1 NATURAL SOILS AND GRAVELS

1.1 Sub-grade Classification System

There are several methods for evaluating or estimating the strength and supporting power of a
sub-grade, including:
1. Loading tests in the field on the sub-grade itself; for example, the plate bearing test uses
large circular plates loaded to produce critical amounts of deformation on the sub-grade
in place
2. Loading tests in a laboratory using representative samples of the sub-grade soil. Some
commonly used tests are (a) California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test, which is sometimes
used on the sub-grade in place in the field; (b) Hveem stabilometer test; (c) Resilient
Modulus (Mr) test; and (d) triaxial test

The objective behind using any soil classification system for road and airport construction is to
be able to predict sub-grade performance of a given soil on the basis of a few simple tests
performed on soil in a disturbed condition. On the basis of these test results and their correlation
with field experience, soil may be correctly identified and placed into a group of soils, all of
which have similar characteristics and properties.
Grouping soils into some classification system is not the final objectives of the soil engineer.
That is, the classifying of a soil should not be regarded as an end in itself, but as a tool to further
the knowledge of soil action and behaviour.
Two classification systems will be described:
1. AASHTO Classification System
2. Unified Soil Classification System

1.1.1 AASHTO Classification Systems

AASHTO Classification System was developed by U.S Bureau of Public Roads in 1928.
According to the system, soils having approximately the same general load-carrying capacity and
service characteristics are grouped together to form seven groups. A Group Index is used not to
place a soil in a special group, but as a means of evaluating soils as sub-grade materials within
their groups. The group index is a function of the liquid limit, plasticity index and the amount of
material passing the 75m sieve. It may be calculated by:

Group Index (GI ) = (F−35)[0.2+0.005(¿−40)]+ 0.01(F−15)(PI −10),

Where;
F = Percent passing 75m sieve, expressed as a whole number. This percentage is
based on material passing the 75mm sieve
¿ = Liquid Limit
PI = Plasticity Index
In general, the rating for a pavement sub-grade is inversely proportional to the group index, GI.

Granular material is that in which 35% or less passes the 75m sieve while silty and clay
materials have more than 35% passing the 75m sieve. When the calculated and a Group Index
that is negative is found, the Group Index is reported as zero. The Group Index should be
reported to the nearest whole number. A chart for determining the Group Index may also be
used. The classification of a specific soil is based upon the results of tests made in accordance
with standard methods of soil testing such as:
 Sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates (AASHTO T 27, ASTM C 136)
 Mechanical analysis of soils (AASHTO T 88, ASTM D 422)
 Liquid Limit of soils (AASHTO T 89, ASTM D 423)
 Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of soils (AASHTO T 90, ASTMD D424)

According to AASHTO system, soils are divided into two major groups: granular materials with
35% or less passing the 75m sieve (sieve No.200) and silty-clay materials with more than 35%
passing the 75m sieve. In addition, the following five soil fractions are recognized and often
used in word description of material.
1. Boulders- Materials retained on 75mm sieve. They should be excluded from the portion
of a sample to which the classification is applied, but the percentage of such material
should be recorded
2. Gravel- material passing 75mm sieve and retained on 2mm sieve
3. Coarse sand- material passing 2mm sieve and retained on the 425m sieve
4. Fine sand- material passing the 425m sieve and retained on the 75m
5. Combined silt and sand- material passing the 75m sieve. The word “silt” is applied to
a fine material having a plasticity index (PI) of 10 or less, the term “clayey” is applied to
fine material having a PI of more than 10
 Fig: 4.1.1: Grain Size Distribution Curves

1.1.2 Unified Soil Classification Systems (USCS)

The Unified Classification System is based on the Airfield Classification System developed by
Professor A. Casagrande (1948) of Harvard University during World War II. It is based on
textural characteristics for those soils with such a small amount of fines that the fines do not
affect soil behaviour. It is based primarily on the characteristics that determine how a soil will
behave when used as a construction material. These characteristics are evaluated by plotting the
plastic index (PI) vs. the liquid limit (LL) on a standard plasticity chart. The position of the
plotted points yields information from which to predict soil behaviour as an engineering
construction material. The following properties form the basis of soil identification:
1. Percentage of gravel, sand and fines fraction passing 75m sieve
2. Shape of the grain-size distribution curve
3. Plasticity and compressibility characteristics

A soil is given a descriptive name and letter symbol to indicate its principal characteristics. Four
soil fractions are recognized in this system to designate the size ranges of soil fractions. The
75m sieve material is silt if non plastic and LL and PI plot below A line in the figure below; it
is clay if plastic and LL and PI plot above A line. This holds true for inorganic silts and clays and
organic silts, but not for organic clays since they plot below “A” line. The Unified soil
classification system places soils into three divisions
1. Coarse-grained (50% or less material passing 75m sieve)
2. Fine-grained (more than 50% passing 75m the sieve)
3. Highly organic

Fig 4.1.2: Casagrande’s Plasticity Chart

The A-line generally separates the more claylike materials from silty materials, and the
organics from the inorganics. The U-line indicates the upper bound for general soils.
Note: If the measured limits of soils are on the left of U-line, they should be rechecked.

FURTHER READING

A. Determining Liquidity Limit

 (Liquid limit of a fine-grained soil gives the moisture content at which the shear strength
 of the soil is approximately 2.5kN/m2)
 LL: The lowest water content above which soil behaves like liquid, normally below 100.
 In the lab, the LL is defined as the moisture content (%) required to close a 2-mm wide
groove in a soil pat a distance of 0.5 in along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows.
Casagrande Equipment

B. Determining Plasticity Limit

 PL: The lowest water content at which soil behaves like a plastic material, normally
below 40.
 The moisture content (%) at which the soil when rolled into threads of 3.2mm (1/8 in) in
diameter, will crumble.

C. Determining Shrinkage Limit

 Shrinkage limit: the water content below which soils do not decrease their volume
anymore as they continue to dry out. –needed in producing bricks and ceramics
  (Shrinkage Limit represents the amount of water required to fully saturate the soil (100%
saturation)). The example below illustrates this.

D. Soil compaction

Compaction is defined as the reduction in soil void ratio by expulsion of air from the voids. The
degree of compaction is measured in terms of its dry unit weight. There are 4 control factors
affecting the extent of compaction:
1. Compaction effort;
2. Soil type and gradation;
3. Moisture content; and
4. Dry unit weight (dry density).
Soil is compacted to improve the following soil properties and aspects of strength-
deformation behaviors:
 Improve shear strength
 Reduce compressibility
 Decrease permeability
 Reduce shrink/swell potential
 Reduce liquefaction potential
 Reduce compression due to wetting
(blows per layer )(layers)(weight of hammer )(Height of drop)
Compactive Effort =
volume of mould
γd
Relative Compaction=
γ d , max
γ d =dry density measured in the field
γ d ,max= Proctor maximum dry density obtained from a Proctor Test.

Proctor Procedure
1. Obtain 10 lbs of soil passing No. 4 sieve
2. Record the weight of the Proctor mould without the base and the (collar) extension, the
volume of which is 1/30 ft3 (1000m3)
3. Assemble the compaction apparatus.
4. Place the soil in the mold in 3 layers and compact using 25 well distributed blows of the
Proctor hammer.
5. Detach the collar without disturbing the soil inside the mold
6. Remove the base and determine the weight of the mold and compacted soil.
7. Remove the compacted soil from the mold and take a sample (20-30 grams) of soil and
find the moisture content
8. Place the remainder of the moulded soil into the pan, break it down, and thoroughly
remix it with the other soil, plus 100 additional grams of water.
The peak of the curve is the Maximum Compactionγ dmax at Optimum Moisture Content
w opt
M t M s+ M w
Total∨wet density ρ= =
Vt Vt
Ms
Solid density ρ s=
Vs
Ms
Dry density ρd= ,V t > V s ∴ ρd < ρ s
Vt
We also have
M s M t −M w M t M w Mw Ms
ρd = = = − =ρ− =ρ−w ρd
Vt Vt Vt Vt Ms V t
So that; ρd + w ρd =ρ and
ρ
ρd =
1+ w
The Zero Air Voids Line
The zero air voids (ZAV) line is the combination of moisture and density that produce complete
saturation of the soil or the γ d obtained when there is no air in the void spaces. The compaction
curve theoretically does not cross this line but becomes parallel to it. Remember that the values
of water content, wet unit weight and specific gravity are not constant throughout the soil. There
could also be variability in the test results. Variability can result in points on the compaction
curve above the ZAV line (S>100%). These data points should not be thrown out.
Basic weight volume relationships are used to develop and equation for the ZAV line.
Recall that:
M
V s =1, ρ s= s then M s=V s ρs=V s G s ρ w
Vs
Mw
w= , then M w =w M s=w Gs ρw ,but V s=1
Ms
M w w Gs ρw
M w =ρ w V w ,∧,V w = = =w Gs
ρw ρw
ρ Mt
ρdry = =
1+ w V t ( 1+w )
But we know that,

( )( )( )( )
M t (M s + M w ) V s Gs ρw + ρw V w V G ρ + ρ w Gs G s ρ w ( V s+ w ) G ρ ( 1+w )
= = = s s w w = = s w
V t (V s +V w ) V s+ w G s V s +w G s V s+ w G s 1+ w Gs
(1+w) ρw Gs ρ w Gs
ρdry = =
(1+ w)(1+ w Gs ) (1+w G s)
G s ρw
ρ(z . a .v) =
1+ w Gs
Note that Gs and ρw are constants for a given soil. Therefore the ZAV line is a linear function of
water content. To draw the ZAV line, simply enter values of w and compute the corresponding
value of ρd
 Effect of Soil type and gradation
 Fine grain soil needs more water to reach optimum; and
 Coarse grain soil needs less water to reach optimum.

Compaction curves for different soils with the same compact effort (West, Figure 7.19); fine
grain soil needs more water to reach optimum and coarse grain soil needs less water to reach
optimum.
Compaction Equipment
Types of Action
a. Ramming
b. Vibration
c. Static Rollers
Ramming
Rammers have a low frequency (800 blows/minute), and a higher stroke (1.5" to 3.5“height). As
the machine operates the ramming action breaks down the soil, pushes the particles closer
together, and forces air out of the voids.

Vibration
Vibratory machines are distinguished by their high frequency (2,000 to 6,000
blows/minute) and low amplitude. The vibratory action sets the soil particles in motion,
which rearranges them into a denser packing.

Types of Rollers
1. Smooth Wheel Rollers or Smooth Drum Rollers are suitable for thin layers, and for
finishing operations.
2. Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers have a series of rubber tires side-by-side instead of a
smooth drum. Compaction is achieved by a combination of weight and kneading action.
3. Sheepsfoot Rollers are drums with a large number of "Sheepsfoot" projections. They are
most effective in compacting clayey soils. The initial pass in the field compacts the lower
portion of the lift, with subsequent passes compacting the middle and upper portions. The
roller is said to "walk out" as the soil is compacted and the feet do not penetrate as deeply
as the initial pass.
4. Vibratory Rollers work well in compacting granular soils. Vibratory action can be used
with smooth drum, rubber tired, or Sheepsfoot rollers.
 E. California Bearing Ratio

Definition of CBR:
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston
at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the corresponding penetration of a standard
material. The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test) is a penetration test developed by
California State Highway Department (U.S.A.) for evaluating the bearing capacity of subgrade
soil for design of flexible pavement.

Tests are carried out on natural or compacted soils in water soaked or un-soaked conditions and
the results so obtained are compared with the curves of standard test to have an idea of the soil
strength of the subgrade soil.

Apparatus used:
 o Mould
o Steel Cutting collar
o Spacer Disc
o Surcharge weight
o Dial gauges
o Sieves
o Penetration 3sq inch (approx. 50mm dia) Plunger
o Loading Machine
o Miscellaneous Apparatus

Test Procedure:
1. Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted
densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
2. Weigh the empty mould
3. Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)
4. After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
5. Take sample for determination of moisture content.
6. Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
7. Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked
CBR.
8. Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.
9. After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.
10. Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.
11. Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.
12. Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
13. Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (lb) and find the value
of CBR.
14. Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required
degree of compaction.
CBR test Data - Observations & Calculations
Graph of Penetration vs Loading in CBR Test
 Graph of CBR vs % Percent Compaction Graph

What will we find out from a CBR Test?

 The results are expressed in relative terms, as a percentage of the determined value of 3000lbf to
penetrate 0.1inch (2.5mm at 13.3KN in today’s terms) in the originals tests.

F. Unconfined Compressive Strength Test

The unconfined compression test is used to measure the shearing resistance of cohesive soils
which may be undisturbed or remolded specimens. An axial load is applied using either strain-
control or stress-control condition. The unconfined compressive strength is defined as the
maximum unit stress obtained within the first 20% strain.

Significance
 A quick test to obtain the shear strength parameters of cohesive (fine grained) soils either
in undisturbed or remolded state
 The test is not applicable to cohesionless or coarse grained soils
 The test is strain controlled and when the soil sample is loaded rapidly, the pore pressures
(water within the soil) undergo changes that do not have enough time to dissipate
 Hence the test is representative of soils in construction sites where the rate of
construction is very fast and the pore waters do not have enough time to dissipate
Applications
 The test results provide an estimate of the relative consistency of the soil
 Almost used in all geotechnical engineering designs (eg. design and stability analysis of
foundations, retaining walls, slopes and embankments) to obtain a rough estimate of the
soil strength and viable construction techniques
q
 To determine Undrained Shear Strength or Undrained Su∨C u= u
2

Apparatus
The compression device is a hydraulic-actuated loading piston, electronically controlled, with the
capability of infinite rates of strain and stress loads. A load cell of 44.5 kN or 222.5 kN capacity
is fastened to the piston to measure load on specimen. Test data are displayed on control panel
board readouts

Sample preparation
1. No special trimming is required when specimens obtained with the California sampler are
used in this test. Extrude the soil from the 101.6 mm high sample retainer in which it is
received by pushing it in same direction it entered the tube, and then place sample
directly into position on the loading device.
2. Trim soil which is received in a Shelby tube or a block sample to a 38.1 mm x 38.1 mm x 76.2
mm rectangular block specimen for testing.
3. Begin test immediately after the specimen is removed from the tube as drying will alter its
characteristics considerably.
Testing Procedure Using Controlled Strain

Place specimen on base of holder and set holder on compression device. Lower loading piston
until it contacts specimen push rod. Contact will be noted by slight reading on load readout
gauge. Zero out readout gauge, check strain rate setting, and begin test. Continue test until load
values decrease or until 20% strain is reached. Make a moisture determination and also a sketch
of specimen showing failure conditions such as slope angle, if measurable. Obtain classification
tests as needed.

Calculations

The following data are necessary for a complete test:

1. The boring samples and tube numbers.
2. A complete description of the specimen.
3. The moisture content.
4. The maximum load and the deflection due to that load.

The unconfined compressive strength is computed from the following formula:

(
P
q u= 1−
A
∆H
H )
Where:
q u= The unconfined compressive strength in kPa
P = Maximum load in kN.
A = Initial cross-sectional area of test specimen in square millimeters.
H = Initial height of test specimen.
∆ H = Reduction in height of test specimen.
 ∆H
1− = Correction for increased area assuming constant volume.
H

NOTES
The unconfined compression test is usually made on undisturbed samples. It is reasonably simple
and rapid to perform. It gives a very good measure of the shearing strength of cohesive soils. In
somewhat granular soil its application is limited, but it does provide a good supplementary test
for more complex strength tests.

The unconfined compression test is limited in that test conditions can be varied very little.
Hence, the test may provide a good measure of the in-situ strength, but may provide only limited
strength data, as the stress conditions change due to loa