Clutches

Introduction
A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the driven
shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. The use of a clutch is
mostly found in automobiles. A little consideration will show that in order to change gears or to
stop the vehicle, it is required that the driven shaft should stop, but the engine should continue to
run. It is, therefore, necessary that the driven shaft should be disengaged from the driving shaft.
The engagement and disengagement of the shafts is obtained by means of a clutch, which is
operated by a lever.
Types of Clutches
Following are the two main types of clutches commonly used in engineering practice :
1. Positive clutches, and
2. Friction clutches.
A. Positive Clutches
The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required. The simplest type of a positive
clutch is a jaw or claw clutch. The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another through a direct
contact of interlocking jaws. It consists of two halves, one of which is permanently fastened to
the driving shaft by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is movable and it is free to slide
axially on the driven shaft, but it is prevented from turning relatively to its shaft by means of
feather key. The jaws of the clutch may be of square type as shown in Fig. 1 (a) or of spiral type
as shown in Fig. 1 (b).
A square jaw type is used where engagement and disengagement in motion and under load is not
necessary. This type of clutch will transmit power in either direction of rotation. The spiral jaws
may be left-hand or right-hand, because power transmitted by them is in one direction only. This
type of clutch is occasionally used where the clutch must be engaged and disengaged while in
motion. The use of jaw clutches are frequently applied to sprocket wheels, gears and pulleys. In
such a case, the non-sliding part is made integral with the hub.
B. Friction Clutches
A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and
machines, which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in cases in
which power is to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of friction is used
to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper speed without excessive
slipping of the friction surfaces. In automobiles, friction clutch is used to connect the engine to
the drive shaft. In operating such a clutch, care should be taken so that the friction surfaces
engage easily and gradually bring the driven shaft up to proper speed. The proper alignment of
the bearing must be maintained and it should be located as close to the clutch as possible. It may
be noted that:
a. The contact surfaces should develop a frictional force that may pick up and hold the load
with reasonably low pressure between the contact surfaces
b. The heat of friction should be rapidly *dissipated and tendency to grab should be at a
minimum
c. The surfaces should be backed by a material stiff enough to ensure a reasonably uniform
distribution of pressure
Material for Friction Surfaces
The material used for lining of friction surfaces of a clutch should have the following
characteristics:
 a) It should have a high and uniform coefficient of friction
b) It should not be affected by moisture and oil
c) It should have the ability to withstand high temperatures caused by slippage
d) It should have high heat conductivity
e) It should have high resistance to wear and scoring
Considerations in Designing a Friction Clutch
The following considerations must be kept in mind while designing a friction clutch.
a) The suitable material forming the contact surfaces should be selected
b) The moving parts of the clutch should have low weight in order to minimize the inertia
load, especially in high speed service
c) The clutch should not require any external force to maintain contact of the friction
surfaces.
d) The provision for taking up wear of the contact surfaces must be provided
e) The clutch should have provision for facilitating repairs
f) The clutch should have provision for carrying away the heat generated at the contact
surfaces
g) The projecting parts of the clutch should be covered by guard
Types of Friction Clutches
Though there are many types of friction clutches, yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:
a. Disc or plate clutches (single disc or multiple disc clutch),
b. Cone clutches, and
c. Centrifugal clutches.
We shall now discuss these clutches, in detail, in the following pages.
Note: The disc and cone clutches are known as axial friction clutches, while the centrifugal
clutch is called radial friction clutch.
I. Single Disc or Plate Clutch
A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in Fig.2, consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are
faced with a frictional material (usually of Ferrodo). It is mounted on the hub which is free to
move axially along the splines of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the
clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate with
the engine crankshaft or the driving shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate towards the
flywheel by a set of strong springs which are arranged radially inside the body. The three levers
(also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on pivots suspended from the case of the
body. These are arranged in such a manner so that the pressure plate moves away from the
flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The bearing is mounted upon a forked
shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed.

Fig. 2: Single disc or plate clutch

When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in
towards the flywheel and pressing the longer ends of the levers inward. The levers are forced to
turn on their suspended pivot and the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the knife-
edges, thereby compressing the clutch springs. This action removes the pressure from the clutch
plate and thus moves back from the flywheel and the driven shaft becomes stationary. On the
other hand, when the foot is taken off from the clutch pedal, the thrust bearing moves back by the
levers. This allows the springs to extend and thus the pressure plate pushes the clutch plate back
towards the flywheel.
The axial pressure exerted by the spring provides a frictional force in the circumferential
direction when the relative motion between the driving and driven members tends to take place.
If the torque due to this frictional force exceeds the torque to be transmitted, then no slipping
takes place and the power is transmitted from the driving shaft to the driven shaft.
Design of a Disc or Plate Clutch
Consider two friction surfaces maintained in contact by an axial thrust (W ) as shown in Fig.3 (a)

Fig. 3. Forces on a disc clutch.

Let T = Torque transmitted by the clutch,
p = Intensity of axial pressure with which the contact surfaces are held together,
r1 and r2 = External and internal radii of friction faces,
r = Mean radius of the friction face, and
μ = Coefficient of friction.
Consider an elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in Fig. 3 (b).
We know that area of the contact surface or friction surface = 2π r.dr
Normal or axial force on the ring,
δ W = Pressure × Area = p × 2π r.dr
And the frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
Fr = μ × δ W = μ.p × 2πr.dr
Frictional torque acting on the ring,
Tr = Fr × r = μ.p × 2π r.dr × r = 2 π μ p. r2.dr
We shall now consider the following two cases:
  When there is a uniform pressure, and
 When there is a uniform axial wear.
a) Considering uniform pressure
When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire area of the friction face as shown in
Fig.3 (a), then the intensity of pressure,

Where W = Axial thrust with which the friction surfaces are held together.
We have discussed above that the frictional torque on the elementary ring of radius r and
thickness dr is
Tr = 2π μ.p.r2.dr
Integrating this equation within the limits from r2 to r1 for the total friction torque
Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch,

... (Substituting the value of p)

b) Considering uniform axial wear

The basic principle in designing machine parts that are subjected to wear due to sliding friction is
that the normal wear is proportional to the work of friction. The work of friction is proportional
to the product of normal pressure ( p) and the sliding velocity (V). Therefore,
Normal wears ∝ Work of friction∝ p.V or p.V = K (a constant) or p = K/V ...(i)
It may be noted that when the friction surface is new, there is a uniform pressure distribution
over the entire contact surface. This pressure will wear most rapidly where the sliding velocity
is maximum and this will reduce the pressure between the friction surfaces. This wearing-in
process continues until the product p.V is constant over the entire surface. After this, the wear
will be uniform.
Let p be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of the clutch. Since the
intensity of pressure varies inversely with the distance, therefore
p.r = C (a constant) or p = C / r ...(ii)
And the normal force on the ring,

\ Total force acing on the friction surface,

We know that the frictional torque acting on the ring,

\ Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface (or on the clutch),

Where
Notes: 1. In general, total frictional torque acting on the friction surfaces (or on the clutch) is
given by
T = n.μ.W.R
Where n = Number of pairs of friction (or contact) surfaces, and
R = Mean radius of friction surface

For a single disc or plate clutch, normally both sides of the disc are effective. Therefore a single
disc clutch has two pairs of surfaces in contact (i.e. n = 2).
Since the intensity of pressure is maximum at the inner radius (r2) of the friction or contact
surface, therefore equation (ii) may be written as
pmax × r2 = C or pmax = C / r2
4. Since the intensity of pressure is minimum at the outer radius (r1) of the friction or contact
surface, therefore equation (ii) may be written as
pmin × r1 = C or pmin = C / r1
5. The average pressure ( pav) on the friction or contact surface is given by

6. In case of a new clutch, the intensity of pressure is approximately uniform, but in an old
clutch, the uniform wear theory is more approximate.
7. The uniform pressure theory gives a higher friction torque than the uniform wear theory.
Therefore, in case of friction clutches, uniform wear should be considered, unless otherwise
stated.
Multiple Disc Clutch
A multiple disc clutch, as shown in Fig.4, may be used when a large torque is to be transmitted.
The inside discs (usually of steel) are fastened to the driven shaft to permit axial motion (except
for the last disc). The outside discs (usually of bronze) are held by bolts and are fastened to the
housing which is keyed to the driving shaft. The multiple disc clutches are extensively used in
motor cars, machine tools etc.
Let n1 = Number of discs on the driving shaft, and
n2 = Number of discs on the driven shaft.
Number of pairs of contact surfaces,
n = n1 + n2 – 1
In addition, total frictional torque acting on the friction surfaces or on the clutch,
T = n.μ.W.R
Where R = Mean radius of friction surfaces

Cone Clutch
A cone clutch was extensively used in automobiles, but now a day it has been replaced
completely by the disc clutch. It consists of one pair of friction surface only. In a cone clutch, the
driver is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an inside conical surface or face which
exactly fits into the outside conical surface of the driven. The driven member resting on the
feather key in the driven shaft, may be shifted along the shaft by a forked lever provided at B, in
order to engage the clutch by bringing the two conical surfaces in contact. Due to the frictional
resistance set up at this contact surface, the torque is transmitted from one shaft to another. In
some cases, a spring is placed around the driven shaft in contact with the hub of the driven. This
spring holds the clutch faces in contact and maintains the pressure between them, and the forked
lever is used only for disengagement of the clutch. The contact surfaces of the clutch may be
metal-to-metal contact, but more often the driven member is lined with some material like wood,
leather, cork or asbestos etc. The material of the clutch faces (i.e. contact surfaces) depends upon
the allowable normal pressure and the coefficient of friction.

Design of a Cone Clutch

Consider a pair of friction surfaces of a cone clutch as shown below. A little consideration will
show that the area of contact of a pair of friction surface is a frustum of a cone.
Let pn = Intensity of pressure with which the conical friction surfaces are held together (i.e.
normal pressure between the contact surfaces),
r1 = Outer radius of friction surface,
r2 = Inner radius of friction surface,
r 1+ r 2
R = Mean radius of friction surface =
2
α = Semi-angle of the cone (also called face angle of the cone) or angle of the friction surface
with the axis of the clutch,
μ = Coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces, and
b = Width of the friction surfaces (also known as face width or cone face).
Consider a small ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown above Fig.
Let dl is the length of ring of the friction surface, such that,
dl = dr cosec a
Area of ring = 2p r. dl = 2π r.dr cosec α
We shall now consider the following two cases:
1. When there is a uniform pressure, and
2. When there is a uniform wear.
1. Considering uniform pressure
We know that the normal force acting on the ring,
δWn = Normal pressure × Area of ring = pn × 2πr.dr cosec a
And the axial force acting on the ring,
δW = Horizontal component of δWn (i.e. in the direction of W)
= δWn × sin α = pn × 2π r.dr cosec α × sin α = 2π × pn.r.dr
\ Total axial load transmitted to the clutch or the axial spring force required,

(i)
We know that frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
Fr = μ. δWn = μ.pn × 2π r.dr cosec α
Frictional torque acting on the ring,
Tr = Fr × r = μ.pn × 2π r.dr cosec α × r
= 2π μ.pn cosec α.r2 dr
Integrating this expression from r2 to r1 for the total frictional torque on the clutch
Total frictional torque,

Substituting the value of pn from equation

2. Considering uniform wear

Let pr be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of the clutch.
We know that, in case of uniform wear, the intensity of pressure varies inversely with the
distance.
pr.r = C (a constant) or pr = C / r
We know that the normal force acting on the ring,
δWn = Normal pressure × Area of ring = pr × 2π r.dr cosec α
The axial force acting on the ring,

Total axial load transmitted to the clutch,

We know that frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,

Fr = μ. δWn = μ. pr × 2π r.dr cosec α
Frictional torque acting on the ring,
Tr = Fr × r = μ. pr × 2π r.dr cosec α x r

Integrating this expression within the limits from r2 to r1 for the total frictional torque on the
clutch
Total frictional torque,

Substituting the value of C

Since the normal force acting on the friction surface, Wn = W cosec α, therefore the equation may
be written as

The forces on a friction surface, for steady operation of the clutch and after the clutch is engaged

From equation (i), normal pressure acting on the friction surface,

Or W = pn × 2π R.b sin a = Wn sin α

Where Wn = Normal load acting on the friction surface = pn × 2πR.b
Now the equation may be written as
T = μ (pn × 2π R. b sin α) R cosec α = 2π μ.pn R2.b
The following points may be noted for a cone clutch:
1. The above equations are valid for steady operation of the clutch and after the clutch is
engaged
2. If the clutch is engaged when one member is stationary and the other rotating (i.e. during
engagement of the clutch) as shown in (b), then the cone faces will tend to slide on each
other due to the presence of relative motion. Thus an additional force (of magnitude μ.Wn
cos α) acts on the clutch which resists the engagement, and the axial force required for
engaging the clutch increases
 Axial force required for engaging the clutch,
We = W + μ.Wn cos α = Wn. sin α + μ Wn cos α
= Wn (sin a + μ cos a)
It has been found experimentally that the term (μ Wn.cos α) is only 25 percent effective.
We = Wn sin α + 0.25 μ Wn cos α = Wn (sin α + 0.25 μ cos α)
3. Under steady operation of the clutch, a decrease in the semi-cone angle (a) increases the
torque produced by the clutch (T) and reduces the axial force (W). During engaging
period, the axial force required for engaging the clutch (We) increases under the influence
of friction as the angle a decreases. The value of α cannot be decreased much because
smaller semi-cone angle (α) requires larger axial force for its disengagement.
If the clutch is to be designed for free disengagement, the value of tan a must be greater than μ.
In case the value of tan a is less than μ, the clutch will not disengage itself and axial force
required to disengage the clutch is given by
Wd = Wn (μ cos α – sin α)
Centrifugal Clutch
The centrifugal clutches are usually incorporated into the motor pulleys. It consists of a number
of shoes on the inside of a rim of the pulley, as shown in Fig. The outer surface of the shoes are
covered with a friction material. These shoes, which can move radially in guides, are held against
the boss (or spider) on the driving shaft by means of springs. The springs exert a radially inward
force which is assumed constant. The weight of the shoe, when revolving causes it to exert a
radially outward force (i.e. centrifugal force). The magnitude of this centrifugal force depends
upon the speed at which the shoe is revolving. A little consideration will show that when the
centrifugal force is less than the spring force, the shoe remains in the same position as when the
driving shaft was stationary, but when the centrifugal force is equal to the spring force, the shoe
is just floating. When the centrifugal force exceeds the spring force, the shoe moves outward and
comes into contact with the driven member and presses against it. The force with which the shoe
presses against the driven member is the difference of the centrifugal force and the spring force.
The increase of speed causes the shoe to press harder and enables more torque to be transmitted.
Design of a Centrifugal Clutch
In designing a centrifugal clutch, it is required to determine the weight of the shoe, size of the
shoe and dimensions of the spring. The following procedure may be adopted for the design of a
centrifugal clutch.
A. Mass of the shoes
Consider one shoe of a centrifugal clutch as shown in Fig.
Let m = Mass of each shoe,
n = Number of shoes,
r = Distance of centre of gravity of the shoe from the centre of the spider,
R = Inside radius of the pulley rim,
N = Running speed of the pulley in r.p.m.,
ω = Angular running speed of the pulley in rad / s = 2π N / 60 rad/s,
ω1 = Angular speed at which the engagement begins to take place, and
μ = Coefficient of friction between the shoe and rim.
We know that the centrifugal force acting on each shoe at the running speed,
*Pc = m.ω2.r
Since the speed at which the engagement begins to take place is generally taken as 3/4 th of the
running speed, therefore the inward force on each shoe exerted by the spring is given by

Net outward radial force (i.e. centrifugal force) with which the shoe presses against the rim at the
running speed
The frictional force acting tangentially on each shoe,
F = μ (Pc – Ps)
Frictional torque acting on each shoe
= F × R = μ (Pc – Ps) R
Total frictional torque transmitted,
T = μ (Pc – Ps) R × n = n.F.R
From this expression, the mass of the shoes (m) may be evaluated
B. Size of the shoes
Let l = Contact length of the shoes,
b = Width of the shoes,
R = Contact radius of the shoes. It is same as the inside radius of the rim of the pulley,
θ = Angle subtended by the shoes at the centre of the spider in radians, and
p = Intensity of pressure exerted on the shoe. In order to ensure reasonable life, it may be taken
as 0.1 N/mm2

Area of contact of the shoe = l.b

The force with which the shoe presses against the rim = A × p = l.b.p
Since the force with which the shoe presses against the rim at the running speed is (Pc – Ps),
therefore
l.b.p = Pc – Ps
From this expression, the width of shoe (b) may be obtained
A. Dimensions of the spring
We have discussed above that the load on the spring is given by

The dimensions of the spring may be obtained as usual.