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com

J R Army Med Corps 2001; 147: 16-26

Blast Waves and How They Interact With

Structures
IG Cullis

ABSTRACT responsible for the catastrophic damage

The paper defines and describes blast often associated with an explosive.
waves, their interaction with a structure The generation, development and
and its subsequent response. Explosions propagation of blast waves are governed by
generate blast waves, which need not be the non-linear* physics that describes shock
due to explosives. A blast wave consists waves. In the case of an explosive, its’
of two parts: a shock wave and a blast detonation properties define the properties
wind. The paper explains how shock of the blast wave. In the military scenario,
waves are formed and their basic blast waves created by explosive charges are
properties. The physics of blast waves is the major concern. In this paper, therefore,
non-linear and therefore non-intuitive. the detonation of 1kg of TNT is used to
To understand how an explosion illustrate the main features of a blast wave
generates a blast wave a numerical interacting with structures – the ground and
modelling computer code, called a spherical objects.
hydrocode has to be employed. This is Since blast waves are non-linear the
briefly explained and the cAst Eulerian response of a structure can also be highly
hydrocode is used to illustrate the non-linear. As will be discussed below the
formation and propagation of the blast characteristics of an explosion, which have
wave generated by a 1 kg sphere of TNT the most influence on structural response,
explosive detonated 1 m above the are its peak pressure, impulse, and overall
ground. The paper concludes with a shape. The elastic-plastic strength and
discussion of the response of a structure natural period of oscillation of the structure
to a blast wave and shows that this being loaded then determines the type of
response is governed by the structures interaction and the response.
natural frequency of vibration Before discussing blast waves, it is useful to
compared to the duration of the blast understand the size and scope of the energy
wave. The basic concepts introduced are sources that generate blast waves and the
illustrated in a second simulation that non-linear physics that results. This has
introduces two structures into the blast important consequences for the properties of
field of the TNT charge. blast waves and their propagation. The
driving mechanism is the shock wave and a
Introduction basic understanding of their formation and
In both the military and civilian worlds, blast behaviour is essential for those interested in
waves and their interactions with a structure blast waves and their interaction with
need to be understood. Explosions form structures, including personnel.
blast waves. These explosions can be either
deliberate or accidental. Deliberate Explosions and Explosives
explosions can include demolition charges, An explosion is the phenomenon that results
weapon systems and improvised explosive from a sudden release of energy. The source
devices. Accidental explosions can result of the energy release may come from
from the ignition of gas clouds and explosives such as gunpowder or TNT, from
inflammable liquids and chemicals due to a chemical explosion, from wheat flour dust,
fire or the failure of pressurised containers. from pressurized steam in a boiler, from a
In all cases the effects of the blast waves mechanical explosion or from an
produced need to be quantified, particularly uncontrolled nuclear transformation.
in respect of injuries to personnel. Explosions are thus not restricted to
A blast wave is formed by a sudden release chemical explosions. For example, a steam
Dr IG Cullis of energy. The source of the energy release is boiler may explode because of the heat
PhD BA AMIP not important. However, for many materials, energy which has been put into the water in
DERA Fellow particularly explosives, the very high rate of the boiler. The thermal energy, however, is
Technical Leader the energy release generates a tremendous not intrinsic to the water, and water is not an
Numerical Modelling power source. It is this power source that is explosive. The greatest steam explosion in
Defence Research and
Evaluation Agency, *Imagine hanging a mass on the end of a wire. As we add more mass the wire stretches. If we add twice the mass the wire
Fort Halstead, stretches by twice as much. Remove the mass and the wire returns to its former length.This is a linear process. If, however,
Sevenoaks, the mass added exceeds the strength of the wire then it becomes plastic and continuously stretches until it breaks.This is a
Kent, TN14 7BP non-linear process.
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IG Cullis 17

pressure

pressure

pressure
e

e
Direction of travel

A. initial pulse B. intermediate C. final shock phase

Fig 1. Development of a ShockWave from an Initial Pressure Distribution in Air.

history was the famous Krakatoa volcanic be a significant thermal radiation dose,
explosion of 27 August 1883. It was caused which can result in an additional damage
by the sudden vaporization of an estimated 1 mechanism.
cubic mile of ocean water when a volcano In terms of its ability to do work on its
ruptured and spilled a great mass of molten surroundings through the gaseous products,
lava into the ocean. The blast wave was 1 kg of TNT has an energy potential of 7MJ,
heard at a distance of 3000 miles. It has almost twice its chemical energy.
been estimated that this great explosion With these perspectives in mind, it is
involved an energy release possibly readily apparent why relatively small
equivalent to more than 5 billion tons of amounts of explosives can cause such
TNT. catastrophic damage.
The energy release must be a sudden one,
rapid enough to cause a localisation of Shock waves
energy. This localised energy is then A disturbance in a medium travels at the
dissipated by a blast wave, propulsion of local speed of sound in that medium. In air,
fragments and surrounding material, and in under normal conditions, a disturbance (e.g.
many cases thermal radiation. a sound wave) travels with a speed of 330
An explosive is defined as a material which m/s. In a metal, however, the same sound
is capable of producing an explosion by its wave will travel with a speed of 5000 m/s.
own energy. All explosives possess this single The speed of sound is a function of the local
attribute. All explosives produce heat and pressure and temperature. Therefore, if the
nearly all produce gas. The gas is the pressure or temperature increases, the speed
primary mechanism by which an explosive of sound also increases. This has a dramatic
does work on its surroundings. influence on the propagation of a pressure
High performance explosives possess the pulse of arbitrary shape and finite amplitude
ability to release their energy over a very through the medium. Consider an idealised
small time period. The energy release rate is triangular pulse as shown in Figure 1A. Since
governed by the Detonation Velocity, which each individual portion of the pulse has a
for high performance explosives is of order different pressure, the local sound speed for
8mm/µs (millimetres per microsecond), or each portion is different.Thus each region of
8km/s. This should be compared to the the pulse travels with this local sound speed.
speed of sound in air at 0.33mm/µs, The higher-pressure regions thus move faster
0.33km/s. The importance of the speed of than the preceding lower pressure regions.
energy release can be illustrated by They catch up with these slower moving
comparing the energy released by burning regions and the wave profile becomes
coal and the high performance explosive steeper, as shown in Figure 1B. This process
TNT – coal has greater available energy continues until in the limit, a sharp
(Table 1). discontinuity is formed, Figure 1C. This is
called a shock wave. The velocity of a shock
Table 1: Comparison of energy release of coal and TNT wave is supersonic relative to the undisturbed
1 kg Coal 1 kg TNT medium into which it is travelling. Examples
Energy Available 24 MJ 4 MJ
of shock waves in air include the sonic boom
Time to Release the Energy 2000s 10 µs from a supersonic aircraft and the ‘bang’ one
Power Source 12 KW 400,000 KW hears when a balloon is burst or an explosive
charge detonated. A shock wave is an integral
Thus 1 kg of TNT, in terms of its power, part of a blast wave and heralds its approach.
is equivalent to 400 power stations From the perspective of an observer at rest
generating at 1000 MW for the same few in the undisturbed medium, the arrival of a
microseconds. This is equivalent to the total shock wave is characterised by an abrupt
electricity generating capability of the acceleration, a sudden jump in pressure and
United States in 1979. density and a local rise in temperature.
A sheet of TNT explosive 20m square As a shock wave is supersonic compared to
operates at a power level equal to all the the local sound speed in the surrounding
power the earth receives from the sun. Close medium it is often convenient to describe it
to a detonating explosive therefore, there can by a quantity called the MACH Number.
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18 Blast Waves

The Mach Number (M) is the ratio of the This Mach stem regime, as will be shown
shock speed to the local speed of sound, below, is very important in the behaviour of
usually under ambient conditions. blast waves. The most important feature is
Shock waves undergo reflection from the direction of the blast wind behind it,
surfaces in the same way as sound or light which is parallel to the surface and travelling
waves. However, unlike sound waves, where with a much higher velocity than in the
their effect on the properties of the medium incident wave.
is negligible, shock waves change the This brief overview of shock waves and
medium through which they are travelling. their behaviour is essential for an
Their reflection from a surface is therefore understanding of the formation and
very complex and non-intuitive. Shock waves behaviour of blast waves. Given the non-
exhibit three kinds of reflection phenomena: linearity of their behaviour, their interaction
• Normal reflection associated with head-on with a structure can have quite dramatic
impact with a non yielding surface; consequences, particularly in the case of
• Oblique reflection associated with a small personnel vulnerability.
angle of incidence with a surface;
• Mach stem formation, a spurt-type effect Detonation
associated with angles of incidence with a An explosive is a chemical compound that
surface near grazing incidence. has energy locked up within its molecules
In the case of a normally reflecting sound and molecular bonds. When these chemical
wave from a rigid surface, the pressure bonds are broken, energy is released since
doubles on reflection. However in the case of the solid explosive has a higher energy than
shock waves the reflected pressure is a non- the gaseous products produced by the
linear function of the Mach number (M) of reaction. The reaction is said to be
the incident shock wave. Thus if we consider exothermic. The reaction rate for such
a sound wave to be a very weak shock we can chemical reactions is an exponential
say for low Mach numbers (M ~ 1) the function of temperature. Therefore if the
reflection coefficient (the ratio of the temperature of the local surroundings
reflected to the incident pressure) is 2. For increases, the rate of production of heat
very strong shock waves in air, the theoretical increases exponentially. This is much faster
upper limit of the reflection coefficient is 8. than the heat loss to the surrounding
In the case of oblique reflection, the material, through heat conduction, which is
incident shock wave impinges upon a surface linear. As the temperature rises there comes
with a small angle of incidence and a shock a point where heat evolution becomes the
wave is reflected back into the flow, Figure 2. dominant process and rapid acceleration of
In this respect they resemble sound waves. the chemical decomposition reaction
However, in general, unlike a sound wave the occurs.
angle of reflection does not equal the angle of A pressure wave associated with this
incidence. chemical reaction is created, which
A shock front impinging on a surface near propagates out into the explosive. The
grazing incidence does not reflect directly, but pressure wave compresses the explosive and
is deflected so that it spurts along the surface. heats it up, as do the hot gases generated by
As the angle of incidence increases and the chemical reaction. The higher
exceeds 40º the flow travels parallel to the temperature then increases the rate at which
surface with the shock front perpendicular to the chemical reactions occur, which drives
the surface.This is called a Mach Stem.This the pressure wave even faster. This ‘run-
surface shock extends from the surface out away’ process continues with the pressure
into the flow until it connects with a line of wave becoming steeper and steeper until it
intersection between the incident shock and suddenly assumes a step condition, where
the reflected shock. The reflected shock is the pressure, density and temperature
thus detached from the surface.This is shown suddenly jump from the initial state to a
schematically in Figure 2. compressed state. As described above, this
jump is just another example of a shock
wave. The resultant heating of the solid
explosive caused by the shock wave initiates
the chemical reaction almost immediately.
The reaction zone in which the chemical
decomposition occurs is then physically
located at the shock front and supports and
drives it. The shock front travels at a
supersonic velocity with respect to the
unreacted explosive. For a high
performance explosive, the reaction zone is
less than 1mm thick.
A shock wave driven by a chemical
Fig 2.The Oblique Reflection and Mach Stem Regimes for reaction is called a detonation wave. It is
Reflected Shock Waves. supersonic with respect to the unreacted, or
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IG Cullis 19

undetonated, explosive.When initiated by a of mass momentum and energy (Newton’s

detonator the detonation wave is formed Laws) in each of the cells within the
within a few microseconds and over a numerical mesh. This process calculates the
distance of about 2-10mm. pressure, energy, density and velocity of the
For a high performance explosive, the flow field and advances the solution by a
detonation velocity is typically of order small time-step, of order one hundredth of a
8km/s. At the front of the detonation wave microsecond. By repeating this process many
the pressure is about 20-30GPa, (200 – 300 thousands of times, the explosive event is
kbar, where 1 kbar is 1000 times advanced in time.
atmospheric pressure). The temperature in There are two main numerical methods
the gaseous products immediately behind it depending on the way in which the
can reach 7000ºC. numerical mesh is defined. If the numerical
cell is defined as being embedded in the
Formation and propagation of material and deforming with it, then the
blast waves simulation is a LAGRANGE simulation. If,
To illustrate the blast wave generated by an however, the mesh is fixed in space and
explosion it is useful to consider the blast material moves through it, then the
wave generated by 1 kg of TNT high simulation is a EULERIAN simulation.
explosive 50 cm above the ground.The shock The Lagrange approach is generally used
waves produced can therefore be expected to for problems with little significant
be strong and governed by the non-linear deformation where material interfaces are
physics associated with their formation and important e.g. structural deformation. The
propagation. The linear physics of acoustics Euler approach is generally used for
is inadequate to understand the resultant problems characterised by significant
explosion. material deformation and flow e.g. blast wave
To provide a detailed description of the formation and propagation.
physics of blast waves, we have to employ The Theoretical Modelling and
sophisticated numerical modelling Hydrocode Development group within the
techniques contained in a Hydrocode. The Guns and Warheads Department at DERA
name hydrocode is used because they were Fort Halstead has undertaken significant
first used to solve problems in research over the past 20 years into the
hydrodynamics. development and application of these
numerical techniques to a wide range of
Hydrocodes problems in detonics and penetration
In its simplest form a hydrocode represents mechanics. Central to this research is the
the problem within a numerical mesh and integration of these simulations with small-
uses the physical properties of the materials scale controlled and highly instrumented
in the problem to solve the conservation laws experiments. This serves to validate the
numerical and material models.
These modelling techniques have been
assembled into a numerical toolbox called
cAst (Computational Applied Science and
Technology) to provide researchers, of any
background, access to state of the art
modelling capabilities.

Free Field Explosions

The Euler module within cAst has been
employed to simulate the detonation of the 1
kg TNT charge, whose diameter is 11 cm,
and the formation of the blast wave, its
development and subsequent interaction
with the ground. Initially however, the charge
can be considered to be a free field charge.
When a high performance explosive is
detonated in air, the high pressure, high
temperature detonation wave impinges on
the explosive-air interface. The arrival of the
detonation wave at the surface of the charge
generates a shock wave in the air. Because
air, a gas, is highly compressible, a thin layer
is compressed by the detonation wave to a
very high density, pressure and temperature.
This temperature can reach 10000ºC.
The effects of this on the surrounding air
can be understood from the hydrocode
Fig 3. Pressure fields at 20µs (left) and at 10µs (right) simulation. To assist this process an array of
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20 Blast Waves

the product surface is supersonic with

respect to the stationary air.
As the explosive products expand however,
they cool down and their pressure, density,
temperature and velocity fall. As a rule of
thumb, for every doubling of their volume,
their pressure falls by an order of magnitude.
Once their velocity becomes sub-sonic with
respect to the air, the shocked air layer
detaches from the product cloud.The time it
takes to do this is a function of the explosive
and the charge size.
For our charge this process is well-
advanced 100µs after detonation, as shown in
Figure 4. The orange ‘rim’ around the
products is the heated air layer (A).The black
line, with the regularly spaced protuberances
is the interface between the air layer and the
explosive products (B). Its shape reflects the
turbulent mixing of the products and the air.
Most explosives have a chemical
composition that is ‘oxygen negative’, i.e. the
products formed by the detonation have not
fully reacted with the oxygen in the air. As
they mix they can continue to burn and
release further energy. TNT is one of the
Fig 4. Pressure field at 100µs.
most oxygen negative compositions and
releases almost as much energy through this
fixed data collection points, called stations afterburning process as is released in the
and equivalent to experimental pressure initial detonation. As will be explained below
gauges, were positioned within the ‘air’ this can have a significant effect on the blast
represented by the numerical mesh. Each effects of a charge.
station records the properties of the blast as Thus, an observer close to the explosion
a function of time. The stations in this blast will experience a high-pressure shock wave
simulation were positioned in a line though followed by a high-speed wind of decaying
the centre of the charge and parallel to the pressure due to the moving air and explosive
ground. Their positions were equi-spaced products. This combination is called the
between 10 cm and 3.5 m from the centre of blast wave.
the charge. We can see this process in the station
Immediately after the detonation of the pressure histories, shown in Figure 5.
charge there is a hot high pressure volume of
explosive product gases surrounded by a thin
very hot layer of air. The particle velocity of
the product gases and the air can be as high
as 2.5km/s.
The initial 11 cm diameter sphere, now
transformed into high pressure gases, rapidly
expands into a sphere 13.5 cm in diameter,
4.5 µs after the detonation wave reaches the
surface and 10 µs after the initial detonation.
By 20 µs (after the ignition of the explosive)
its diameter is 24 cm, as illustrated by the
pressure fields shown in Figure 3 (10µs on
the right and 20µs on the left).
At 10 µs the maximum pressure in the air
is 120 bar but over 45,000 bar in the
explosive products. Air has a density of 1.2
kg/m3 and an ambient sound speed of 330
m/s. Because of its low density, it is rapidly
accelerated by the shock wave. In addition,
its high compressibility implies that the
Fig 5. Pressure time histories for 1 kg spherical charge ofTNT
sound speed is also a strong function of at 10, 20, 30(left) and 40 cm (right) from the charge centre.
pressure – i.e. the air shock propagates with a
high velocity. The histories shown in the figure are for
Initially therefore, the thin layer of hot the stations 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm from the
compressed air remains attached to the centre of the charge.The time axis extends to
explosive products, because the velocity of 200 µs.The pressure axis extends to 2.6 x 108
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IG Cullis 21

dynes/cm2 i.e. 257 atmospheres. accelerate and disperse it.

The first history, 10 cm from the charge, In addition of course there is a transitory
shows the air shock, pressure about 170 bar temperature rise associated with the passage
(A), arriving at 15 µs followed at 30 µs (B) by of the air shock, which close to large
the explosive products, which have a much explosions can be significant. Due to the
higher pressure of 257 atmospheres and a irreversible nature of the shock process, there
longer duration than the air shock. is also a permanent temperature change
The subsequent histories show a which can effect equipment and personnel.
broadening of the blast wave as the air shock
moves away from the products. The pressure Ground Effects
initially falls quite rapidly and then more The discussion so far has concerned a
gradually as the wave expands away from the spherical charge detonated in free field, i.e.
charge.The air shock, at the head of the blast the charge is far removed from an object or
wave, is clearly visible in all of the pressure the ground. In reality, the ground and/or an
histories. It reaches the second station, 20 cm object close by almost always has an
from the centre of the charge, at 42 µs after influence on the propagation of a blast wave.
detonation. The explosive products can still In the next simulation, the charge is 50 cm
be distinguished in the pressure record (C), above the ground. The blast wave impacts
but their pressure has fallen dramatically. the ground at about 200 µs (equivalent to an
The blast wave reaches the remaining two average blast wave velocity of 2000 m/s). At
stations at 70 µs and 117 µs respectively. this point the shock front is approximately 6
Although the products reach these gauge cm ahead of the products. On impact with
positions, their pressure is so low compared the ground the shock wave is reflected back
to the air, that they do not make a significant into the products and the surrounding air.
contribution to the blast wave, in terms of This acts to reinforce the blast pressure. The
pressure. reflected pressure from the ground can
This process continues until at larger therefore be between 2 and 8 times the
distances the blast wave simply consists of incident pressure.
the air shock and high-speed movement of The propagation of the reflected shock
air, since the products fall further and further wave through the fireball and the air shock is
behind it. At large distances from the charge shown in Figure 6 in the pressure fields at
it is the expansion of the shock wave and the 276 µs (left) (labelled A) and 500 µs (right)
rapidly moving air behind it that constitute (labelled B). Notice how the reflected shock
the blast wave.The rapidly moving air behind travels faster through the products than
the shock front is often referred to as the through the shocked air (C). This is because
blast wind. the temperature of the products is higher
Close to the explosive charge, the thermal than the surrounding air and the speed of
output (discussed in the section on sound is therefore greater. This effect is even
explosives and explosions) is likely to ignite more pronounced for explosives that have
any surrounding combustible material. The significant afterburning, since they are at a
blast wave will at the same time rapidly higher temperature.
Also visible in the figure is the early
formation and development of the Mach
stem.The figure shows the triple point and its
trajectory, (labelled D), idealised in Figure 2.
The figure also shows the effect the
reflected shock has on the product fireball.
The particle velocity, initially directed
towards the ground is now reversed by the
reflected shock. The fireball thus begins to
rise.
The blast wave continues to propagate
away from the explosion, with the reflected
shock wave, because of its higher pressure
and velocity, gradually overtaking it. The
blast pressure fields at 900µs and 1.2ms are
shown in Figure 7 and at 4ms in Figure 8.
By this time the reflected wave accounts for
about two-thirds of the blast field. For an
observer far enough away from the
explosion, the total measured blast wave is
this reflected wave. Notice also how the
product cloud has rolled up into the classic
‘mushroom’ shape as it ascends into the
atmosphere. This is a direct consequence of
the processes described above and the
Fig 6. Pressure fields at 276µs (left) and 500µs (right) for a 1 kg spherical TNT Charge. reflected shock wave from the ground.
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22 Blast Waves

Fig 7. Pressure fields at 900 µs (left) and 1.2 ms (right) for a 1 kg spherical
TNT Charge. Fig 8. Blast Pressure Field at 4ms after detonation of a 1kg spherical charge
of TNT 50 cm above the ground.

The effect of the reflected shock on an atmospheric, i.e. there is a ‘negative’ relative
observer 1m away from the centre of the pressure phase associated with the tail of the
charge and 50 cm above the ground is shown blast wave (labelled C). This is clearly shown
in the pressure history in Figure 9 (left). The in Figure 9 (left) and has duration, at this
history shows the arrival of the initial blast point, of almost twice the initial positive
wave, with a shock pressure of 8.8 phase. This negative pressure regime acts to
atmospheres, at 520 µs (labelled A) followed first slow and then reverse the direction of
at 900 µs by the reflected shock wave from the blast wind. Although the magnitude of
the ground (labelled B).This has the effect of the pressure in the negative phase is much
raising the blast pressure, at this time less than that in the initial shock, its effects
interval, from 1.7 atmospheres to 3.4 on a damaged structure can be quite
atmospheres; i.e. the reflected shock doubles significant.
the pressure. For an observer 2 m from the centre of the
The pressure record also shows an charge and 50 cm above the ground, the
additional feature due to the dynamics of the ground reflection has overtaken the initial
blast wind. The moving air and explosive blast wave. The observer, only ‘sees’ the
products behind the shock front, that reflected wave. This is demonstrated in the
constitute the blast wind, continue to expand pressure history at this point, Figure 9
and their pressure therefore falls. The inertia (right). Notice that the negative phase is well
in the flow however, means that the gases established at 4 ms after detonation.
over-expand. The pressure falls below The above discussion has centred on a
charge detonated above the ground. A charge
detonated on the ground, will not produce a
reflected shock or Mach stem. An observer
will experience a blast wave characteristic of
a free field charge. Thus the blast wave is a
strong function of position and the obstacles
in the path between the observer and the
charge. Reflected waves can significantly
increase the shock pressure and the blast
wind. Thus an observer, depending on their
position relative to the charge, may
experience a blast wave that consists of a
single shock wave, two shock waves or a
single stronger reflected shock wave. Each
scenario will also have an associated blast
wind with it. It also explains why personnel
close to a charge are often less seriously
injured compared to those further away.
Having defined and explained the essential
features of blast wave formation, propagation
Fig 9. Pressure-time histories for observers 50cm above the ground for a 1kg spherical charge of and development illustrated by the
TNT. Figure 9 (left): Observer 1m from charge; Figure 9 (right): Observer 2m from the charge.
detonation of a 1 kg spherical charge ofTNT,
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IG Cullis 23

we can now consider how such a wave described by a number of modes of vibration
interacts with a structure. each with a characteristic frequency. The
response of the structure then depends upon
Interaction of a blast wave with how the blast wave couples energy into each
a structure of these modes of vibration.
The blast wave from an explosion interacts We can also represent the blast wave as a
with a structure by coupling energy from the series of pendula of different frequencies and
blast flow field into the structure.This causes amplitudes. As the blast wave develops and
the structure to deform to an extent changes its shape, its natural frequency
dependent upon the strength of the blast distribution will also change. Using this
wave and the properties of the structure. analogy we can begin to understand how
The characteristics of an explosive blast energy is coupled to the matching modes of
wave that have the most influence on the the structure and why the structural response
structural response are its peak pressure, will vary with distance from the explosion.
impulse and overall shape. The strength and The overall shape of a blast wave may be
natural period of oscillation of the structure qualitatively defined in terms of its rise time
being loaded then determine the type of at the shock front,Tr and the duration of the
interaction and the response. blast wind, Td. The response then depends
on how these characteristic times compare
Unlike the case of the ground (considered
with the natural period of the structure T.
a rigid surface) the blast wave impacting
There are four categories of response that
upon a structure will result in a shock wave
are defined by this relationship:
being propagated through the structure as
Category A: If the duration of the blast
well as being reflected from it. The strength
wave is short compared with the structures
of the reflected and transmitted shock waves
period of oscillation, the loading is partly
depends upon the material properties of the
absorbed by the structure’s inertia, thus
structure and its geometry and of course the
reducing the structural deformation.
incident blast wave. In addition, if the Category B: If the duration of the blast
structure has internal spaces e.g. a building, wave is long compared with the structure’s
or contains internal components e.g. the period of oscillation and has a long rise time,
human chest, then the transmitted shock can the structure experiences a load, which is
induce quite dramatic and counter intuitive effectively quasi-static. Here quasi-static
responses in these components. means the pressure varies very slowly and
When a blast wave strikes a structure the could be approximated by an average
pressure loading that results is composed of constant value. The deformation is then the
two components. The first is the reflected same as that produced by an equivalent static
shock pressure, which as described above can load.
be significantly higher than the incident Category C: If the duration of the blast
shock pressure. The second is the pressure wave is long compared with the structure’s
developed by stopping or slowing down the period of oscillation and has a short rise time,
blast wind. then the structure experiences a
To understand some of these effects it is deformation, which is greater than that
useful to consider a simple pendulum, e.g. a caused by an equivalent static load.
swing or a weight on a string. Left to swing Category D: If the duration of the blast
on its own it will have a natural frequency. If wave is roughly equal to the structure’s
we try to force it to swing at a different period of oscillation and the rise time is
frequency, then its response will depend on about half its duration, the structure’s
this forcing frequency. Frequencies close to response may again exceed that caused by
its natural frequency will generate a large the equivalent static load.
amplitude response in the pendulum. One can now once again understand how
Frequencies far removed from its natural distance from an explosion can alter the
frequency will, however, generate a small observed damage and why perversely objects
amplitude response. and personnel close to an explosion often
In addition, the time over which the force suffer less damage and injury than those
is applied i.e. the impulse, its direction and further away from the explosion.
the point it is applied in the oscillation The relative importance of pressure and
period, all control the finally observed impulse in determining the structural
amplitude. Thus a small force applied in response depends on whether the blast wave
phase with the pendulum can produce large loading of the structure is ‘impulsive’ or
amplitudes compared to a large force briefly ‘quasi-static’.
applied out of phase with the pendulum. Category A is termed impulsive, i.e. it is
A real structure, such as a building or a the impulse within the blast wave that
human, behaves in a very similar way, except determines the structure’s response.
that in this case the structure has to be Categories B & C are termed quasi-static
represented by a large number of pendula loading, i.e. it is the pressure of the blast
each with a different natural frequency. The shock wave that determines the structure’s
natural response of the structure is thus response.
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24 Blast Waves

Category D is part impulsive and part the external structure may load and
quasi-static and pressure and impulse compress these internal components, the
determine the structure’s response. transmitted shock from the incident blast
In general the sharper the rise time of the wave can often cause more severe levels of
shock wave, the greater the structural damage. In many cases the material
response. Explosive blast waves with steep properties of the external structure can act to
rise times are generated by high performance enhance these internal shock levels and
explosives such as TNT, HMX, RDX etc. hence damage.
Combustible gases such as hydrogen or To illustrate some of these effects, we
liquids such as petrol generate explosive blast return to our 1kg spherical charge of TNT,
waves with shallow rise times. detonated in free field, i.e. without the
From this discussion above it can be ground being present. We position two
recognised that a given level of structural structures, diametrically opposite each other,
response or damage can result from either 90 cm from the charge centre.The structures
pressure, impulse or a combination of both. consist of 35cm diameter spheres
The actual mechanism will depend upon constructed from layers of materials. At the
the explosion source and the distance from centre of each is a 10cm diameter air space.
it. This space is surrounded by a 10cm thick
This naturally leads to the very useful layer of water, which in turn is surrounded,
concept of the Iso-damage curve, the locus by a 8cm layer of a material with a density
of explosions, which give the same structural 10% greater than the water (“unprotected”).
response, or level of damage. The second structure, however, also has a
An example is shown in Figure 10. Points 3cm thick outer casing made from steel
that lie on the left of the diagram (i.e. those (“protected”). One could consider these
with high impulse and low pressure) objects to be constructed of biological
represent impulsive explosions and points materials. At this standoff from the charge
that lie on the right of the curve (i.e. low the blast wave reaches the structures at about
impulse and high pressure) represent quasi- 300 µs, Figure 11.
static explosions. Points in-between Although the air shock (A) has separated
represent explosions, which are part from the product cloud (B), the products still
impulsive and part quasi-static. make a significant contribution to the blast
The curves predicting the probability of wave loading.When the blast wave strikes the
blast lung injury to personnel take this form. structures it effectively ‘wraps’ itself around
them. In our example this process is not
Internal damage mechanisms completed until 900µs after detonation, 600
The discussion so far has assumed that the µs after the arrival of the blast wave, as shown
structure is represented by a single in Figure 12. The product cloud has been
fundamental period of oscillation. As was slowed and deformed by its impact with the
pointed out above, many structures are structures and is beginning to flow laterally
complex and include components or internal (C). The impact of the products with the
structures that have very different oscillation unprotected structure has also deformed and
periods. For example, the period of damaged it.
oscillation of the human thoracic wall is very The figure graphically illustrates an
different from that of say, alveolar septa, or additional feature of the interaction of a blast
solid viscera. Whilst the gross deformation of wave with a structure, namely its ability to

Fig 10. ISO-DAMAGE curve

Fig 11. Initial Blast Wave Pressure Loading of unprotected (bottom) and
protected (top) structures.
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IG Cullis 25

quite marked in the case of the protected

structure. In the latter case there is also a
marked spherical pressure gradient across
the water layer, i.e. the water and the air
space are being effectively squeezed.
In biological systems, this will lead to
injuries such as bowel contusions.
The response of a structure is thus a
complex problem. Intuitively obvious
damage mechanisms, e.g. quasi-static
pressure, in fact often do not represent the
major cause of observed structural failure.
The dynamic processes associated with
material acceleration and high relative
velocities are often far more effective. In the
case of large structures, different parts may
respond in different ways. It is therefore, vital
that the important damage mechanisms are
identified and understood.
In protecting a structure from blast, all
possible damage mechanisms have to be
considered and ranked. It is often the high
frequency components induced by the blast
wave that have to be effectively removed –
Fig 12. Blast Wave Pressure Loading at 900µs of unprotected (bottom) and protected(top) this is the case with primary blast lung injury.
structures. It must be recognised, however, that an
inappropriate combination of materials in a
load all parts of the structure. Unlike an protection scheme can enhance rather than
impact scenario, e.g. due to a projectile, dampen the damaging frequency
where the loading is applied at the initial components.
point of contact, a blast wave can load the
rear of a structure long after the initial Conclusions
loading. This paper has described how an explosion
The reflected shock waves generated by the due to a sudden release of energy forms blast
structures can be seen propagating away waves. The blast wave is composed of two
from them in Figure 12 at 900 µs. They parts, the initial shock wave and the blast
modify the incident blast field. Observers wind. The shock wave results when we try to
close to the structures will therefore, drive a disturbance supersonically in a
experience a complex pressure loading and medium. A shock wave modifies the
blast wind. Furthermore, when the shock properties of the medium through which it is
waves enveloping the structure, meet at the travelling.The resulting non-linear behaviour
opposite pole there is a strong pressure means that reflection of a shock wave is also
enhancement, because the flow is effectively non-linear. Significant pressure
stagnated, Figure 12 (D). The resultant enhancements can be generated on reflection
loading in the structures can also be and for angles above 40º a Mach stem is
observed in the figure. produced.
In terms of the internal response, the The detonation of a 1 kg spherical charge
different material speeds of sound imply that of TNT has been simulated, using a Eulerian
the shock waves developed by the impact of hydrocode cAst, to illustrate the formation,
the blast wave propagate at different development and propagation of blast waves.
velocities through them. The protected Numerical simulation is a powerful tool for
structure, because of the steel case, produces understanding blast waves and their
a stronger reflected blast wave. The interaction with a structure.
confinement also results in higher and more The interaction of the blast wave with the
uniform pressures within the internal ground has been shown to lead to its
components. significant enhancement. An observer
Internal elements of the structure will positioned at different distances from the
respond differently to these effects. This can explosion will experience very different blast
lead to relative motion between them with waves, with characteristically different
consequent shearing and tearing at pressures, blast winds and durations.
interfaces. Most materials, including The interaction of a blast wave with a
biological materials, are relatively weak in structure has been shown to be a complex
shear and therefore readily fail under shear process that is dependent upon its natural
loading conditions. frequencies.The subsequent response can be
The pressure field shown in the Figure 12 impulsive, quasi-static or a combination of
highlights high-pressure regions at the both, dependent upon the explosion source
opposite poles of both spherical structures, and the stand off distance. The same level of
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26 Blast Waves

damage can, therefore, be created by structural response. An understanding of the

different loading regimes. This naturally damage mechanisms is important if
leads to the concept of an iso-damage curve vulnerability and protection of a structure,
for a structure. particularly personnel, is required.
The phenomena associated with the Simple intuitive ideas on structural
interaction of a blast wave with a structure protection can lead to significantly increased
have been illustrated with a simple levels of damage. This occurs because high
hydrocode simulation. The ability of a blast frequency components of the loading are
wave to load all parts of a structure has been often enhanced by an inappropriate selection
shown to be crucial in describing the overall of materials.
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Blast Waves and How They Interact With

Structures
IG Cullis

J R Army Med Corps 2001 147: 16-26

doi: 10.1136/jramc-147-01-02

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