves as pastor. His home is placed
on the roll of asylums for tired missionaries. He is a brave, fearless
opponent and a true and trusty friend. At this time, he is editing a
paper in his town in the interest of the republican party. The writer
sincerely wishes that every motion of his strong manhood might be
laid wholly upon the church’s altar, and that he could consent to
leave the running of political papers to others.
Dinkins, Charles Spencer, D. D., general Sunday School missionary of
Alabama for the American Baptist Publication Society, was born
September 15, 1856, near Canton, Miss. Mr. Dinkins never knew his
father, and his mother, Mrs. Sarah Dinkins, died when he was only
13 years of age. One year prior to her death, he was led to faith in
the salvation of God as presented in the gospel, under the preaching
of Rev. Jordan Williams, by whom he was baptized into the
fellowship of the Mount Zion Church, Canton, in the fall of 1868. For
such a boy, at such a time, to make the favorable acquaintance of
such a man as Mr. Williams, was a peculiar providence. As in the
cases of Saul and Ananias, and Philip and the eunuch, God brought
the parties together.
Mr. Williams, perceiving the superior talents of the youth, privately
inquired of him whether or not he desired to educate himself, and
when the affirmative reply was obtained, he at once influenced his
church to provide the means.
On Friday night, January 28, 1870, Mr. Dinkins took the cars for
Nashville, Tenn., arriving at that point on Sunday morning. That day
he met the good Dr. Phillips, who cordially accepted him at once,
and remained his admiring friend to the close of his (Dr. Phillips’)
long and useful life.
In referring to his early life, Mr. Dinkins says: “When I was 9 years
old, my mother bought me a blue back speller and taught me the
alphabet, which I learned in one night. My first teachers were Mrs.
and Miss Highgate, of Philadelphia, and Hon. J. J. Spellman, now of
Jackson, Miss. Before leaving the old plantation, I saw something of
the horrors of slavery, which I can never forget.”
At the age of 16 he began teaching, which work he pursued during
summer, returning to Nashville to continue his studies in the fall and
winter. He graduated from the classical course of the Roger Williams
University, Nashville, in the spring of 1877, as valedictorian of his
class, among whom were Messrs. N. H. Ensley and H. M. G. Spenser.
In 1878 he returned to take a post-graduate course and was
appointed a member of the faculty. In the latter part of this same
year he entered Newton Theological Seminary, near Boston, Mass.,
where, during the time of a full course, from which he graduated in
1881, he was associated with some of the most prominent educators
of the country. In this course he took theology, church history,
Hebrew, Greek, homiletics, etc. How Mr. Dinkins was seen by this
institution, the following story may be allowed to signify:
Just before the death of Dr. Phillips, the writer met him in Nashville.
Dr. Phillips—How is Brother Dinkins?
The Writer—He is well and doing well.
Dr. P.—He is a very capable and worthy person. Dr. Hovey, the
president of Newton, said to me on one occasion when I asked after
some students who had gone from us to him, “Mr.—— is very
sensitive, but Mr. Dinkins is very sensible.”
Dr. Dinkins has held various prominent positions, among which may
be mentioned: Member of the faculty of the State University of
Kentucky; pastor York Street Church, Louisville, Ky.; teacher of
languages in Selma University; pastor Second Baptist Church of
Marion, Ala.; and principal of the Marion Baptist Academy; and has
been tendered the presidency of the University of Kentucky, and
many times he has been earnestly solicited to return to the faculty of
Selma University. His examination for ordination before the ministers
of Louisville, Ky., in 1883, was an occasion of much comment by
both white and colored pastors, in praise of his ability. The writer
has had occasion to watch him very closely since his entrance upon
work in Alabama, and he does not hesitate to write that Charles S.
Dinkins, in point of scholarship, industry and high sense of honor, is
not excelled by any man we have had among us. In 1890 the State
University of Louisville, Ky., then under the presidency of the late Dr.
W. J. Simmons, conferred on him the title of D. D. On the day which
closed his twenty-fifth year, the 15th day of September, 1881, he
was wedded to Miss Pauline E. Fears, the friend and classmate of
Miss M. A. Roach (now Mrs. M. A. Boothe), by his fatherly instructor
and faithful friend, Dr. D. W. Phillips. The marriage took place in the
Roger Williams University, Nashville, Tenn., a school of which they
are both graduates. Perhaps some future historian will write of Mr.
Dinkins: “An eventful life, not the least eventful point in which is the
finding and wedding of a woman so well suited to a man of such
rare gifts.”
Five children—two boys and three girls—grace their home as the
fruit of the marriage.
Closing this sketch, the writer would remark that if Mr. Dinkins has a
fault, it may be described thus: An exceeding tenderness of
conscience, whereby one may be so entirely possessed by present
views of law and duty as to forget that new light and other views
may modify appearances.
P. S.—He is now the trusted president of Selma University, and none
of his predecessors have made, in the same length of time, a better
mark than he has made. His personality moves in lofty purposes and
is a source of pure thoughts and pious emotions which affect all his
surroundings.
 Dr. U. G. Mason, Physician and Surgeon, Birmingham, Ala.
Dosier, Rev. John, the founder and for twenty years pastor of the
church in Uniontown, was a man of great moral worth. I once heard
a politician who was associated with him in the legislature of
Alabama, remark:
“John Dosier was an honorable man everywhere, and I never saw a
man who did not believe every word he said.”
He, like Mr. A. H. Curtis, passed through his political preferments
with stainless reputation.
He was a very old man at the time of his death, which occurred only
a few years ago. He was born somewhere near the beginning of the
present century. By some means he, during the days of his bondage,
learned to read Greek, which knowledge he turned to good results
upon his study and interpretation of the Scriptures. He was one of
Alabama’s most worthy pioneers. He was a temperance man. Upon
one occasion in a session of the Uniontown Association, some one
complained that he smelled a very disagreeable whiskey odor in the
house.
Mr. Dosier remarked: “With the consent of the body I will find the
man who has been drinking.” It was agreed that he might make the
search. Accordingly, he passed from man to man, requesting that he
might smell his breath. He located the man, who, for lying about it,
was excluded from the body.
The writer never met a man for whose veracity he had a higher
regard.
Donald, Rev. R., of Birmingham, was born in Alabama June 10, 1854.
He is the founder of the Tabernacle Church, Birmingham, and the
builder of the First Church, Pratt Mines. He has worked hard and
sacrificed much for the cause. His name will remain in many
churches. He owes much to his noble, patient wife.
Edwards, Rev. A. J., of Lowndes county, is a teacher as well as a
preacher, and in different sections of the State he has labored with
good results in the interest of morality, education and religion. Mr.
Edwards is blessed with much body as well as with much soul. Good
health and jovial spirits abound, and hence he is ever an enjoyable
companion. He is still a young man, full of manly pride,
commendable ambition, and a love for the pure and charitable, in
view of which we may hope that his day is only in its dawning, and
that a brighter noon and evening are before him.
Ellis, Rev. Henry, of Flint, Morgan county, son of William and Martha
Ellis, was born in May, 1856. He was baptized in 1871, and in 1875
he was ordained to the ministry by Revs. Charles Davis and M. J.
Hooks. He is now pastor of St. Peter’s Church, which is composed of
some of Morgan county’s best citizens. He deserves special praise for
his attention to his Sunday School. Mr. Ellis also preaches to a church
near Courtland. This brother is a warm friend to missionaries and
delights to aid good causes.
Fisher, Rev. C. L., B. D., son of Alexander and Elizabeth Fisher, was
born in St. Bernard parish, twenty miles below New Orleans, La.,
February 16, 1866.
On the first Sunday in February, 1875, he was baptized into the
Broadway Street Baptist Church, New Orleans, La.
Ordained—He was set apart to the work of the gospel ministry by
the Second Baptist Church in Evanston, Ill., September 29, 1887,
where he was student-pastor.
Educated—He graduated from the college department of Leland
University, New Orleans, La., May 28, 1884, with the degree of B. A.,
and graduated from the Baptist Union Theological Seminary, Morgan
Park, Ill., May 5, 1887, with the degree of B. D. On May 27, 1891, he
received from Leland University the degree of Master of Arts.
Positions—In 1888 pastor of Mt. Zion Church, Little Rock, Ark. In
1889-92 he is teacher of languages and instructor of ministers in
Selma University, Selma, Ala. For the last two years of this time he is
pastor of the Tabernacle Church of the city of Selma. In the office of
State Sunday School Missionary, under the American Baptist
Publication Society of Philadelphia, he has for several years rendered
very profitable service for the Baptists of Alabama as well as
Mississippi. He has recently been recalled to the pastorate of the
Tabernacle Church, Selma.
Than is Charles Lewis Fisher, Alabama Baptists have no more
thorough scholar, profound logician and industrious pastor. His
physical form is a little frail. Should this not hinder length of days,
early future years must present him to the world as one of our
greatest theologians and metaphysicians. He is not less modest than
he is learned, not less benevolent and respectful than he is self-
reliant and dignified.
Fykes, Rev. A. J., of Pratt City, is the much beloved pastor of the
Canaan Church, Bessemer.
Fluker, Rev. Solomon, of Sylacauga, Talladega county, was born in
March, 1833; was baptized in 1866 by a Rev. Mr. Smith (white), of
Talladega. He soon began to preach, and ere long he had become a
leading minister in his section of the country. For nine years he was
pastor of the church in his town. He is a very meek, unassuming
man, careful for the welfare of his family, and hospitable towards his
brethren. Of late he has been a great but patient sufferer, and hence
has been compelled to cease from active labors in the ministry. We
owe much of our success in this section of the State to the industry
and exemplary character of this faithful man. He has left the cross
for the crown.
Foster, Rev. L. P., of Selma, was baptized by Rev. Jerry Shorter in
Eufaula in 1876. Mr. Foster, some time after his marriage and mature
manhood, moved to Selma and graduated from the normal course of
Selma University. He is a stirring, industrious, self-reliant man, who
purposes to make his own way in the world without striding the back
of any other man. He has occupied different pastorates and has
served as missionary of the Eufaula Association. He has a
comfortable home—free of debt—and lends a helping hand to
missionary and educational enterprises.
Foster, Rev. James A., late of Montgomery, was born in the State of
Kentucky, in which he grew to young manhood. He died in the city of
Montgomery in December of 1891—died as he had lived, in love and
honor with men and in peace with God. Twenty-five of his fifty-four
years had been spent in the gospel ministry, from the sacred offices
of which he retired in great joy. He was ordained to the work of the
gospel ministry by Revs. I. T. Tichenor, D. D., Nathan Ashby and
Jacob Bellser, in the city of Montgomery, in the year 1867. His first
pastoral charge was the church at Mt. Meigs, which he served till he
resigned to accept the call of the Columbus Street Church in 1871.
He was the first recording secretary of the State Convention, and
was the next man to Mr. Ashby to preside over the Convention as
president. He was trustee of the State Normal and Swayne Schools,
and moderator of the Spring Hill Association.
Mr. Foster was a man whom nature had variously and richly
endowed. Had he possessed early educational advantages—
advantages suited to his rich natural resources—he would have held
a place among the sons of the giants. His sermons were always
earnest, and frequently his vast audiences were melted into weeping
by a pathos that was as mysterious as it was mighty. He was loved,
honored, followed, and obeyed. In the two churches in which he was
pastor he, it is said, baptized 10,000 persons, married 600 couples,
and preached 4,000 sermons. His loving, courtly manners won and
maintained for him such a tender regard as few men ever possess.
Nor was this confined to his own flock and race, but it was shared
more or less by the whole people, white and black. The following will
show something of his liberality:
“Montgomery, May —, 1891.
“Dear Bro. Boothe: On hearing that you need some money
for your work, I look over my account with the Lord and
find that I owe him five dollars. Enclosed you will find this
amount. May God bless you.”
The last letter I received from him, one month before his death,
contained a donation to the mission work.
His wife says of him: “Some time before his sickness, he talked of
nothing but heaven. I could plainly see that his mind had left the
world. I tried to interest him in house and home affairs; but he
would talk of nothing but of God’s grace and of the home of the
saints.”
He was a model husband and father, and is sadly missed from his
home, as well as from his church and community. A good man has
gone from labor to reward—from cross to crown. He was thoughtful
of the welfare of his loved ones, and hence carried an insurance on
his life, the payment of which has rendered them some assistance
since his death.
He was one of the original incorporators of Selma University, and
was a life member of the Home Mission Society.

“Servant of God, well done;

Rest from thy sweet employ.”

Forbes, Rev. W. R., now of Columbus, Ga., is still associated with our
Alabama work. He is now about 37 years of age, is possessed of a
fine personal appearance, is affable, studious, sociable and
industrious. He is a Virginian by birth and came to Alabama in 1889
to begin work at Clayton and Eufaula.
Franklin, Rev. Samuel, of Mt. Meigs, was born June 4, 1849. He was
converted to the Christian faith January, 1866, and ordained to the
work of the ministry March, 1876. Brother Franklin is among the
energetic enterprising men of his part of Montgomery county.
Notwithstanding he earns his living at farming, he is busy in the
interest of the affairs of the house of God. At present he is pastor at
Pike Road Church.
 Rev. J. P. O’Riley, Trussville, Ala., Pastor Compton Baptist
Church.
Franklin, Rev. William, of Mt. Meigs, was born October 30, 1852. He
was baptized by the late Rev. Washington Stevens, of Montgomery,
July, 1871. He was ordained in 1881 by Revs. P. Lucas, W. Stevens
and his brother, Rev. Samuel Franklin.
He is a thoughtful, enterprising man, and has the pastoral charge of
several country churches. Being self-reliant, persevering, as well as
economical with time and means, he has risen somewhat above the
crushing heels of poverty and want. At the age of 25 years, he did
not know the English alphabet, but by persistent application to
study, he now reads and writes and keeps his own accounts.
His face bears those hospitable marks which make one feel easy and
at home in his company and restful amid his family.
On a trip to Mobile, our train stopped at the bridge of the Tensas
River to allow a freight train to clear the track. Mr. Franklin’s gaze
upon the bridge led the writer to think he was frightened. As the
freight train left the bridge, Mr. F. remarked: “If it will hold up that
train, it will ours, too.” I said: “Maybe that train has just put it into
the condition to let us through.” “Yes, and I’ll pull my shoes off now
in time to swim,” said Mr. F.
Freeman, Rev. James H., of Moulton, Lawrence county, is one among
the very worthy young men of our State. He has had comparatively
no advantages for learning, and yet his sober and comprehensive
views of life have spurred him onward in search of information, till
now we have but few young men in Alabama who use better
language, have clearer ideas of the Christian life, and make a more
orderly speech than Mr. Freeman. Better still, his neighbors speak of
him as a good man—a man whose conduct is a living epistle of the
faith which he professes.
French.—Of the many substantial people of Talladega county who
deserve honorable mention, none are more worthy in all regards
than the French family. Messrs. Emanuel, William, and Prince French
would be an honor to any race of people, no matter what the degree
of their civilization and the purity of their moral culture. The two first
named teach in the public schools; the latter is a preacher, and all of
them are prosperous land owners, as well as faithful members of the
Baptist church.
Gachet, Rev. Adam, of Barbour county, Ala., was born in Randolph
county, Ga., March 10, 1837. At the age of 16 he was carried to the
county and State in which he now lives. His childhood was wholly
deprived of parental love and care, and he says he never knew
anything of a relative. Depressed by his loneliness, he early felt the
need of the friendship of God, which he sought and soon obtained,
to the great joy of his heart. With this sweet peace soon came an
impression that he was called upon to speak of this wondrous love
to his fellow-slaves. In April, 1854, he was baptized into Enon
Church. On June 7, 1869, he was set apart to the work of the gospel
ministry. He is one of the pioneers in the work of the Eufaula
Association, having preached the introductory sermon of the first
session of that body. From the first till now he has been a member
of their executive board, and is now a member of the board of
trustees of Selma University. Notwithstanding Bro. Gachet has had
no educational advantages, he reads intelligently and writes some.
He has labored, and now labors, in some of the most important
churches in his section of Alabama. He is still active on all lines of
progress. He has a large family, who seem to do him honor. Bro.
Gachet is no more.
Goldsby, Alexander, was born February 6, 1819, in Edgefield district,
S. C. He came to Alabama in 1830. His father, who was a native
African, was born on the ocean while his mother was on her way to
America. His mother was born in Maryland. In 1844 he was baptized
into the white church at Selma, Ala., by the Rev. Mr. Collins. In 1845
he was ordained to the office of deacon, in which position he served
for thirty-eight years. He was a very honorable man, and was not
less respected by the white people than he was loved and followed
by his own. He was a successful blacksmith, usually hired his time,
and hence he was to a very considerable degree his own master. In
1843 he married Miss Nicey Goodwin, and a large family of children
is the fruit of the marriage. His massive head and deliberate manner,
his strong will and dauntless spirit, his good sense and genuine
piety, made him a leader of the people and a pillar in the house of
God. A man more capable of friendship at great personal costs, I
have never known. Especially from him, aided by Deacons Charles
White, Nick Claiborne, Tall Underwood, and E. Ross, our cause in
Dallas county has risen up. At or near the close of his seventy-third
year, “Father Goldsby” bravely, triumphantly and peacefully passed
from the earth to that city which knows no night and needs not the
shining of the sun. He was one of the chief leaders of the band
which met on Friday night, near Selma, forty or fifty years ago, to
pray for freedom. His name is honored in his children.
Green, Rev. Lawson J., son of Lawson and Martha Green, was born
near Livingston, Sumter county, Ala., August 4, 1859. Though he
was so young, he says his heart still bears the impress of the horrors
of slavery. Under his father’s direction, he soon learned how to farm.
Notwithstanding the colored people of this county were greatly
hindered by the kuklux, Mr. Green utilized every educational facility
within his reach to attain to a knowledge of letters. After he had
gone as far as he could in the schools in and around Livingston, in
1879 he entered the Selma University, then under the management
of Rev. H. Woodsmall, of Indiana. From this institution, he graduated
in 1884 under the presidency of Dr. E. M. Brawley. At different times
and places he has followed the work of teaching. He taught in his
own county, was principal of Tullabody Academy at Greensboro, was
a member of the faculty of Selma University, and was also of the
faculty of the Baptist Academy at Marion. His principal pastorates
have been at Greensboro, Ala., and Selma, of the same State. As
Brother Green is full of good health, pluck and mental energy, there
is no reason why he should not have a long and useful life as a
Christian leader. He has held various honorable positions in the
general work, and is now secretary of the Board of Trustees of
Selma University.
P. S. He is now in Birmingham, pastor of the Spring Street Church
and principal of an independent school on the south side of the city.
He will long be a power in the denomination, if watchfulness and
temperance attend him.
Gulley, Daniel T., of Selma, son of John L. and Amy Gulley, was born
near Snow Hill in Wilcox county, Ala. He was the property of James
Gulley, whom he served as “waiting boy” till the close of the war.
Doubtless this position was favorable in the direction of refinement
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