Cell

Cell
“A cell is defined as the smallest,
basic unit of life that is
responsible for all of life’s
processes.”

Cell is the basic membrane-bound

unit that contains the fundamental
molecules of life and of which all
living things are composed.
Types of Cell
 Prokaryotic Cells
‣ Bacteria and archaea are examples of
organisms that have prokaryotic cells.

‣ Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller and

simpler in structure compared to eukaryotic
cells.

‣ They lack a true nucleus; instead, their genetic

material is found in a region called the
nucleoid.

‣ Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-

bound organelles like mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, or Golgi apparatus.
 Eukaryotic Cells
‣ Eukaryotic cells are found in organisms
belonging to the domains Eukarya, which
include animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

‣ They are generally larger and more

complex than prokaryotic cells.

‣ Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, which

houses the cell's genetic material (DNA)
enclosed within a nuclear membrane.

‣ They contain membrane-bound organelles

that perform specific functions within the
cell.
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
1. Nucleus:

• Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus. Instead, their

genetic material is typically found in a region called the nucleoid, which is
not enclosed by a membrane.

• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus enclosed

by a nuclear membrane. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material
(DNA) organized into chromosomes.
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
2. Membrane-Bound Organelles:

• Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells generally lack membrane-bound organelles.

They have some specialized structures, such as ribosomes, but these are not
enclosed in membranes.

• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells contain various membrane-bound organelles,

including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes,
and more. Each organelle has specific functions within the cell.
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
3. Size and Complexity:

• Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller and simpler

in structure compared to eukaryotic cells.

• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more

complex, with multiple organelles and compartments that allow for
specialized functions.
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
4. DNA Structure:

• Prokaryotic Cells: In prokaryotic cells, the DNA is usually a single,

circular molecule that is not associated with proteins (histones).

• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have multiple linear DNA

molecules organized into chromosomes. The DNA is associated with
histone proteins.
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
5. Reproduction:
• Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually through binary
fission, a process in which the cell's DNA replicates, and the cell divides
into two identical daughter cells.
• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells can reproduce both sexually and
asexually. They undergo mitosis for asexual reproduction and meiosis for
sexual reproduction, involving the formation of gametes (sperm and egg
cells).
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
6. Ribosomes:

• Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (70S) than

eukaryotic ribosomes.

• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger (80S) and are

associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (in rough ER) and freely in
the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic
7. Intracellular Compartmentalization:

• Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells lack internal membrane-bound

compartments or organelles. Their functions take place in the cytoplasm.

• Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells have specialized organelles with distinct

functions and are compartmentalized to carry out various cellular processes
efficiently.
Basic Properties of Cells
• Cells Are Highly Complex and Organized

• Cells Possess a Genetic Program and the Means to Use It

• Cells Are Capable of Producing More of Themselves

• Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy

• Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical Reactions

• Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities

• Cells Are Able to Respond to Stimuli

• Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation

• Cells Evolve
Features held in common by the two types of cells
• Plasma membrane of similar construction

• Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic code

• Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic information,

including similar ribosomes

• Shared metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis and TCA cycle)

• Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP (located in the

plasma membrane of prokaryotes and the mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes)
Features held in common……….

• Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria and

green plants)

• Similar mechanism for synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins

• Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar construction

(between archaebacteria and eukaryotes)

• Cytoskeletal filaments built of proteins like actin and tubulin

Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes
• Division of cells into nucleus and cytoplasm, separated by a nuclear envelope
containing complex pore structures

• Complex chromosomes composed of DNA and associated proteins that are capable of
compacting into mitotic structures

• Complex membranous cytoplasmic organelles (includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi

complex, lysosomes, endosomes, peroxisomes, and glyoxisomes)

• Specialized cytoplasmic organelles for aerobic respiration (mitochondria) and

photosynthesis (chloroplasts)

• Complex flagella and cilia

 Features of eukaryotic cells not found in prokaryotes...
• Complex cytoskeletal system (including actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules) and associated motor proteins

• Ability to ingest particulate material by enclosure within plasma membrane vesicles

(phagocytosis)

• Cellulose-containing cell walls (in plants)

• Cell division using a microtubule-containing mitotic spindle that separates chromosomes

• Presence of two copies of genes per cell (diploidy), one from each parent

• Presence of three different RNA synthesizing enzymes (RNA polymerases)

• Sexual reproduction requiring meiosis and fertilization

Approximate chemical composition of a typical
mammalian cell
Component % of total cell weight

Water 70

Inorganic ions (sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chloride, etc.) 1

Miscellaneous small metabolites 3

Proteins 18

RNA 1.1

DNA 0.25

Phospholipids and other lipids 5

Polysaccharides 2
Architecture of biological cell: The architecture of a biological cell refers to its structural
organization and the arrangement of cellular components that enable it to function and carry
out various processes necessary for life.
Cell Membrane
‣ A thin membrane, typically between 4 and 10 nanometers (nm; 1 nm = 10−9 m) in
thickness, surrounds every living cell.

‣ Enclosed by this cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane) are the cell’s
constituents, often large, water-soluble, highly charged molecules such as proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and substances involved in cellular metabolism.

‣ Outside the cell, in the surrounding water-based environment, are ions, acids, and
alkalis that are toxic to the cell, as well as nutrients that the cell must absorb in order
to live and grow.
The Fluid Mosaic Model
The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of biological membranes,
such as the cell membrane (plasma membrane). This model envisions the
membrane as a dynamic and heterogeneous structure, composed of various
components arranged in a mosaic-like pattern within a fluid lipid bilayer.

In 1972 SJ Singer and GL Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model.

Key structural components of the fluid mosaic model
1. Lipid Bilayer
• The core structural component of the fluid mosaic model is the lipid bilayer,
consisting of two layers of phospholipid molecules. Each phospholipid
molecule has a hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and two hydrophobic
(water-repelling) tails.
• The hydrophilic heads face outward, interacting with the aqueous
environment, while the hydrophobic tails point inward, away from water.
This bilayer forms a flexible, continuous sheet that constitutes the main
barrier of the membrane.
2. Proteins
• Integral Proteins: Embedded within the lipid bilayer are integral membrane
proteins. Some of these proteins are transmembrane, meaning they span the
entire thickness of the membrane, with segments exposed on both the
extracellular and intracellular sides. These proteins often have hydrophobic
regions (transmembrane domains) that anchor them within the lipid bilayer.
• Peripheral Proteins: Peripheral membrane proteins are loosely associated
with the membrane's surface. They can interact with integral proteins, the
polar heads of phospholipids, or other components of the membrane.
3. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrate molecules are frequently found on the extracellular surface of the
membrane. These carbohydrates together form the glycocalyx. Glycocalyx is
divided into-

i. Glycoproteins – that are typically bound to proteins

ii. Glycolipids – that are typically bound to lipids

• Glycocalyx is a protective and information-rich layer involved in cell recognition,

adhesion, and signaling.
4. Cholesterol

• Cholesterol molecules are embedded within the lipid bilayer. They

play a crucial role in maintaining the membrane's fluidity and stability.

• Cholesterol molecules help prevent the fatty acid chains of

phospholipids from packing too closely together, which maintains the
membrane's flexibility.
 Functions of Cell Membrane
✓Selective Permeability: The primary function of the cell membrane is to act as a

selectively permeable barrier. It regulates the passage of substances in and out of the

cell, controlling the flow of ions, molecules, and nutrients. This selective

permeability is crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis.

✓Cell Signaling: The cell membrane contains receptor proteins that are involved in

cell signaling. These proteins can bind to specific signaling molecules (ligands) and

transmit signals from the external environment to the cell's interior. This process is

crucial for cell communication and coordination of various cellular activities.

Functions of Cell Membrane (continued…)
✓Cell Adhesion: Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) present on the cell membrane's

surface play a significant role in cell-to-cell adhesion and cell-to-extracellular

matrix adhesion. These interactions are essential for tissue formation, stability, and

structural integrity.

✓Transport: The cell membrane facilitates the movement of ions, molecules, and

nutrients into and out of the cell through various transport proteins. These proteins

include channels, carriers, and pumps that control the flow of specific substances,

ensuring that the cell gets the necessary nutrients and disposes of waste products.
Functions of Cell Membrane (continued…)
✓Protection: The cell membrane provides a protective barrier that separates the

cell's internal environment from the external environment. It shields the cell's

delicate organelles and internal structures from potentially harmful substances in

the extracellular space.

✓Excretion: Waste products and toxins generated by cellular metabolism can be

transported out of the cell through the cell membrane. This function helps

maintain cellular cleanliness and prevents the accumulation of harmful substances.

Functions of Cell Membrane (continued…)
✓Endocytosis and Exocytosis: The cell membrane is involved in processes like
endocytosis (cellular uptake of substances) and exocytosis (release of substances)
through the formation and fusion of vesicles. These processes are essential for
nutrient uptake, secretion, and membrane remodeling.

✓Regulation of Cell Shape: The cell membrane plays a role in determining and
maintaining the cell's shape and structural integrity. The cytoskeleton, which is
anchored to the membrane, helps maintain cell shape and facilitates cell
movement.
Functions of Cell Membrane (continued…)

✓Maintenance of Ionic Balance: The cell membrane helps maintain the proper

balance of ions, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), and

others, within the cell. This balance is critical for electrical signaling, osmotic

regulation, and overall cellular function.

✓Energy Production: In some specialized cells, the cell membrane is involved in

processes related to energy production, such as chemiosmotic ATP synthesis in

mitochondria and photosynthesis in chloroplasts (in plant cells).

 The Vacuole
• Most plant cells contain one or more membrane-bound vesicles called
vacuoles. Within the vacuole is the cell sap, a water solution of salts and
sugars kept at high concentration by the active transport of ions through
permeases in the vacuole membrane.

• These high concentrations cause the entry, via osmosis, of water into the
vacuole, which in turn expands the vacuole and generates a hydrostatic
pressure, called turgor, that presses the cell membrane against the cell wall.
 The Vacuole
(continued…)

In the mature plant cell, as much as 90

percent of cell volume may be taken up
by a single vacuole; immature cells
typically contain several smaller
vacuoles.
 The Lysosome
Lysosomes are membrane-bound cell vesicles found in the cytoplasm of all animal cells. They were
discovered and named by Christian de Duve in 1955. de Duve used lysosomes to describe an
organelle containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down biological polymers such as
nucleic acid, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
 The Lysosome…

• Lysosomes are cell organelles that are also known as “suicide bags” or “cell recycling
centers” of the cell.

• Lysosomes are responsible for cellular waste disposal and programmed cell death
(apoptosis).

• Lysosomes are eukaryotic membrane-bound cell organelles that appear small and
spherical.
The Lysosome…
• Lysosomes are bound by a single phospholipid bilayer membrane. They vary in size
and are formed by the fusion of Golgi-derived vesicles with endosomes derived from
the cell surface.

• Enzymes known to be present in the lysosomes include hydrolases that degrade

proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, glycolipids, and glycoproteins.

• Hydrolases are most active in the acidity maintained in the lysosomes. After the
material is broken down, lipids and amino acids are transported across the lysosomal
membrane by permeases for use in biosynthesis.

• The remaining debris generally stays within the lysosome and is called a residual
body.
Functions of Lysosomes
• They take part in the digestion of food obtained through phagosomes known as intercellular digestion.

• Lysosomes release their enzymes to the outside through exocytosis to perform extracellular digestion.

• Lysosomes destroy the obstructing structures.

• By breaking down cellular components, lysosomes help recycle nutrients and biomolecules back into
the cell.

• In sperms, lysosomes provide enzymes for breaking the limiting membrane of eggs.

• Lysosomes destroy the engulfed material, aiding in the body’s defense against infections.

• Leucocyte granules are derived from lysosomes.

• Lysosomes cause the breakdown of aging and dead cells.