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Data Science Ethics
 Data Science Ethics
Concepts, Techniques and Cautionary Tales

DAVID MARTENS

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© David Martens 2022
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021946685
ISBN 978–0–19–284726–3 (hbk)
ISBN 978–0–19–284727–0 (pbk)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192847263.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Cover image: inimalGraphic/Shutterstock.com.
Links to third-party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 Foreword

Can you confidently say what are the ethical pitfalls involved with implement-
ing products and services based on artificial intelligence, machine learning, or
other data-science technologies?
If you can’t, this book is for you.
I met David more than a decade ago. He is a successful scholar, winning
awards for his data science research, and a seasoned practitioner who has
worked to build multiple data-science-based companies. What has impressed
me most, though, is how great his students are. When one after another of
a professor’s students is great, you have to turn and take another look at the
professor. David’s combination of deep understanding of data science and
deep practical experience gives his students-and readers-a healthy and realistic
perspective on what is truly important in the world of data science.
This combination of scholarly expertise and practical experience has re-
sulted in a book that fills an important gap.
Writings on data science and ethics generally fall into one of two categories.
First we have scholarly articles, written for other scholars. Although I write
them myself, I have a very difficult time recommending scholarly articles to
my practically oriented students-seldom do they contain clear practical lessons
and often they are not even accessible to practitioners. The other main cate-
gory is writings in the popular press on the collision of data science and ethics.
Unfortunately, these rarely have a solid data-science foundation and often they
seem intended to be sensational rather than truly informative.
David’s book fills the gap between these categories. It combines practically
relevant examples with solid data science fundamentals. My favourite aspect
of the book is its collection of real-world vignettes, each illustrating an ethical
issue for business (or government). These vignettes reveal a variety of pitfalls
that we should be aware of as we incorporate data-science-based techniques
in our businesses.
We have heard some of the stories: image classifiers labelling people as go-
rillas; retailers taking actions because people are predicted to be pregnant,
and election campaigns targeting people based on unethically obtained data.
vi foreword

However, how many of us have thought carefully about the actual ethical issues
that these cases reveal? (We should.)
David organizes the issues for us and pushes us to think more carefully
about them. He takes advantage of the now-well-understood data science pro-
cess. Doing data science involves: acquiring data, (pre)processing the data,
analysing the data, modelling the data, evaluating results, and then using the
models/results for insight or to support or make decisions. Separating the eth-
ical issues based on these steps provides order to what otherwise is a daunting
array of possible ethical pitfalls.
To be realistic, no one book is going to make you an expert. But we also can-
not just hope someone else will take care of it for us. For example, our lawyers
might be able to help us with legal and reputational risk, but ethics isn’t simply
about following the law or managing your reputation. We all need to become
students of doing the right thing.
As a student, it helps to have a great teacher. Like David.
Foster Provost
New York, 2021
 Preface

Regarding this book

As I started teaching the Data Science and Ethics class in the graduate program
of the University of Antwerp, I felt there was a need for a textbook that could
guide such courses. I specifically wanted to write a book that is useful to both
business and computer science students, as this topic is of importance to both.
I believe that his topic is inherently multidisciplinary and hence focus on both
the concepts and techniques, as well as the cautionary tales.

Who should read this book?

This book is intended for everyone who wishes to learn about the ethical
aspects of data science, including:

- Business students and business people who work with data scientists, or
manage data-driven businesses. Managers in many sectors and of var-
ious levels need to be able to ask the right questions when it comes to
data science, be able to interpret and challenge the results and, based on
these, make the right decisions. As the ethical aspects become ever more
important, business people need to be aware of the concepts, techniques
and cautionary tales of data science ethics. This is what the book aims
for: provide guidance and insight on deciding what is right and wrong
when conducting data science.
- Data science students and data scientists. A data scientist is more than a
human making calls to predefined libraries on existing datasets. At every
step in a data science project, from data gathering to model deployment,
important decisions are to be made. This book aims to help (aspiring)
data scientists to understand how technical choices can have ethical im-
plications (for better and worse), while at the same time understanding
the wide societal impact of their work.
- People with a general affinity with technology. The topics that are writ-
ten about are often discussed in the popular media as well. This book
viii preface

structures and summarizes the key concepts and cautionary tales of one
of the most impact technological innovations of our time, data science.

The book requires some basic knowledge of data science, and hence is well
suited to be used within Masters in Data Science, Business Analytics, or any
program where introductory data science is part of the curriculum.
More resources on the book can be found online, at www.dsethics.com.

Acknowledgements

Writing this book was quite a journey, in which I was accompanied by many
persons. Thanks to everyone who provided feedback, inspiration and encour-
agement throughout the writing of this book. At the risk of forgetting someone,
let me specifically thank Dieter Brughmans, Toon Calders, Theodoros Evge-
niou, Sofie Goethals, Travis Greene, Vinayak Javaly, Raphael Mazzine Barbosa
De Oliveira, Pieter Leyman, Constant Martens, Bjorge Meulemeester, Stiene
Praet, Yanou Ramon and Galit Shmueli. An additional thanks to Sam Pinx-
teren for the idea for the figure of hashing personal IDs in Chapter 2, and
Raphael Mazzine Barbosa De Oliveira for his help with the examples of the
XAI methods in Chapter 4. A special thanks to Foster Provost for writing the
foreword, and the valuable feedback on earlier drafts. I’m also grateful for the
help in the publishing process by Katherine Ward and Charles Bath at Oxford
University Press. This book corresponds to what I have been teaching in my
Data Science and Ethics course at the University of Antwerp. A special thanks
to the students who contributed to the many discussions in that class, which
often found their way into this book.
Most importantly, I am very grateful for the support and love of my wife and
two kids. I started writing this book when my first son was still in diapers and
my second son wasn’t even born. You’ve been an inspiration to me throughout
my writing. This book is dedicated to you.
- David Martens
 preface ix

Endorsements

“An excellent reading with both depth and breadth on some of the most impor-
tant challenges and risks data scientists, businesses, governments and societies
face today as Artificial Intelligence adoption grows. These are topics everyone
needs to be aware of, and this is one of the very few must read books on these
issues”

- Theodoros Evgeniou, Professor of Decision Sciences and Technology

Management at INSEAD, France

“This is an important and timely book for data scientists, written in a clear and
engaging way. Motivated by many relevant examples, the author successfully
de-mystifies data ethics lingo and presents a comprehensive view of ethical
considerations during the entire data science lifecycle.”

- Galit Shmueli, Tsing Hua Distinguished Professor, Institute of Service

Science and Institute Director, College of Technology Management,
National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
 Contents

About the Author xiii

1. Introduction to Data Science Ethics 1

1.1 The Rise of Data Science (Ethics) 1
1.2 Why Care? 2
1.3 Right and Wrong 4
1.4 Data Science 7
1.5 Data Science Ethics Equilibrium 10
1.6 The FAT Flow Framework for Data Science Ethics 13
1.7 Summary 29

2. Ethical Data Gathering 31

2.1 Privacy as a Human Right 32
2.2 Regulations 36
2.3 Privacy Mechanisms 45
2.4 Cautionary Tales: Backdoors and Messaging Encryption 62
2.5 Bias 70
2.6 Cautionary Tales: Bumps, Gorillas, and Resumes 75
2.7 Human Experimentation 77
2.8 Cautionary Tales: Dating, Happiness, and Ads 81
2.9 Summary 82

3. Ethical Data Preprocessing 85

3.1 Defining and Measuring Privacy 86
3.2 Cautionary Tales: Re-identification 92
3.3 Defining and Selecting Variables 102
3.4 Cautionary Tale: Pregnancy and Face Recognition 104
3.5 Fair Relabelling 111
3.6 Cautionary Tale: Biased Language 115
3.7 Summary 117

4. Ethical Modelling 121

4.1 Privacy-Preserving Data Mining 122
4.2 Discrimination-Aware Modelling 136
4.3 Cautionary Tale: Predicting Recidivism and Redlining 143
4.4 Comprehensible Models and Explainable AI 148
4.5 Cautionary Tale: Explaining Webpage Classifications 166
xii contents

4.6 Including Ethical Preferences: Self-Driving Cars 168

4.7 Summary 170

5. Ethical Evaluation 173

5.1 Ethical Measurement 173
5.2 Ethical Interpretation of the Results 178
5.3 Ethical Reporting 182
5.4 Cautionary Tale of Diederik Stapel 188
5.5 Summary 189

6. Ethical Deployment 191

6.1 Access to the System 191
6.2 Different Treatments for Different Predictions 195
6.3 Cautionary Tales: Censoring Search and Face Recognition 198
6.4 Honesty and DeepFake 200
6.5 Governance 202
6.6 Unintended Consequences 205
6.7 Summary 211

7. Conclusion 213

Bibliography 217
Index 249
 About the Author

The photographer Marc Wallican

David Martens is a Professor of Data Science at the Department of Engineer-

ing Management, University of Antwerp, Belgium. He teaches data mining and
data science ethics to graduate students studying business economics and busi-
ness engineering. He has a long track record in explainable AI research, and
has won several best paper awards. In his work, David has collaborated with
large banks, insurance and telco companies, as well as with various technology
startups.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 CHAPTER XXIX
TO-MORROW?

THE next fifteen minutes, when Drexel looks back upon them,
present nothing but a blur of ecstatic relief. Distinct remembrance
begins with his being ushered to a certain door—a door within
which, excited as he was, he recalled that the princess ten days
before had thrown off her mask to him.
He entered.
There she was!—in a convalescent’s robe, half reclining in a great
chair soft with many cushions. He could but stare. But a few hours
since and he had seen her in the coarse gray garments of death. But
a few hours—and there she was!
“Close the door, Andrei,” she said.
The door closed.
She rose up in all her superb young beauty and came to him, her
arms outstretched, her face a glory of love.
“Oh, Henry! Henry!”
“Sonya! My Sonya!”
And he caught her to him.
Ah, that minute against her heart!... It was payment and more for all
his fortnight’s pain and danger—aye, and payment for the pain and
longing of all the long years to come!
And then she disengaged herself, and took his pale cheeks in her
two hands, and gazed into his face, her eyes ashine with tears and
love and wonder.
“It was brave!—brave!—splendid!” she said in a trembling whisper.
“But I forgot—you are wounded!”
She led him to a divan before the glowing fire, and was going on
with her praise, but he caught a hand and pressed it to his heart.
“Feel it! Another word will kill me with happiness. Please don’t,
Sonya!”
He begged her to tell him what had happened during the day and
how she had come home. An hour after leaving the Fortress, she
said, they had deserted the van and scattered, she going into hiding
in the home of a trusted friend. Here she had lain all day, not daring
to move till she learned how matters stood. By the coming of dusk
her course was resolved upon. Only three persons, besides her
friends, knew the identity of Sonya Varanova, her father, Freeman
and Prince Berloff. The two last, in the interest of their crafty
scheme, she was certain had told no one—and now they were dead;
her father she knew she could trust. Dressed as a working-girl, she
had hurried through the disguising darkness across the city, had
watched her chance and entered the servants’ door unnoticed, had
slipped unseen up to the sick-room where watch was still being kept
—and had become once more Princess Valenko.
As for the others: the faces of the escort had not been seen, they
could not be identified if caught, and furthermore they were all as
clever at hiding as the fox. Borodin and Razoff were already on their
way out of Russia, in the guise of immigrants bound for America—of
course, to return in a few weeks to resume their revolutionary work.
They were all quite safe.
They might be safe, but his concern was not for them. He looked at
that fair dark face, with its crown of glorious black. Yes, she was
again the princess, but——
“But you are still in danger!” cried he.
“And who in Russia, with a soul, is not?”
“But not such danger as you! You may still be found out. And then
——”
He sickened as he saw her again in last night’s danger, with this time
no rescue for her. “I cannot bear to think of that!” he cried
desperately. “Sonya, come with me to America!”
“That’s what my heart wants most of all to do,” said she.
He caught her hands in joy. “Then you will come?”
Her face grew gray with pain, and she sighed.
“If I only could!”
“You can!”
She slowly shook her head.
“I cannot, dear. If my country were happy, I would. Ah, but I would!
But at the time of my country’s agony, I cannot think first of my own
happiness. I cannot desert her in the time of her distress.”
“Then I will stay with you!” he cried. “I’ll stay with you, and help
you!”
“I cannot let you. Father has told me how the description of Captain
Laroque is everywhere. You are safe for perhaps only a few hours.
You must leave at once.”
He thought a moment. “You are right,” he said. “And leave for a
greater reason than my own safety. You have an alibi; no one will
suspect the sick Princess Valenko. But should I stay, and should we
be seen together, I the double of Captain Laroque, you the double of
the escaped prisoner—that would rouse a fatal suspicion. Yes—I
must leave at once.”
“I was thinking of your safety alone,” said she.
“But to go away to placid safety, leaving you to undertake new
perils!” he groaned. If at least she were only safe! He thought of her
father, and his fearing love seized at that hope. “Now that your
father knows, will he not prevent your activities?”
“Father and I have just had a long talk. He cannot countenance what
I do, and I cannot give up doing it. He cannot denounce me; nor will
his honour let him continue in power and keep silent. So he is going
to resign; he had been considering that, anyhow, for he is close
upon seventy. We are going to part—to part in love. He is going to
retire to one of his estates.”
“And you,” he cried despairingly, “are going to plunge into new
dangers!”
“Whatever danger my country’s freedom requires—I must.”
“Sonya! Oh, Sonya!” and her name came out as a sob.
“But, dear—would you have me suffer these wrongs in silence?” she
asked softly.
“I would have my love be safe!” he cried in anguish.
“Would you have me apathetically content?” she asked.
“Ah, you know, dearest,” he moaned, “that I would have you be
yourself!”
“Yes, I knew,” she said softly.
He gazed at her in an agony of longing. There was a sudden flare of
hope.
“You said—a moment ago—that if your country did not need you,
you would come to me.”
“And so I would!” she breathed.
“Then if there comes a day when your country is set free?”
“That day I’ll come to you!” she said.
But hope as suddenly died to ashes. “But moving among such
dangers, you may never see that day!”
“Who knows? Six months—a year—more perhaps—and then——”
“Don’t!” he whispered, and he tried to close his eyes against the
vision she had conjured up.
“If when you are back in America, you should hear ... anything,
don’t take it with too much sorrow,” she went on. “Remember that,
foreknowing the end, I have gone to it willingly, gladly—for my
country’s sake.”
She said it quietly, with clear eyes, even faintly smiling. For many
moments he gazed upon her, for whom life held every good there
was, yet counting self as least of all. And as he gazed, something of
her spirit crossed to him. Personal sorrow, personal happiness,
seemed to grow a minor thing. Half his pain was swept away, and
into him there thrilled a strange new exaltation.
“It is to do such things, I suppose, that we are given life,” he
whispered.
Her gazed softened, her voice sank to an exquisite tenderness. “And
though I stay, and you go, and half the world shall lie between us,
we are not giving one another up, dearest. I shall ever be with you.”
“And I with you, my darling!” he breathed.
They talked on, of love, of danger, of what the future might hold,
and then of love again. And thus their one short hour together sped
away, and the time came when he must go. Their hands clasped and
he looked long, long, into that glorious face which it might never be
his to gaze upon again. Then he strained her to him.... And then
they parted.

Parted, and yet not parted. For in the days when steam hurled land
and sea behind him, and in those farther days when the fight with
his uncle was on (and a fight it was indeed! as his uncle had
promised), her spirit was as a presence at his side, giving him new
strength and new courage, making it easier to live humbly and
bravely, and play his part as a man. It was as she in their last
moment had said to him: “We shall be as husband and wife whom a
duty higher than happiness keeps each in his own land.”
Every day or two, at the pleasure of ocean mails, there comes a
letter, bearing him fresh assurance of her love. But writ in fear of the
censor’s eye, it gives no hint of what she does, no whisper of what
may be her danger. Of that he can only guess. And after each such
letter he strains to peer beyond time’s curtain. After each such letter
a hope that will not die breathes daringly in the ear of his heart that
to him may yet be granted the fulness of bliss—that Freedom may
yet be won for Sonya’s people—that she may come to him!

But, ah—the fear of that to-morrow when the letters may cease to
come!...
THE END
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
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