UNIT

APPLICATION OF SENSORS IN DIFFERENT AREAS

DISPLACEMENT AND POSITION SENSORS

• Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an object.
• Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to some
reference point.
• Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object has
moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.
 DETAIL CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS IN VIEW OF THEIR
APPLICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING IS AS FOLLOWS
• . A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
• • Potentiometer
• • Strain-gauged element
• • Capacitive element
• • Differential transformers
• • Eddy current proximity sensors
• • Inductive proximity switch
• • Optical encoders
• • Pneumatic sensors
• • Proximity switches (magnetic)
• • Hall effect sensors
DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
1. POTENTIOMETER SENSORS

• The most commonly used of all the “Position Sensors”, is the potentiometer because
it is an inexpensive and easy to use position sensor.
• It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that can be either angular
(rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement, and
• which causes the resistance value between the wiper/slider and the two end
connections to change giving an electrical signal output.
• In other words, resistance is proportional to position.
• This configuration produces a potential or voltage divider type circuit output which
is proportional to the shaft position.
• Then for example, if you apply a voltage of say 10V across the resistive element of
the potentiometer the maximum output voltage would be equal to the supply
voltage at 10 volts, with the minimum output voltage equal to 0 volts.
• Then the potentiometer wiper will vary the output signal from 0 to 10 volts, with 5
volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at its half-way or centre position.
• In most practical circuits, a resistance measurement is replaced by a measurement of
voltage drop. The voltage across the wiper of a linear pot is proportional to the
displacement d
APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER

• These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure
that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies,
forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls.
• In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines, woodworking
machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc.
• These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
INDUCTIVE POSITION SENSORS
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

• One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems
is the “Linear Variable Differential Transformer” or LVDT for short.
• This is an inductive type position sensor which works on the same principle as the
AC transformer that is used to measure movement.
• It is a very accurate device for measuring linear displacement and whose output is
proportional to the position of its moveable core.
• The LVDT is a transformer with one primary coil and two secondary coils, and the relative output between the
two secondary coils is a function of the core’s position.
• The LVDT’s electrical output signal is determined by the relative differential AC voltage between the two
secondary windings, which varies with the linear position of the core within the LVDT coil
• The LVDT’s primary winding, P, is energized by a constant-amplitude AC sine-wave source, which is usually
between 1 kHz and 10 kHz.
• The magnetic flux, which is developed, is coupled by the core to the adjacent secondary windings S1 and S2. In
the center position, with the core located exactly midway between S1 and S2, equal flux is coupled to each
secondary winding. Thus the voltages E1 and E2 induced in windings S1 and S2, respectively, are equal. At this
reference midway core position, known as the null point, the differential voltage output (E1 – E2) is nominally
zero.
• If the core is moved closer to S1 than to S2 more magnetic-field flux is coupled to S1 and less to S2, so the
induced voltage E1 increases while E2 decreases, resulting in the differential voltage (E1 – E2). Conversely, if the
core is moved closer to S2 more flux is coupled to S2 and less to S1, so E2 increases as E2 decreases, resulting in
the differential voltage (E2 – E1).
• Applications of LVDT sensors
• • Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications
• • To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
• • To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• • For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• • To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• • To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
• • To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
 CAPACITIVE ELEMENT BASED SENSOR

• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair
another.
• The linear displacement might take in two forms:
• a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes
• b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement
• Applications of capacitive element sensors
• • Small vessel pump control
• • Grease level monitoring
• • Level control of liquids
• • Metrology applications to measure shape errors in the part being produced or to analyze
and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such as surface grinders,
lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by measuring errors in the machine tools
themselves
• • Assembly line testing o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design
features to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.
EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSOR
• Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a
changing magnetic field in the conductor according to Faraday’s law of induction.
Eddy currents flow in closed loops within conductors, in planes perpendicular to
the magnetic field.
• One important advantage of the eddy current sensors is that they do not need magnetic
material for the operation, thus they can be quite effective at high temperatures (well
exceeding Curie temperature of a magnetic material), and for measuring a distance to or
level of conductive liquids, including molten metals
• Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive materials.
• They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit.
• When an alternating current is passed to this coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object
due to the magnetic field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for
their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current.
• This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current.
• Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly reliable and have high
sensitivity for small displacements.
APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS

• • Automation requiring precise location

• • Machine tool monitoring
• • Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
• • Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,
• • Drive shaft monitoring
• • Vibration measurement
HALL EFFECT SENSOR
 HALL EFFECT SENSOR

• Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes through a
magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is deflected from its straight line path.
Thus one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side will be of positive charge.
This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of distance of magnetic
field from the disc carrying current.
• The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a container. The
container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at its top. An electric circuit with a
current carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come
close to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to
come inside the container
APPLICATION

• This sensor is used in the mobile phone to lock and unlock the mobile
screen.
• Digital Hall effects sensors are commonly used for monitoring flow rate and
valve position for manufacturing, water supply and treatment, and oil and gas
process operations. In fluid monitoring applications, analog Hall effect sensors
are also used to detect diaphragm pressure levels in diaphragm pressure gauges
• Automatic hand dryers
• Building and door security systems
• Elevators
A permanent magnet is imbedded inside a float having a hole in the center. The float can freely slide up and
down over the pole that is positioned inside the tank containing liquid. The float position corresponds to the
liquid surface level. A bi-level Hall sensor is mounted at the top of the pole, which should be fabricated on a
nonmagnetic material. When the liquid level rises and reaches the detection level (release point), the Hall switch
triggers and sends signal to the monitoring device
 OPTICAL SENSOR

• Optical Sensors
• After the mechanical contact and potentiometric sensors, optical sensors are probably the most
popular for measuring position and displacement.
• Their main advantages are simplicity, the absence of a loading effect, and relatively long operating
distances.
• They are insensitive to stray magnetic fields and electrostatic interferences, which makes them
quite suitable for many sensitive applications.
• An optical position sensor usually requires at least three essential components: a light source, a
photodetector, and light guidance devices, which may include lenses, mirrors, optical fibers, et
 FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS

• Fiber-optic sensors can be used quite effectively as proximity and level detectors.
• One example of the displacement sensor where intensity of the reflected light is modulated by
distance d to the reflective surface
• A liquid level detector with two fibers and a prism.
• It utilizes the difference between refractive indices of air (or gaseous phase of a material) and
the measured liquid.
• When the sensor is above the liquid level, a transmitting fiber (on the left) sends most of its
light to the receiving fiber due to a total internal reflection in the prism.
• However, some light rays approaching the prism’s reflective surface at angles less than the angle of
total internal reflection are lost to the surrounding.
• When the prism reaches the liquid level, the angle of a total internal reflection changes because the
refractive index of a liquid is higher than that of air.
• This results in much greater loss in the light intensity, which can be detected at the other end of the
receiving fiber.
• The light intensity is converted into an electrical signal by any appropriate light-to-voltage converter
 FORCE, STRAIN SENSORS
• Piezoelectric Sensors
• A sensor which works on the principle of piezoelectricity is known as a piezoelectric
sensor. Where piezoelectricity is a phenomenon where electricity is generated if
mechanical stress is applied to a material. Not all materials have piezoelectric
characteristics.
• Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces such as
oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension.
• It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as Quartz
• On application of force or pressure these materials get stretched or compressed.
• During this process, the charge over the material changes and redistributes.
• One face of the material becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged.
• The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been displaced.
The displacement is proportion to force.
APPLICATION

• The robustness, high frequency and rapid response time of piezoelectric pressure
sensors means they can be used in a wide range of industrial and aerospace
applications where they’ll be exposed to high temperatures and pressures.
• They are often used for measuring dynamic pressure, for example in turbulence,
blast, and engine combustion. These all require fast response, ruggedness and a
wide range of operation.
• Their sensitivity and low power consumption also makes them useful for some
medical applications. For example, a thin-film plastic sensor can be attached to
the skin and used for real-time monitoring of the arterial pulse.
FORCE ,STRAIN SENSOR

• Strain Gauges
• Piezoelectric Sensors
• Piezoresistive Sensors
• MEMS Sensors
• The various methods of sensing force can be categorized as follows
• 1. By balancing the unknown force against the gravitational force of a standard mass
• 2. By measuring the acceleration of a known mass to which the force is applied
• 3. By balancing the force against an electromagnetically developed force
• 4. By converting the force to a fluid pressure and measuring that pressure
• 5. By measuring the strain produced in an elastic member by the unknown force
• In the modern sensors, the most commonly used method is 5, while 3 and 4 are used occasionally. In most
sensors, force is not directly converted into an electric signal. Some intermediate steps are usually required.
Thus, many force sensors are the complex sensors. For instance, a force sensor can be fabricated by
combining a force-to displacement transducer and a position (displacement) sensor. The former may be a
simple coil spring, whose compression displacement x can be defined through the spring coefficient k and
compressing force F as
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

piezoelectric films , such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF )

 PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS

The sensor incorporates a force-sensitive resistor (FSR) whose resistance varies with applied force
,pressure, Such materials are conductive elastomers or pressure-sensitive inks. A conductive
elastomer is fabricated of silicone rubber, polyurethane, and other compounds that are impregnated
with conductive particles or fibers
MEMS
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION SENSOR

• Capacitive Accelerometers
• Piezoresistive Accelerometers
• Piezoelectric Accelerometers
 PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETERS
• Consists of
• Piezoelectric crystal
• Seismic mass
• Measuring electrodes
When base is subjected to acceleration a in any direction the whole device is accelerated
The mass attached with the crystal is also accelerated
As a result the mass m exerts a force F on the crystal given by F=ma
When this force acts on the crystal it undergoes deformation and produces an output voltage as per
piezoelectric effect.
PIEZORESISTIVE ACCELEROMETERS
THE EFFECT OF METAL STRAIN GAUGE IS CAUSED BY THE GEOMETRIC
DEFORMATION OF THE RESISTOR, WHEREAS PIEZORESISTANCE EFFECT IS
CAUSED BY THE CHANGE IN RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL
PRESSURE SENSORS

• In most cases the pressure sensors contain deformable elements whose deformations or
movements are measured and converted by the displacement sensors into electrical
signals representative of the pressure values.
• In pressure sensors, this deformable or sensing element is a mechanical device that
undergoes structural changes under strain resulting from pressure.
• Historically, such devices were bourdon tubes (C-shaped, twisted, and helical), and
catenary diaphragms, bellows, barrel tubes, and other components whose shape was
changing under pressure
• A bellows is intended for the conversion of pressure into a linear displacement, which can be
measured by an appropriate sensor. Thus, bellows performs a first step in the complex conversion of
pressure into an electrical signal. The bellows is characterized by a relatively large surface area and,
therefore, by a large displacement at low pressures.
• A popular example of pressure conversion into a linear deflection is a diaphragm in an aneroid
barometer. A deflecting device always forms at least one wall of a pressure chamber and is coupled to
a strain sensor ,which converts deflection into electrical signals by means of piezoresistivity.
• Nowadays, a great majority of pressure sensors are fabricated with silicon membranes by using a
micromachining technology.
• Piezoresistive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• VRP Sensors
• To make a pressure sensor, two essential components are required.
• They are the plate (membrane) having known area A and a detector that responds to applied force F (10.1).
Both these components can be fabricated of silicon.
• A silicon-diaphragm pressure sensor consists of a thin silicon diaphragm as an elastic material [5] and
piezoresistive gauge resistors made by diffusive impurities into the diaphragm. Thanks to single crystal silicon
superior elastic characteristics, virtually no creep and no hysteresis occur, even under strong static pressure.
The gauge factor of silicon is many times stronger than that of thin metal conductors [6]. It is customary to
fabricate strain gauge resistors connected as the Wheatstone bridge.
• The fullscale output of such a circuit is on the order of several hundred millivolts; thus, a signal conditioner is
required for bringing the output to an acceptable format. Further, silicon resistors exhibit quite strong
temperature sensitivity; therefore, either the piezoresistors should be temperature compensated or a signal
conditioning circuit should include temperature compens
VRP
HUMIDITY SENSOR

Humidity is defined as the water vapor content in air or other gases.

Humidity is usually measured in terms of absolute humidity (the ratio of the mass of water
vapor to the volume of air or gas), dew point (the temperature and pressure at which a gas
begins to condense into a liquid), and relative humidity, or RH (the ratio of the moisture
content of air compared to the saturated moisture level at the same temperature or
pressure).
The most common humidity sensors are capacitive, resistive, and thermal conductivity
Capacitive Humidity Sensors

Capacitive RH sensors are used widely in industrial, commercial, and weather telemetry
applications
In a capacitive RH sensor, change in dielectric constant is almost directly proportional to
relative humidity in the environment.
Typical change in capacitance is 0.2–0.5 pF for 1% RH change.
Working of Capacitive RH Sensors

A simple Capacitive RH Sensor can be made from an air filled capacitor as the moisture in the atmosphere changes its
permittivity. But for practical applications, air as a dielectric is not feasible.

Hence, the space between the capacitor plates is usually filled with an appropriate dielectric material (isolator), whose
dielectric constant varies when it is subjected to change in humidity.

The common method of constructing a capacitive RH sensor is to use a hygroscopic polymer film as dielectric and
depositing two layers of electrodes on the either side.
Resistive Humidity Sensors (Electrical Conductivity Sensors)

Resistive Humidity Sensors are another important type of Humidity Sensors that measure the resistance
(impedance) or electrical conductivity.
The principle behind resistive humidity sensors is the fact that the conductivity in non – metallic conductors is
dependent on their water content.
Resistances of many nonmetal conductors generally depend on their water content
Working of Resistive Humidity Sensors
The Resistive Humidity Sensor is usually made up of materials with relatively low resistivity and this
resistivity changes significantly with changes in humidity.
The relationship between resistance and humidity is inverse exponential. The low resistivity material is
deposited on top of two electrodes.The resistivity between the electrodes changes when the top layer absorbs
water and this change can be measured with the help of a simple electric circuit

Some of the commonly used materials are salt, specially treated substrates, solid polyelectrolytes and
conductive polymers.

Modern Resistive Humidity Sensors are coated with ceramic substance to provide extra protection.

The electrodes in the sensor are usually made of noble metals like gold, silver or platinum.
Thermal Conductivity Humidity Sensors Thermal conductivity humidity sensors (also known as
absolute humidity sensors) measure absolute humidity by calculating the difference between the
thermal conductivity of dry air and air containing water vapor.

These sensors are constructed using two negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor
elements in a DC bridge circuit.
One of the elements is sealed in dry nitrogen, while the other is exposed to the environment.
The difference in the resistance between the two thermistors is directly proportional to absolute
humidity
vibration sensor

• Vibration can be defined as the mechanical oscillation about an equilibrium position of

a machine or component or simply the back and forth motion of a machine or
component.
• Vibration in industrial equipment is sometimes part of the normal operation but
sometimes it can be a sign of trouble.
• In machine monitoring we are dealing with two types of vibration;
• – Axial (Thrust) Vibration
• – Radial Vibration
• “Axial” Vibration is a longitudinal shafting vibration or parallel to the shaft of
a motor. For example, a shaft misalignment could cause axial vibration.
• “Radial” Vibration occurs as a force applied outward from the shaft. Radial
vibration would occur if there is a heavy spot in the motor as it rotates
vibration sensor

The days of judging a machine’s health by sound and touch (or listening to a screwdriver
placed against the machine) have quickly transitioned to a more scientific approach, allowing
data trending and early prediction of machinery failure.
Due to the piezoelectric accelerometer’s wide frequency response, it is an excellent sensor
to replace human subjectivity in most machinery health monitoring
Accelerometers are the most common machinery vibration sensor used today. Applications
for accelerometers in the industrial sector are primarily focused on extending service life
of machinery by predicting failures and allowing maintenance to be conducted in a planned
manner
All machines are subject to vibrations. A rise in vibration levels can be detrimental to machine health and can result
in the following:
・ Unexpected machine failure
・ Unplanned production downtime
・ Expensive repair costs
・ Secondary damage to machinery
・ Safety issues
Velocity and acceleration are the two most common parameters that are monitored with vibration sensors to
detect problems on rotating machinery
The main difference between monitoring in velocity or acceleration is the frequency range that is monitored. With
velocity it is usually no more than around 3000Hz that is monitored. We use velocity measurements to detect
faults which exert an energy, such as unbalance, misalignment, looseness etc.
With acceleration we are able to monitor much higher frequencies. We use acceleration measurements to detect
faults that exert a force, such as small shocks and impacts that occur at the start of bearing damage, gearbox faults,
pump cavitation etc.
• Accelerometer
• Accelerometers are devices that measure the vibration, or acceleration of
motion of a structure.
• They have a transducer that converts mechanical force caused by vibration
or a change in motion, into an electrical current using the piezoelectric
effect.
Sensors for Mechanical Shock

Shock measurement is usually accomplished by measuring the acceleration, velocity, or

displacement response of the body.
Shock measurement is important in studying the effectiveness of protective packaging
design, earthquakes, effects of explosive events (pyroshock), effects of handling and or
dropping items, transportation environments, many military applications, automotive crash
testing and ballistic effects.
Shock is commonly measured with an accelerometer or velocity sensor measuring the response of the device
under test as it responds to the transient force input.

1. Piezoelectric Accelerometers
2. Piezoresistive Accelerometers (PR) Modern piezoresistive (PR) accelerometers are manufactured using
MEMS (micro electro mechanical systems) technology. Those designed for shock measurement typically have
semiconductor strain gages implanted into complex spring-mass structure.
3. Strain Gages Because the objective of many shock tests is to try to determine stresses in the subject structure,
strain gages are often used instead of, or in addition to, other sensors. They can be located and oriented to
directly measure strain in critical areas.
 Electromagnetic sensor

• The electromagnetic flow sensors are useful for measuring the movement of conductive liquids.
• Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
• According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E
is generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field and
the length of the conductor.
• In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside
the meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as
the conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to the average flow
velocity.
• This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the meter body.
• It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured using the magnetic flow meter must be
electrically conductive.
• The Faraday’s Law indicates that the signal voltage (E) is dependent on the average liquid velocity (V),
the length of the conductor (D) and the magnetic field strength (B).
• Basically when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, voltage is induced.
• To measure this generated voltage (which is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid), two
stainless steel electrodes are used which are mounted opposite each other.
• The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are then connected to an advanced electronic
circuit that has the ability to process the signal.
• The processed signal is fed into the microprocessor that calculates the volumetric flow of the liquid.