PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

This unit focuses on the learner, the learning process and how the learning environment affects the
learner. It seeks to find out the nature of the learning process and how individuals learn.

Specific objectives

By the end of the lesson, learners should be able to:

1. Define the term learning

2. Explain the types of learning
3. Discuss the factors that influence learning
4. Explain the theories of learning and suggest ways of applying them to teaching and learning
process.
5. Describe the process of memory and suggest ways of enhancing recall among learners
6. Explain the term concept learning and discuss ways of enhancing it
7. Explain the terms problem solving and creativity and identify ways of enhancing them among
learners
8. Identify and define types of motivation
9. Discuss the theories of motivation and their application to learning

1:1 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

➢ Meaning of learning
➢ Identify ways through which learning takes place; Trial and error, conditioning, memorization,
imitation, insight, play among others.
➢ Theories of learning;

Behaviorist theories

➢ Classical conditioning [Pavlov]

➢ Operant conditioning[skinner and Thorndike]

Cognitive theories

➢ Insight learning[kohler]
➢ Piagetian theory
APPLICATION OF THEORIES TO THE LEARNING PROCESS
1.2 Process of memory
➢ Short and long term memory
➢ Process of the transfer of learning
➢ Causes of forgetting
➢ Enhancing recall
1.3 CONCEPT LEARNING
➢ Meaning of concept learning

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 ➢ How to make concept learning easier

1.4 PROBLEM SOLVING

➢ Process of problem solving

1.5 MOTIVATION

➢ Meaning of motivation
➢ Types of motivation
➢ Theories of motivation ; Needs gratification theory(Abraham Maslow), Achievement motivation
theory( Mc Clelland),Goal setting theory(Edwin Locke and Gary Latham)
➢ Implication of of theories of motivation to learning

LEARNING
What is learning?

The behaviorists define learning as an enduring change in behavior potentiality, which occurs as a result
of reinforced practice.

Cognitive psychologists define learning as the mental activity by means of which knowledge, skills,
habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting in the progressive adaptation
and modification of behavior.

Types of learning

The types of learning are derived from the theories of learning. In this lesson we shall focus on the
following types of learning.

➢ Classical conditioning
➢ Instrumental conditioning
➢ Observational learning
➢ Insightful learning
➢ Information processing model

Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is also referred to as respondent learning. It is a simple form of learning through
associations. Normally people tend to associate events that occur together in time and place. These
events are said to be contiguous because the appearance of one indicates that the other event is to be
anticipated. In everyday life people know that where there is smoke there is fire because the events are
contiguous. Also when lightening is seen people anticipate thunder to follow suit because the two
events occur together in time and place.

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Ivan Pavlov’s experiments

The classical example that illustrates how learning occurs through classical conditioning is derived from
experiments that were conducted by Ivan Pavlov. He was a Russian scientist. He was a physiologist who
conducted experiments on dogs’ digestive system. He won a Nobel Prize for his work. His experiment
involved harnessing the dog in the laboratory and giving it food and then measuring the amount of
saliva the dog produced. This means the dogs were used to being given food by Pavlov. During the
course of the experimentation Pavlov noted that the dog salivated when it heard his footsteps and when
they saw the food bowl. Pavlov guessed that the dog had learnt to associate his footsteps and even the
sight of the food bowl with food and that this association caused salivation. Pavlov deduced that this
salivation was a learned response. He then set out to conduct a series of experiments to confirm his
believe. His experiment has several stages.

The acquisition stage

During the acquisition stage Pavlov put a hungry dog in experimental position, then he sounded a tone
and then gave the dog food. He repeated this sequence of events many times. After many repeated
trials the dog would salivate at hearing the tone alone. If the dog hears the tone and salivates, it means
that it has learned the association between the tone and food. The acquisition may require a minimum
of ten trials.

Bell …….Food……Salivation *10

Terminology used in classical conditioning

1) The food

The food given to the dog before the conditioning process is referred to as the natural stimulus,
because under natural conditions the will elicit salivation on being presented with it.

2) The Natural Response

Salivation is a natural response because naturally, salivation is elicited by the presentation of

food.

3) The neutral stimulus

Before the conditioning process, the bell or tone is called the neutral stimulus because it has no
relationship whatsoever with salivation. Dogs will normally salivate as a result of hearing a bell.

4) Conditioning stimulus

The bell before and after conditioning is called the conditioned stimulus because it acquires the
power to elicit salivation by its association with food.

5) Conditioned response

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 Salivation, because the dog has learned to associate the tone or bell with food is called the
conditioned response. It is the learned response.

Principles of classical conditioning

1 The principle of reinforcement

When the dog is put in experimental situation and the tone is sounded and then the food is given this
constitutes reinforcement. The food is a pleasant event presented to the dog and it constitutes positive
reinforcement.

2 The principle of extinction

Extinction refers to the dying of the learned response, which occurs when reinforcement is withdrawn.
This occurs when dog has been conditioned to associate the tone or bell with representation of food and
after some time the food is not delivered. When the experimenter rings the bell or sounds the tone
without giving the dog food the learned behavior disappears.

3 The principle of spontaneous recovery

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a learned response without the reintroduction of

reinforcement. It occurs if a dog that was initially conditioned to associate the sound of the bell or the
bell with the presentation of food. This dog is taken through the process of extinction. It is given some
resting time where no bell are heard. If this dog is returned to the experimental situation again and the
bell is sounded, it will salivate even if food is given. However, this response dies very fast if
reinforcement is not reintroduced.

4 The principle of generalization

Generalization refers to responding to stimuli, which is similar to the original stimuli as long as both are
reinforced. This occurs when the experimenter reinforces the with food every time he sounds different
types of tones or bell sounds. In this training the dog learn that every time there is a bell sound
whatever the type there will be food. Therefore, the dog learns to respond to similarities. So when there

is a tone similar to the one was conditioned to, it salivates.

5 The principle of discrimination

Discrimination refers learning to pick out the differences in the stimuli and therefore responding to a
very specific stimulus. This occurs when a dog has been conditioned to respond to a particular stimulus.
If the experimenter introduces other stimuli he does not accompany them with the reinforcement. As a
result the dog learns to pick out the differences in stimuli and to respond to very specific ones.
Discrimination training takes a much longer time and more trials to establish.

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Application of classical conditioning to the teaching learning process

➢ The teacher should provide a condu

➢
➢
➢ cive learning environment.
➢ All behavior is controlled by environmental conditions and demands
➢ The environment should be arranged in a way that makes learning more probable.
➢ The teacher should pair pleasant experiences with learning as this will enable the learners to
approach school with enthusiasm(principle of contiguity)
➢ Unpleasant experiences such as criticism, harsh words, ridicule make the learners to hate school
or to hate the subject associated with the harsh teacher.

OPERANT CONDITIONING: B F SKINNER

This is also another type of learning through association. Skinner devised an apparatus called a skinner
box, it was a small enclosure which was equipped with a few gadgets. At one corner of the box was a
lever or a bar. This lever was connected with a food magazine, which contained food pellets. Skinner
would put a hungry rat in the box. Hunger would motivate the rat to move about in the box. Each
movement was called a trial. The rat would move all over the box without finding food. Accidentally it
would touch the bar and some food pellets would drop ,the rat would eat them and continue with
exploration of the box. After many trials the rat begun to associate a certain corner of the box with food
pellets .It now confined its exploration with the corner containing the food. It also learnt to associate the
bar pressing behavior with food and would press the bar until there was enough food. Therefore the bar
pressing behavior was a learned response which was accompanied with food which was the
reinforcement event.

Application of operant conditioning to teaching and learning process

➢ Reinforcement is key element in learning. Reinforcement strengthens behavior and makes it

more probable.
➢ Positive reinforcement is administration of a pleasant event upon the desired response. Positive
reinforces are like food, chocolate, or something valued by the learner like a smile. a nod or
exclamation , well done, good e.t.c
➢ Negative reinforcement refers to noxious or unpleasant stimuli which include, annoying noise,
and harsh criticism. Teachers nagging. Students always want to escape from these events.
When a student is under negative stimuli e.g teacher nagging, they are in a state of discomfort.
This state of discomfort reinforces him to do the desired task. When the desired task is done,
nagging stops. This type of reinforcement ensures that the desirable behavior is strengthened
and repeated by the learner in order to escape or avoid negative stimuli.
➢ Primary and secondary reinforces. Primary reinforces are things like, food, water , pain
avoidance, temperature regulation and sex.These are physiological states that arouse
physiological needs. Physiological needs are unlearned. By satisfying the physiological needs we

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 can strengthen behavior. Secondary reinforces are learned or acquired. These are things like
power, money or prestige, or good grades in school. They are very reinforcing.
➢ Learner should be involved in learning process. Learners should be given a chance to search for
knowledge in conditions of reinforcement. The rat had to explore the box to acquire food. If
they search for knowledge, it becomes significant for them.
CONNECTIVISM –EDWARD THORNDIKE
Edward Thorndike developed the first three laws of learning. (Principles of learning)
1. The law of readiness
2. The law of exercise
3. The law of effect.

The law /principle of readiness

This implies a degree of concentration and eagerness .People learn best when they are physically,
mentally and emotionally ready to learn. People do not learn well when they do not see any reason for
learning. The teacher should therefore get learners ready to learn .They should also create interest in
the learners by showing them the value of the subject matter. They should also provide continuous
mental and physical challenges. Students get motivation if they have a strong purpose, clear objectives
and definite reason for learning something. Since learning is an active process, learners must have
adequate rest , health and physical ability . Basic needs must be satisfied before they are ready for
learning.If they have unresolved issues ,worries ,outside responsibilities ,overcrowded issues they will
have little interest in learning.

Law/principle of exercise

The things which are most repeated are remembered. This is the basis of drill and practice. Students
learn best and retain informationlonger when they have meaning practice and repetition.

Pracice leads to improvement when it is followed by positive feedback. Students learn when they apply
what they have been told . Every time practice occurs learning continues. Recall, review, summaries,
manual drill and physical applications are effective learning habits. The teacher must repeat important
items of subject matter at reasonable intervals and provide opportunities for students to practice while
making sure that the process is directed to a goal.In some cases a skill once learnt is not forgotten hence
no need of practice e.g swimming and cycling.

Law/ principle of effect

Its based on the emotional reaction of students.Its related to motivation . Learning is strengthened.
When accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and learning is weakened when associated with
unpleasant feeling . The teacher should recognize and commend improvement of a learner . Whatever
the learning situation it should contain elements that affect the students positively and give them a
feeling of satisfaction .Teachers should be cautious of punishing learners in class

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Teaching should be from simple to complex to give the students a good feeling. A learners chance of
success is increased if learning experience is pleasant.

Law/Principle of use

It states that connection between stimulus and response is strengthened by frequent use.

Law of disuse states that infrequent connection between stimulus and response wakens and is likely

To stamp out /extinguish the connection.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY –ALBERT BANDURA

This type of learning is called observational learning. It is based on the belief that people acquire
beliefs, attitudes and values through observing others in their social world. Bandura asserts that people
learns new behaviors through vicarious conditioning and modeling

Vicarious conditioning occurs when a child observes another Childs behavior and its consequences. For
example a younger child could observe an older child being praised or rewarded for demonstrating
positive behavior like obedience, honesty, and good grooming. The young child will be motivated to
engage in the behavior she / he has seen being rewarded in order to be treated like the older sibling.
The young sibling can also observe the older sibling being punished for bad behavior like, cheating,
bullying, and laziness and so on. The younger sibling watches the older one suffer for as he/she carries
out the punishment. The young sibling learns to avoid all those behaviors the older sibling is punished
for. He learns to behave differently in order to be praised or rewarded instead of being punished.

Application of vicarious conditioning in a classroom situation

➢ Teachers should expose learners to models of good.

➢ When good behavior occurs, it should not be ignored it should be rewarded in order to
encourage its occurrence and its spread to other children.
➢ When good behavior is ignored it dies out. To avoid this the teacher should recognize the efforts
the learners are making and reinforce them so that they are strengthened and given the chance
of being observed and emulated by other learners.

Modelling

This refers to learning through direct observation. It involves a model and an observer. The model may
be a father, mother, teacher, or peer, the observer is the learner. The model demonstrates behavior
which the learner imitates.

For the learner to imitate behavior and demonstrate it just like the model he must do the following
things;

➢ Attend the behavior- That is, see it, hear and even experience it.

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 ➢ The behavior must be retained- this means it must be stored in memory.
➢ The behavior must be produced- in order to produce the behavior it must be practiced well until
it is perfect.
➢ The behavior must be motivated and reinforced- this means that for the behavior to be
produced there must be an incentive. Good incentives could be, complement, encouragement
or even tangible rewards.
Application

To apply the concept gained from the modeling theory the teacher should do the following;

➢ Become models of good behavior like good grooming, punctuality, handwork, positive attitudes,
honesty, responsible.
➢ The teacher should recognize models of the desired behavior from among the students and
reinforce it positively.
➢ The teacher should also invite models of the desired behavior from community to come and
speak to the students. Examples, models of women who earn a living through mathematics,
physics, chemistry or even biology con be invited to talk to the girls and encourage them to take
these subjects seriously and to confirm to them that women can actually excel in them.

Insightful learning
This type o learning is also referred to as field learning. It is a cognitive type of leaning which focuses on
the use of mental process like thinking, perception and insight in the solution of the problems
confronting the learner. This theory focuses on the ability of animals and people to solve problem
through reorganizing the perceptual world and using the facilities available to solve problems. The
experiment to demonstrate how learning occur through insight were conducted by Wolfgang Kohler in
the 1920’s. Kohler worked with chimpanzees. He had one bright chimpanzee called Sultan,[Atkinson
1990]Kohler put Sultan in a cage and then put a banana outside the cage, but out of Sultan’s reach. In
the cage, Kohler put a stick. Sultan reached out for the banana but could not retrieve it with his hand
because it was out of reach. When he did not get the banana he he looked around the cage and saw a
stick. Quickly he took the stick and used it to retrieve the banana.

On the next day, Kohler put the banana further away outside the cage but at the same time put two
bamboo sticks in the cage. Sultan run for one of the sticks and tried to retrieve the banana. He failed to
pull the banana within arms reach because the stick was not long enough. He then sat frustrated at the
corner of the cage. Then he saw the other stick and went for it. Initially he did not know how to use both
sticks to get the bananas. However as he played with both sticks, one end of the stick entered into the
hollow end of the other stick. Sultan looked at the joined sticks and immediately run to solve his
problem. With the now lengthened stick, he pulled the bananas and ate them.

Following this story insight refers to that moment in time that Sultan is able to mentally ‘see’ the
relationship between the stick/s and the banana. Insight then is that mental activity that is rapid,
almost immediate that helps us to solve a problem. it is a rapid perception of relationships which

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helps us to restructure our or reorganize our perceptual world. Sultan was able to restructure his
environment and reorganize it to solve his immediate problem.

Application

➢ The teacher should enrich the learning environment by providing facilities learners could use to
solve learning problems.
➢ The teacher should have faith in learner’s mental abilities to work over the problem until they
solve the problem confronting them.
➢ The teacher should realize that learners like to make sense of what they learn by cognitively
restructuring events.
➢ Insightful learning is whole, complete and unforgettable.

THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT – JEAN PIAGET

Piaget identified four major periods /stages of cognitive development. All children progress through
these stages in precisely the same order. There is no skipping of stages because each stage builds on the
accomplishments of previous stages. There are also individual differences in that the environment may
accelerate or retard a childs rate of development. The stages are as follows:

➢ Sensory motor stage (birth to 2years) –The dominant structures at this stage are behavioral
schemata / action schemes which evolve as infants begin to coordinate their sensory input and
motor responses in order to” act on” and get to know the environment. During this time infants
evolve from reflexive creatures to reflective planful problem solvers who have learned a lot
about themselves and their environment. The following are some important attainments at this
period:
➢ Growth of problem solving skills. During the first the first four months their activities are
confined to exercising their innate reflexes such as sucking on objects. They discover that they
can emit and control various responses for example sucking thumbs, blowing bubbles etc. They
realize their behaviors are satisfying and worth of repetition. These simple repetitive acts are
called Primary circular reactions and ae always centered on the infants’ body. They are called
primary because they are the first motor habits that appear and circular because the pleasure
they bring stimulates their repetition. Between 4 to 8 months infants also discover by chance
that they can make interesting things to happen to external objects for example , making a
rubber duck quack by squeezing it .These responses are called secondary circular reactions and
are also repeated for the pleasure they bring. Between 8-12 months truly planful responding
appars as infants begin to coordinate two or more actions to achieve simple objectives . For
example if you place a toy under a cushion the infant may try to lift the cushion with one hand
while using the other to grab the toy. This is an intentional schema in which two unrelated
responses, lifting and grasping are coordinated as a means to an end . Between 12 to 18
months, infants begin to experiment with objects (trial and error) .They will try totally new

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 methods to of solving problems . Instead of just squeezing the rubber duck to make it quack,
may decide to step on it to see whether these actions will have the same effects .These trial and
error exploratory schemata are called tertiary circular reactions. They signal the emergence of
true curiosity. Between 18-24 months the children begin to internalize their behavioral
schemata to construct mental symbols or images i.e inner experimentation. They begin to solve
problems without resulting to trial and error , for example if bread on the table is out of reach ,
they may pull the table cloth or use a stick to bring bread closer. They are also able to perform
the behavior of an absent model. Object permanency is also complete i.e. out of sight is no
longer out of sight.
➢ Pre-operational stage(2-7years)During this stage children become more proficient at
constructing and using mental symbols to think about the objects , situations and events they
encounter . Piaget divides this stage into two sub stages (a) the pre-conceptual 2-4years and (b)
the intuitive period 4-7 years.
(a) The pre-conceptual period 2-4 years – This stage is marked by the appearance of the
symbolic language function. The ability to make one thing – a word or an object stands for
e.g words or an object stands for or represents something else. The child can now talk about
the past and talk about items that are not present. Pretend play also blossoms at this stage.
They can pretend to be mum or dad or doctor etc. and will use any props to symbolize other
objects e.g. a shoe box for a house etc.
(b) The intuitive period (4-7Years) The child’s thinking is called intuitive because its
understanding of objects and events is centered on the single salient perceptual feature e.g
color. They focus on the way things appear to be rather than on logical or rational thought.
However they do not understand the difference e between a class and representative of a
class. ( whole and part relationships) Their thinking is centered on the most salient feature
and fails to consider other features. They cannot conserve this is because they are
incapable of mentally reversing or undoing the flow of action ,argument therefore they do
not realize that the liquid in the short broad container would attain its former height when
poured back into a taller thin container . They are unable to attend simultaneously to both
height and width.
➢ The concrete operational stage. This stage is called concrete operations because Piaget
believes that children at this stage can apply their operations only to objects, situations
and events that are real or imaginable . The children can understand class inclusion – they
understand part or whole relationships and the difference between a class and a
representative of a class. They can conserve liquids, mass, volume and area. They can also
construct accurate mental representation of a complex series of actions , for example
they can sketch a map of the route to school.One of the hallmarks of operational thinking
is a better understanding of relations and relational logic.They are capable of serration ,
an operation that enables them to arrange a set of stimuli along a quantifiable dimension
such as length . A related ability is the concept of transitivity, which describes the
relationships in serial order , for example John is taller than Sam who is taller than Mark
then John must be taller than Mark.The transitive inferences ( logical thinking) of
concrete operators are generally limited to real objects that are physically present .They

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 cannot apply this logic to verbal problems or to abstract signifiers such as X & Y in
algebra.
➢ The formal operational stage (12years and beyond) This is the last stage of piaget’s
intellectual stages. Thinking is nolonger tied to the observable or imaginable . Formal
operators can now reason quite logically about abstract ideas that may have no basis in
reality. They enjoy thinking about hypothetical and are likely to develop some very
unusual and creative responses. Their approach to problem solving becomes increasingly
systematic and abstract . They can solve complex verbal problems involving the future
,past and present. Their thinking is rational, systematic and abstract. At the beginning of
this period egocentrism inform of naïve idealism m is very high and affects their reasoning
. Naïve idealism is the inability of the adolescent to differentiate between his own
idealistic thoughts and reality.
➢ CONTRIBUTION OF PLAY TO COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.
➢ 1) Permits children to practice their competences in a relaxed and care free way.
2) Helps to nurture curiosity, object permanence, inner experimentation etc
3) Helps children develop additional cognitive and social skills.
4) Helps in resolution of conflicts and in the compensation of unsatisfied needs and the
inversion of roles for example obedience and authority.
5) Enables children to try out roles that other people play while encouraging them to
think about feelings of the individuals who actually live these roles .

Transfer of learning.
Knowledge learnt in school is supposed prepare the student for life outside school. Learners are
supposed to apply knowledge t new situations. Knowledge in Math to be applied in Physics and vice
versa.

Aspects of transfer.

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 ➢ Discrimination .This is ability to pick out differences. When a learner is exposed to knowledge or
skills that are similar he should understand all the specific features so that he applies in each
situation only these aspects that are applicable. In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog learnt to
respond to specific stimulus/bell. Between a Dictionary, Catalogue &Documentary all have
specific information. When we are looking for meaning of a word, we pick the dictionary.
➢ Generalization. Understand the general features, similarities. In computer operations we use
general features to access information. In Pavlov’s experiment the dog would be presented with
food each time a bell was sounded, hence it salivated at the sound of any sound of the bell.

Types of transfer of knowledge.

➢ Zero transfer. Acquiring knowledge skills that are not transferable from one situation to
another e.g between Kiswahili and Mathematics.
➢ Negative transfer. This when two subjects influence each other negatively, what is learnt in
one inhibits or hinders what is learnt in another e.g when English and German are introduced
at the same time, its hard to master both simultaneously.
➢ Positive transfer. When knowledge acquired in one situation helps the learner to acquire
knowledge and skills in another situation e.g Mathematics principles learnt will help a learner
acquire principals in Physics.
➢ Lateral/horizontal transfer. This refers to when content is applicable at the same level
/situation e.g 4x 9= 36 , 9x4 = 36 ,3+5 =8 and 5+3=8 Baking a cake in school , one can use the
same principals to bake a cake at home.
➢ Vertical transfer. Knowledge isapplied in another level . There is need to master concepts in
one level to enable one build in a later level. Mastery in English language will enable one to
master content in all subjects.

Application.

➢ Be specific on the material to transfer.

➢ Show relationships to ensure the learners apply the same method in future.The knowledge
acquired in this unit will be useful in handling students in future.
➢ Backward reaching transfer learners looks back on what has been learnt previously to solve
a new situation.
➢ Procedural method where a learner is given many examples in which they can see new
principals. Use newspapers, games, current events .

INFORMATION PROCESS SYSTEM

The information processing system deals with the ability of the human mind to take in the information
(encode). Store it by maintaining it in memory and the ability to retrieve or to recover information from
the memory. There are a number of theories of information processing system, but will focus on the
model developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, (1968). This model draws on the similarity between the

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human main and the computer. The human mind senses, stores and retrieve information much as the
computer does.

The model discusses three hypothetical levels or stages. These memory levels explain how learners
acquire complex concepts, how these are attended to, hoe they enter the memory banks and they are
accessed when needed. The memory banks are the following;

➢ The short -term sensory storage.

➢ The short- term memory /working memory.
➢ The long- term memory.

We need to look at what happens to information at each memory bank in order to understand
the conditions that facilitates learning or those that hinder learning at each level.

The short term sensory storage (STSS)

This memory bank is also called the sensory register. Its function is to receive sensory information the
environment. This information is stored briefly at the short term sensory register. This memory bank has
limited capacity. The STSS memory consist the extra replica of sensory information. The visual memory
is called iconic memory. It looks like a snap that fades away in about 0.5 seconds. It is visual spatial. This
means that the objects are seen in different position in space. That is, we see objects that are near or far
from us.

The auditory memory is called echoic memory and lasts for 4 seconds. This memory is phonological; it
contains the echo of the sound that we hear. The STSS is bombarded by information all the time.
Therefore it must select what information to focus on or to attend to. Any information that is not
intended to is lost and we do not even remember not to register it. However the information that is
attended to is processed and encoded enabling it to move further along the memory levels.

The short term memory (STM)

This ban is also called working memory. It receives all information that is attended to at the STSS. At this
memory level information is processed based on what it looks like, sounds like or means. His memory
has limited capacity, which last for 20 to30 seconds. It can contain 7 to 9 pieces of information at a
time. Information is stored acoustically and semantically; this refers to how it sounds like and what it
means.

Two things are likely to happen at this bank. We may get information that we do not want to keep for a
long time. For example we may want to go to shop to buy a few items but you do not write a shopping
list. On your way to the shop you will rehearse the items we want to buy until we buy them. Once we
have bought them we do not need to rehearse the information again and you quickly forget it. This kind
of rehearsal is called maintenance rehearsal and its purpose is o keep the information in the memory
for a short time. This information does not move further along the memory bank. The second thing that
could happen to information is that we may want to process information for the purpose of storing it in

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the long term memory bank. In this case you will engage elaborative rehearsal. This rehearsal involves
the repetition of information and a memory search. We will search our memory to find out whether
there is new information that is similar to the incoming information. This, enable us to link the new
information with the information already in the memory. For example if we are introduce to our lecturer
for the first time and we are told he is Mr. Odhiambo we will search our memory and find another
Odhiambo that is stored there. We will link the new Odhiambo to the old one to help us remember him
next time he comes to class. Maintenance rehearsal helps to get information into the long term memory
bank.

The long term memory bank

The term memory is the permanent storehouse of information. We store first dates, special birthdays,
capital cities and other information accumulated throughout one’s lifetime there. This memory bank has
unlimited capacity. We may need to look at how information enters in this memory bank. In our
discussion of the short term memory we have noted that information is kept in memory through both
maintenance and elaborate rehearsal. The maintenance rehearsal is for information that we do not
intended to keep in memory for long. The elaborate rehearsal is for we want to make it permanent. It
involves a recreation of information through repetition and also giving it meaning through its connection
with already existing information. This information is then stored in the memory bank. It is easier to
remember if it has gone through elaborate rehearsal.

REMEMBERING AN FORGETTING
Introduction

The classroom experience shows that learners forget the information acquired or learn. The teacher is a
witness that the majority of learners in most f tests taken hardly get full marks. The explanation for the
phenomenon is that between the time material is learned or even revised and the time the test is taken
some information is lost through forgetting.

In this lesson I have discussed why forgetting occurs as well as how memory can be improved. I have
drawn heavily from behaviorism and information processing theory.

Objectives

By the end of the lesson the students will be able to;

➢ Explain why forgetting occurs using the abuse theory

➢ Describe two types of interferences that cause forgetting
➢ Explain the importance of attention
➢ Discuss the role played by rehearsal in promoting memory

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 ➢ Discuss various methods learners could use to improve memory.

Why students forget the content they learn

Educational experience show that some things are remembered very well, others are “there” but
sometime difficult to find. While still others are completely forgotten. A good teacher should know why
this happens so that he can create conditions that promote memory all the time. Different theories
gives different explanations as to what causes forgetting. I have discussed behavioristic theory and the
cognitive theory.

The behaviorist theory

The behaviorist developed the following explanation;

➢ The disuse model

➢ The interference model

The disuse theory

This theory submits that people forget the S-R connections or associations made previously because
they grow rusty or fade away through lack of use. This concept can be explained through the Pavlovian
or Skinnnerian experiments. In Pavlov’s classical conditioning it refers to withdrawal of reinforcement. If
the food, which serve as the reinforcement o keep the association between the bell and the food alive,
was removed, extinction occurred. If the dog was subjected to this state for long i.e. the bell ringing
without accompaniment of the food then the stimulus-response connections were lost. In the Skinner
operant conditioning if the rat continued to press the bar without the accompaniment of food as a
reinforcement of food as a reinforce this bar pressing behavior disappeared because the connection or
association between and food was lost. This information can be applied in the classroom situation for
the purpose of helping the teacher to understand the dynamics involved in forgetting and remembering.
Just like Pavlov’s dogs and Skinners rat would forget the S-R associations they had learned, pupils too
forget what they learn under similar principles. To promote remembering the teacher needs to ensure
that learned material is rehearsed under condition of reinforcement.

Rehearsal

Learners who do not rehearse content often lose the S-R connections they had learned. Rehearsing refer
to the constant repetition and review of content. For rehearsal to benefit learners, the teacher should
give them time and place to do their rehearsal (study time) the teacher should ensure that the learners
rehearse content, which is meaningful to them, because there is tendency to forget content if it is
meaningless. There is the need to show learner hoe the content they are learning is related to what was
learned earlier. These activity help to stamp in the S-R connections already learned keeping them alive
and hence minimizing forgetting.

Reinforcement

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Remembering is best promoted if learning is reinforced .Withdrawal of reinforcement causes extinction,
which is the disappearance of the learned response. If leaner displays the desirable behavior without
being reinforced, forgetting occurs. The teacher should never lose sight of the fact that reinforcement
strengthens behavior and makes it more probable. Making it mare probable means that that behavior is
given the chance to occur again.

Interference model

This is another behaviorist explanation of forgetting. According to this model learners forget content
that they learn because other learning’s interfere. For example learners will forget old content because
new content interfere with its memory. They will also forget new content because old content interferes
with its memory. When old content interferes with the memory of new content, we call this proactive
inhibition. If new content interferes with the memory of the old content we refer to this as retroactive
inhibition.

Proactive inhibition

Proactive inhibition is forgetting that occurs when old information makes it difficult to remember new
information. For example, a teacher gives learners a list of words and ask them to study it. Call it list A.
The teacher does not test for the memory of this list at this time. He gives the learners another list of
words to study. Call it list B. Then tests the learners on the recall of the second list of words (list B) not
the first (list A). What normally happens is that as the learners try to recall words on the second list they
experience some mix-up. They remember some words and they forget others. At the same time some of
the words from ‘list A’ are recalled. The word from ‘list A ’are said to interfere with the recall of list B.
this interfere is called proactive inhibition.

Retroactive inhibition

Retroactive inhibition occurs when new learning’s make it difficult to remember old learning’s. For
example, this occurs if a teacher gives learners list of words to learn. First list A and then list B and then
tests them on the recall of List A. As the learners try to recall words on list A some of the words will be
forgotten and some of the words from list B will be recalled because the memory of B interferes with
memory of A. This interference is retroactive because later memory acts backwards to interfere with
earlier memory.

Activity

Practice the above task by giving learners the following list and then test for proactive and retroactive
inhibition.

List A List B LIST A LIST B

cat cut dip deep
hut hat reed rind
fat fit feat feet
rut rat ship sheep

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 further father leap reap
goat gate rate late
lot rot creek crack
cup cap arrive alive

Application

➢ The teacher should take note that both retroactive and proactive interference are greater when
the items in memory are similar.
➢ To promote memory make new learning clear by bringing out the similarities between the old
and the new information.
➢ A learning task must be practiced until it is mastered and over learned. The principal is partially
learned tasks interfere more with other partially learned tasks.
➢ Over learning means going beyond the mastery of a task and ensuring that the content is at the
‘’finger tips”. This means that the content can be recalled with ease.

COGNITIVE EXPLANATION
According to the cognitive theory, the key to memory is the way in which the material is coded and
organized it is stored in long term memory bank. Something important happens at every stage of
information processing to either promote memory or forgetting.

➢ At the short-term sensory storage, the key to memory is attention .For information to be
retained in memory it should be focused on and rehearsed briefly so as to be registered for
further processing. Any information that is not attended to is lost or forgotten.
➢ At the short term memory /working memory, the most important thing at this level is
rehearsal. Rehearsal takes two forms depending on why we want to retain the information in
memory.

MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL –This is rehearsal of information which is not intended to move to the long
–term memory bank. It involves repetition of information over and over again .when it is no longer
needed it is discarded.

For example we meet an old friend in town who gives us his cell phone number. Before we enter this
number in our cell phone we shall rehearse it .Once the number is entered in the relevant place we stop
rehearsing it.

ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL- This is for all information that we wish to transfer to the long –term memory
bank .This rehearsal involves repetition of information and linking it with information already in the
long-term memory. These two processes ensure that information is catalogued and filed in the long –
term memory.

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The long –term memory Bank

The following memories exist at this bank:

➢ Declarative memory .This is memory for things that can be expressed in words.
➢ Sematic memory .This is memory for personal experiences.
➢ Procedural memory. This is memory for actions and skills.
➢ Episode memory. This is memory for personal experiences.

At this memory bank information is organized in categories. Items that are similar are stored close
together in a method that is close to labels. For each item in memory there is an imaginary index card
which is appropriately catalogued .Forgetting occurs if there are cataloguing errors. A card can be
catalogued in the wrong place or a card can get lost.

Cataloguing errors can occur if a learner takes in too much information within a short time. For example
if you attend a function and are introduced to about ten people within a short time you will find it
difficult to match the right names and faces due to cognitive bottle necks. But if you are introduced to
one person everyday for ten days you will not have a problem remembering each one of them because
you processed all the information properly. If two things are similar, one may be remembered in place
of the other.

Application

In order to ensure that content learned is remembered it is important to give it time to be processed at
all memory levels until it enters the long –term memory bank because everything that gets there is
permanent.

Improving memory

➢ Increasing attention e.g. Select a study environment that does not contain too many
distractions.
➢ Rehearsal. As learners engage in study it is important to ensure that they engage in repetition of
correct responses with the awareness of what the responses relate to. They should not engage
in repetition of meaningless material. For the study to be successful , the teachers should ensure
that;
➢ the school organize study timetables,
➢ Give the learners time and classrooms convenient for that purpose
➢ They should train learners how to conduct individual study for example how to pick out
important facts, review them immediately and again later.
➢ Learners should be trained hoe to engage in distributed practice or messed practice depending
on reasons for study.

Distributed practice involves taking short periods of study at a time and taking a break after each
period. This method is very beneficial when the learners want to process information and store it in
memory permanently. The short periods of study could be taking two hours of study at a time and

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breaking to do a totally unrelated activity before resuming to the study again. The unrelated activity
could be taking a shower, a walk, a snack or even a nap. This activity should be one that helps one to
relax as well as reward oneself.

Massed practice refers to sitting for long hours of study.

The learner can be introduced to the model of study developed by Robinson (1970) called SQ3R. This
refers to the following:

➢ Survey the material through once.

➢ Raise the question about it.
➢ Read it looking for answers.
➢ Recite it and by doing so committing it to memory.
➢ Review it.
➢ By the time the learner is through with the last step the material is well committed to
memory.

The use of mnemonic devices

Mnemonic devices are techniques that have been developed to improve memory particularly memory
for bits of unrelated information.

One mnemonic devise is the peg word method. To use this methods you must first learn a series of
words to go with numbers, for example, one is bun, two is shoe, three is tree and four is door. The word
and words and numbers rhyme. When you want to learn a list of unrelated words you think of some
imagine that combines the peg word and the word you are trying to remembered .Let us imagine that
you wish to remember a grocery list, if the fist item on the list is sap you imagine a bun covered with
soap bubbles. If the second item is apples you picture shoe stuffed with apples. If the third item is eggs,
you imagine a tree with eggs for fruits. If the fourth item is cabbage, you imagine a door with a large
cabbage as the lock knob.

The loci method

Another technique is the loci method. This was used by the Romans as old as 86B.Cand 82B.C . First you
think of a location .Then for each item you want to remember you think of a representative image
something that symbolizes that item to you imagine each image in place in the location. E.g

➢ Your bedroom floor …………soap bubbles

➢ Your bed………………………….. two large apples
➢ Your coffee table …………….. two huge carrots
➢ The clothes ward robe …………..cabbage hanging there

This technique uses imagery which is are presentation in thought of visual scenes forming a vivid
, unusual image of each object , which is unforgettable.

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 MOTIVATION
Motivation concern itself with the;

➢ Dynamics of getting pupils to want to learn or have the interest to do so.

➢ Have the desire to spend time on learning tasks.
➢ To complete assignment and even o want to excel. For teachers motivating learners remain one
of the greatest challenges of the profession. Many teachers will complain that pupils do not
want to learn. They are lazy. They never complete assignment and so on. This lecture explores
motivation in classroom setting. The encouraging messages for teachers derived for this lesson
is that something can be tried out. We do not have to throw the towel in or fold our arms in
despair. We can get them to want to learn.

Definition of the term motivation

Motivation is defined as the driving force or impetus behind behavior, thoughts and actions. Motivation
energizes behavior and give it direction towards a goal. The goal is always to satisfy a need, for example,
hunger, thirst, pain avoidance temperature regulation and elimination. At a higher level of motivation
energizes behavior towards achievement, competence, affiliation, esteem and so on.

Motivation in school setting

Motivating students is one of the critical tasks of teacher. Teachers are expected to get pupils interested
in learning or interested in displaying desirable behavior. The problem can be aptly summed up by the
old adage that says that you can take the donkey to the river but you cannot force it to drink water.
Analogous with this saying the teacher should realize that he could have pupils in the classroom and
even provide an atmosphere conducive for learning but whether they learn or not depends on them. It
heavily depends on their interests or disinterests their priorities and needs, their attitudes and values.
This means that the teacher interest in wanting to get learners to learn may not coextend to their
wanting to learn. Given this picture the teacher needs to know how to play his cards right so that he
creates a desire in the learner to want to learn. We shall start the exploration of this issue from the
theoretical viewpoint.

What do different theories advocate?

Theoretical Approaches
Motivation is a vast and complicated subject encompassing many theories. We shall explore some of the
theories in our endeavor to throw some illumination. We intend to suggest certain things teachers could
try out as they apply concept derived from each of the following:

➢ The behaviouristic approaches

➢ The humanistic approaches
➢ The cognitive approaches
➢ The social learning approaches

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The behavioral approaches
The behavior approaches advocate the use o reinforcement. Reinforcement refers to the use of rewards
or incentives. A reward is an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a particular
behavior. An incentive is an object or event that encourages or discourages a behavior. For example the
promise of an A+ is an incentive. The treat to punish is also an incentive. According to the behavioral
approach an understanding of student motivation should begin with a careful analysis of incentives and
reward present in the classroom. These could be;

➢ Affection,
➢ Money,
➢ Praise,
➢ Privileges,
➢ Grades or even stars.

The teacher should also identify the behaviors that need to be reinforced. These could be;

➢ Outstanding performance,
➢ Punctuality,
➢ Neatness,
➢ Attentiveness,
➢ Completion of homework,
➢ Good conduct,
➢ Proper language use,
➢ Non-aggression,
➢ Honesty and showing respect for others.

This list is by no means exhaustive but it gives the teacher the general idea of what he could do. He
could come with a catalogue of desirable behavior and a list of possible reinforces.

The application

The teacher should always be alert and notice when the desired behavior occurs. Its occurrences should
be accompanied by a reinforce. A student who shows improved performance should be praised or
rewarded. One who shows improved grooming should be rewarded appropriately. The idea here is to
acknowledge the desired behavior and accompany it with reinforcing stimuli. The principle that is
reinforcement strengthens behavior and gives it the chance to occur again. The teacher should
remember that any behavior, which ignored, goes through the process of extinction; it dies off. So, if
you want any behavior to recur, reinforce it by all means.

Cognitive approaches to motivation

Cognitive approaches to motivation developed as a reaction to the behavioral views. Cognitive theorists
believe that behavior is determined by our thinking but not by rewards or punishments we anticipate or

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receive. In their view, behavior is initiated and regulated by inner plans not by external events or
physical conditions like hunger. Cognitive theorists tend to see people as

➢ Active,
➢ Curious and always searching for information to solve personally relevant problems.

In their view people work hard because they enjoy work and because they want to understand. They
emphasize intrinsic motivation, (Weiner, 1984). The teacher should help learner to develop their
curiosity and methods of searching for information. Students needs to be trained to be intrinsically
motivated so that they can search knowledge for its own sake. Intrinsic motivation is included in this
lesson and it will be dealt with at length then.

Social Learning Theories of Motivation

Social learning theories of motivation are integrations of behavioral and cognitive approaches. These
theorist see motivation as a product of two main forces ;the individual expectation of success in a task
and the vicarious experience.

The person’s expectation of success in a task is determined by personal effectiveness also called self-
efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to personal competence. One important idea that teachers could borrow
from this concepts is that learners need to empowered to perform learning tasks with high chances of
succeeding. If a learner knows he will succeed in solving a mathematical problem or in balancing a
chemistry equation is motivation will be heightened. Students with high sense of academic efficacy
display greater persistence, effort and, intrinsic interest in their academic learning and performance.

The vicarious experience constitutes observation of other students. A student compares his
performance with that of other children. If the child discovers that his performance is poor he is likely to
lose his sense of competence and efficacy altogether. In this respect the teacher should help the child to
keep up with the level of performance of other children in order to keep up motivation. In many
instances teachers aggravate the problem when they torment the child who is comparing with peers
unfavorably. They make the child sink deeper in despair and apathy. A little help, understanding,
encouragement and even persuasion and moral support may be all that this child need to improve his
sense of efficacy.

Humanistic Approaches

The proponents of the humanistic approaches to motivation are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The
humanistic perspective is referred to as the “third force” psychology because it developed in the 1940’s
as a reaction against two dominant forces at the time. The first force was Freudian psychoanalysis while
the second was Watson’s behaviorism. The humanistic perspective emphasized intrinsic source of
motivation. They held the view that every human being has an inherent desire to self-actualize. This
desire motivates the person to continually want to seek self-actualization. According to Abraham
Maslow students cannot develop in the direction of self-actualization unless their need are met. He

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developed the hierarchy with a view to help the teacher to understand the conditions that must be met
before we can ask students to be motivated to learn.

Maslow Hierarchy Of Needs

Maslow, (1970) suggests that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lower level needs to
higher level needs. The lower level needs are survival and safety related. They consist: the primary
needs, basic biological needs like the need for food, water, temperature regulation and pain avoidance.
Safety needs refer to the person desire to feel secure in non-threatening physical and social
environments. The higher level needs are those intellectual achievement and self- actualization. Self-
actualization is Maslow’s term to refer to self- fulfillment or realization of personal potential.

Self actualization

Self esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological needs

1) Physiological needs

At the base of the hierarchy are physiological needs. They constitute the need for food, water,
temperature regulation and pain avoidance. These are basic needs for the survival o the organism and
they must be met first before the learner can be motivated to learn. A student who is hungry or in pain
or even one who needs to go to the toilet has to satisfy the need first because these needs are
proponent or pressuring. What can school do in order to help meet this need? The school could ensure;

➢ That there is a lunch program

➢ There is clean water to drink
➢ There are usable toilets for students.

Students should be never punished by being deprived off food neither should they be denied time to
use toilet facilities.

2) Safety

The second level of hierarchy, consist of safety needs. These are needs to do with security of the
environment. These are natural elements like wind, floods, lightening. They can be met when the school
provide firm safe buildings that will not be blown by the wind or be washed away by floods. The school
buildings should be fortified against natural elements like lightening. In lightening prone areas
lightening-arrestors should be installed. In flood prone areas proper drainage should be put in place.
Insecurity can also be caused by the human factors like political aggression found in bandit prone areas
or areas hit by tribal clashes. These should be eliminated in order to give students secure environment

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in which to learn. Insecurity can also exist in form of bullying where new comer, are physically or
psychologically harassed. These incidents should be minimized if not completely eliminated. Teachers
can to pose insecurity to learners if they use physically or psychologically threatening methods in their
discharge of duty. Whatever the source of insecurity it is makes the students fearful and they spend a lot
of their time and energy dwelling on their fears rather than learning tasks.

3) Belongingness

The third level of need is the belongingness. This is the need to be loved by significant other people and
be accepted by them. For the students, significant other people are; parents, siblings, peers and
teachers. Every person has a desire to feel accepted and if any threat to love is perceived the person
begins to malfunction psychologically. How can the teacher help learners meet the need for love
belongingness? The teacher should help learners

➢ To make and keep friends by training them in social skills when and where necessary. The
teacher should also try to bond with the students by developing loving relationship with them.
➢ By a loving relationship we mean parental not romantic love.
➢ The teacher should also show concern and sensitivity to the needs and feelings of the learner
and communicate the attitude of care. Students respond to by extending the love and sensitivity
towards teachers in reciprocation. This I an aspect that can go very far in instilling discipline and
at the same time motivating learning. We know that there are prevailing circumstances that
make it difficult for the teacher to bond with students namely;
➢ Work overload,
➢ Overwhelming teacher student ratio among other profession challenges. However the teacher
should make effort to communicate care and sensitivity to his pupils at every opportunity.
4) self esteem

Self - esteem is also referred to as prestige need. It underlies the general competitiveness. The need to
be outstanding,in various aspects of school life. Some students will excel in

➢ academic performance while

➢ others will shine in field events.
➢ There are those who hold position of prestige and are envied because of their leadership
qualities.
➢ Some students shine because their outstanding beauty and strength.

How do teachers help learners meet these needs?

➢ The teachers should open their eyes to the school stars and give them an opportunity
to shine by creating conditions that will allow healthy competitiveness.
➢ The school should develop incentives to encourage competitiveness. Some schools do
this by promising field trips or valued rewards to the students or group of students
who show excellence in academic work, games and sports in school, beauty contests,

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 leadership and in any other areas of excellence. The main ideal is to put the lamp on
the housetop where all can see it and not cover it up with a bucket.
5) Self-actualization

At the top of the hierarchy is the need of self-actualization. This is he need to develop ones highest
human capacity of think and feel and understand the world. In Maslow’s view people’s failure to
satisfy “lower” needs leave the individual unable o focus on “higher” level needs. If students; are
hungry, insecure and unloved, they wont worry about academic success. Although this need looks
like it’s beyond the attainment of learners, I believe there are ways in which they can be assisted to
systematically self-actualize. Learners can be helped to become the best they are capable of
becoming, release their potential to optimum levels if the school creates the right conditions
consciously and systematically. Learners psychological, safety, affiliate and esteem needs should be
planned for and delivered. Then there should be deliberate effort to help learners improve in many
areas of school life namely,

➢ Knowledge,
➢ The need for beauty.
➢ The need to perform at peak in all school endeavors.
➢ Learners should be trained to study and value good performance.
➢ Learners should also be trained to value cleanliness, neatness not only personal but
environmental as well.

Extrinsic And Intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to the external forces that motivates a person’s behavior, while intrinsic
motivation refers to internal forces that motivates a person’s behavior.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation can be delivered in two main ways

➢ The use of punishment

➢ The use of incentives

The use of punishment or coercive power

This refers to the use of punishment or threats to punish the pupils who not met the set standards of
behavior whether academic or general conduct or attitude. The use of force and even threats to use it
often serves as powerful motivators of behavior. If used properly and wisely punishment can instill
discipline. It is important to understand the effect coercive power has on pupils’ behavior. When a
teacher promise to punish a student

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 ➢ Who does not score 50% and above in a test or
➢ The one who does not complete assignments.
➢ When punishment is promised to late comers,
➢ Those whose work is untidy, those who are rude. A question we need to ask is what effects
does the threat or punishment have on those behaviors? Two things are bond to happen when
we use coercive power on behavior.
First, it serves as an incentive to motivate desirable behavior. It motivates the pupils to avoid
or escape the punishment. But it has two serious limitations, these are;
➢ Even if it succeeds in stopping undesirable behavior it is likely to create dependence on
external agents.
➢ A pupil who is used of force never learns self-direction.
➢ He relies on others to direct them.
➢ A leaner who is punished never performs task with enthusiasm.
➢ He resents the things he does
➢ He never learns cooperation.

Use of incentives or rewards

These refers to use of rewards or promise of reward to pupils who display desirable behavior. For
example, the promise of trips, status, points, marks, money and so on. this kind of motivation is useful
because people want and need rewards.

➢ Pupils will work hard to get good grades so that they can get the promised reward.
➢ They will also strive to attain standards of behavior that will lead to reward.

Use of rewards can cause dependency, the pupil work to please the teacher but in absence of rewards
behavior stops. So the motivation is short lived. For this reason it is important to rely on intrinsic
motivation.

Intrinsic motivation

This is motivation that comes from within the learner. It is also referred to as identification or ego
involvement. This motivation result from the pupils’ identification with desired goals. An intrinsically
motivated learner is one who has the desire and the will to learn. His ego is fully involved in the learning
task. If this is the case the teacher needs to know what will make a learner identify with the learning
task. The learner will identify the learning task if his need for competence is met. By competence we
mean

➢ The ability to perform a task

➢ Mastery of a task or
➢ Competitiveness in a task

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Every pupil has an inherent desire to perform competently in school tasks. The teacher’s role is to
discover hoe to help the learner to achieve this. The teacher can assist the learner by providing him with
opportunity to become competent. This can be done to by helping the pupil to avoid failure.

This can be achieved if learners are given task they are intellectual capable of performing. If a learner is
successful in performing a task, his self-concept is enhanced and he gains self-respect from good feeling
of being able to perform a task. This is ego inflating it makes the ego grow fat. Another thing that the
teacher could do is to help learners set up both short-term and long-term goals. The short-term goals
could consist of mastering topics and getting good grades in the test set no them. Passing the end of
year or terminal examination should be the long-term goal. For example, aiming to score A or B+ in a
given subject. At all stages the teacher should provide the learner with immediate feedback. This means
that they should know their performance soon after a test or an examination.

The feedback should inform them of the of the correct response expected as well as informing them
how well they have achieved their goals. Basically we want to emphasize the importance of empowering
the learner so that he is successful in the learning task and making sure the marks he or she earns are
reflected on the paper. It is to dispel the myth that a learner who scores 90% becomes self-confident
and may slacken in his performance. Let the teacher know that the learner who is successful develops
an interest in an activity and continues to pursue that activity. On the other hand failure results in
decline interests. Failure has other negative consequences, for example;

➢ Avoidance of the activity

➢ Absenteeism
➢ Total loss of motivation

Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation is the desire

➢ To excel
➢ To complete difficult task.
➢ To meet high standards and
➢ To out perform others.

Pupils who are high in the need to achieve ate those who are intrinsically motivated. They differ from
low need achievers in a number of ways

➢ They do better in problem solving tasks

➢ They show better performance and more rapid improvement in verbal tasks.
➢ They set realistic but challenging goals for themselves
➢ They show a need to competence for its own sake as early as three years of age

Important factors that promise achievement motivation

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Parental expectations-Parents should put realistic pressure on the child’s performance. They should not
allow a child to underachieve nor expect a child to achieve beyond his level of competence.

Sex of the child-depending on socialization boys, tend to show high achievement motivation than girls.
This occurs in cases where they are expected to perform well, pass their examinations, get jobs and
finally become providers for their families.

Size of family-again the view held is that in small families where there are the parents and probably two
children, achievement motivation is higher while in large families achievement motivation is low. In the
African context and in Kenya in particular the issue is not as simple as whether the family is large or
small. There are large families which have produced many prominent people. However, as the cost of
educating children continue to soar higher and higher then the families with many children may not be
able to sustain the in institution of learning.

Birth order of the child-first born are said to have a higher need for achievement than later siblings. This
is determined by the family’s expectations of their first born. If the first-born is pressurized to achieve In
order to take up parental roles, then he will work hard to fulfill parental expectations. There are many
instances today where the first-born ends up to become so spoilt, that even finishing school remain a
remote dream.

Culture-there are cultures that encourage cooperation. In those cultures achievement motivation is
nurtured. Children learning in these cultures learn to want to excel, to out perform others and generally
to be outstanding. In the culture that encourage cooperation achievement motivation remains hidden
due to lack of competition.

Nurturing Achievement Motivation

How can a teacher encourage the development of achievement motivation? The tendency to achieve
success is determined by three things

➢ The motive to succeed or need achievement

➢ The persons estimate of the likelihood of success in a task
➢ The incentive for success

The teacher should make every possible attempt to arouse in the learners the need to achieve. This can
be done by empowering learners to succeed by

➢ Providing them with task that they can master under conditions of reinforcement.
➢ The learner should have the promise that the likelihood to succeed is high.
➢ If he knows that he is more likely to succeed then he will pursue the learning task.
It is the teacher’s duty to help learners to be achievers.
Personalized goals and incentives as motivators
Intrinsic motivation is also demonstrated by personal goals and incentives

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 ➢ Many motives are personalized.
➢ There are people motivated to be leaders and
➢ Others to followers.
➢ Some people want to assert themselves by physical actions.
➢ Others want to use the spoken words
➢ While others want to seek recognition by becoming somebody.
➢ A doctor, a lawyer, an engineer, teacher, lecturer and so on. These personal motives
determine the individual’s level of aspiration.
➢ Here aspiration means the expectation of accomplishment.
➢ Some people have high levels of task accomplishment while others are low.
➢ A person’s level of aspiration is usually modified by his success and failure.
➢ A person who usually succeeds continues to have high aspiration.
➢ While the failing person’s aspiration drops.
➢ If a person is succeeding and hence the level of aspiration is high then his self-concept is
positive. This can be noted in a person who considers himself an intellectual and studies
hard to become scholar.
➢ The person does everything he can to maintain the image of a scholar.
➢ On the hand the person who develops a negative self-image of failure will not do very
much to change the situation.
➢ Instead he becomes resigned to his fate.
➢ With this in mind the teacher is advised to help each learner to identify his personal
goals and aspirations.

PROBLEM SOLVING
It’s a higher order cognitive process and intellectual function that require the modulation of more
routine / fundamental skills. A problem arises when one needs to overcome an obstacle inorder to get
out of a current state to a desired state.

Behaviorists like Thorndike developed the law of effect (trial and error) after observing cats discover
how to escape from the cage into which he had placed them.

Gestalt psychologists argued that problem solving was a productive process. In particular in the process
of thinking about a problem individuals sometimes restructured their representation of the problem
leading to a flash of insight that enabled them to reach a solution.

Steps in problem solving

➢ Define the problem ,diagnose the situation so that your focus is on the problem not just the
symptoms
➢ Generate alternative solutions, collect information or data to establish what others have done
when faced with the same problem. Formulate possible solutions /hypothesis. Establish
methods of solving the problem.

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 ➢ Evaluate and select an alternative /judge and predict possible outcomes.
➢ Implement and follow up the solution.
➢ Follow up for feedback.
➢ Revision.

Factors that hinder problem solving

➢ Fear of making mistakes

➢ Fear of taking risks where outcomes are uncertain.
➢ Inability to think creatively.
➢ Inflexible thinking where one is not able to switch from one thinking to another.
➢ Being rigid and seeing only what you want to see.
➢ Stereotyping
➢ Physical /emotional distress.
➢ Failure to see the problem in perspective.
➢ Functional fixedness whereby individuals fail to recognize that objects can be used for a
purpose other than what they were designed for.
➢ Einstelhing effect/mindset /entrenchment. It occurs when a problem solver becomes fixedon
applying a strategy that has previously worked out but is less helpful for the current problem.

CONCEPT LEARNING
Concepts help us to learn and categorize objects and events in or life experiences to generalize
information and think abstractly. Concept is the idea formed in our intellect as a result of knowing what
a thing is in reality. We also get ideas or concepts about things that are explained to us, e.g God, truth,
goodness e.t.c. Concepts are universal. One with a true concept of these objects will recognize a tree or
an elephant whenever they see them.Concepts enable us to classify objects , animals or events .Concept
formation or concept learning refers to the development of ability to identify, recognize and describe
common features of categories of objects or events.

➢ Child begins to form concepts by forming mental images and associating words with objects in
the environment.
➢ The next step is generalization where the child learns to associate the word dog with a four
legged animal and may call a cat a dog.
➢ The next step is discrimination where it learns to differentiate a dog from a goat and also
realizes that there are many types of dogs.
In learning concepts one must recognize relevant features and ignore those that are irrelevant
e.g be able to see common features of fruits and note that spinach is not a fruit.
A concept is well understood when its related to other concepts and when it can be expressed
correctly.
Importance of concepts
➢ Helps to know and understand the world we live in.

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 ➢ Helps us to understand ourselves.
➢ Helps us to think abstractly.
➢ Helps us to store information in our memory in an organized manner.
➢ Enables to generalize information to new situations.
➢ Enable us to differentiate objects, events, ideas and to respond effectively to them.

Methods of concept formation.

1) Inductive learning. This occours when a child learns concepts through the process of
association , generalization and discrimination. When a learner can verbalize the
defining attributes of the concepts , this shows discovery learning. Inductive
learning is is a process of generalizing from specific experiences .A baby learns what
a cup is by using the milk cup, he then associates the cup with other objects which a
have similar shape or function and learns that they are cups.
2) Deductive learning.This occurs when we relate specific experiences to general
concepts learnt previously.Laanguage facilitates deductive learning of concepts. In
deductive learning , concepts are defined early the learners then practice by
thinking ofor selecting examples of concepts for example children can select a
triangle from many other shapes when they have learnt that a triangle has three
sides.

Types of concepts

1) Natural concept which is formed through everyday experience and is acquired by

comparing new objects, events or situations with an original model.
2) Perceptual concept, these are based on information we receive through the senses.
3) Functional relational concepts are based on relationships among members of a class
for example; we can group plate and spoons together because they are used
together.
4) Functional locational are those in which members share a common location for
example farm animals , wild animals ladies clothes e.t.c
5) Analytical concepts are those formed by identifying specific feature possessed by all
of its members e.g living things that have spots, beards or four legs.
6) Super ordinate hierarchical or categorical concepts are concepts that have a shared
attribute among objects e.g mangoes, lemons, oranges are fruits.

Factors that influence concept formation.

1) Interests, beliefs ,values and cultures.

2) A lot of experience i.e constant exposure to the world.
3) Instruction/ teaching/ training.
4) Increased vocabulary among babies /infants .

Concept formation according to Jean Piaget

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 ➢ 3months old babies are able to group objects with a common feature using spatial arrangement
and motion.
➢ Between 7-8 months, they are able to categorize tings in a natural environment such as birds,
utensils, animals. They use shape, texture & color o identify and categorize objects by function
and behavior. They sort people by their behaviors, age and gender.
➢ Between 12-18 months, they can group objects in one category for example if given four
bananas and two baskets they will group the bananas and not the baskets.
➢ After 18 months, they can group things into categories , one for bananas and one for baskets.
➢ 4-7years is the intuitive thought stage ,they can put things into categories on the basis of 2 or
more attributes , for example they can sort mangoes, oranges and bananas into three
categories but may not be able to sort them according to size i.e small and large mangoes.
➢ 7-12 years , is the concrete operation stage, children can be able to divide things into different
sets and to consider interrelationships , they can also be able to separate big from small
mangoes and can explain common features.

Factors that enhance concept formation among children.

➢ Increase in vocabulary
➢ Increase in knowledge
➢ Experience
➢ Training
➢ Picture reading
➢ Cultural conditions

Application of Jean Piaget’s theory in teaching and learning.

1) Involve children in their own learning, let them handle materials and solve problems so that they
can make their own discoveries.
2) Provide children with concrete materials to observe touch and manipulate in order to retain
concepts.
3) Allow children to observe the environment, visit resource persons in order to construct their own
knowledge.
4) Provide activities according to age and grade level since children develop through stages.
5) Provide concrete materials when doing mathematic operations.
6) Encourage group work to help appreciate other learners ideas and to reduce egocentrism.
Concept formation by Jerome Bruner.
He says that concept formation is influenced by experience.
➢ 0-7 years a child is in enactive representation stage. It discovers as it actively participates
in learning activities .A child should be given variety of objects to explore , manipulate
and experiment in order to form correct concepts. (Inductive learning).
➢ 7-12 years is Iconic representation stage children can represent categories using
symbols such as pictures, drawings, models all based in the real world.
➢ 12 + years is the symbolic stage. Children can think abstractly.

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 ➢ Bruner advocates for discovery learning, learners to be actively involved in learning and
the teacher to act as a facilitator /guide.
➢ The curriculum should be matched with learners’ readiness in terms of background,
goals, capacities and past experience.

Importance of discovery learning

➢ Increases learners ability to learn related material

➢ Increases interest in a task.
➢ Leads to retention of information.
➢ Improves memory
➢ Increases chances of transfer of learning.
➢ Develops initiative in dealing with similar problems.
➢ Learning to learn.

Principals used by Bruner

➢ Motivation- Desire to explore and learn

➢ Structure- Teach according to the learner cognitive structure.
➢ Sequence- Arrange content in a sequential manner, from simple to complex.
➢ Reinforcement- feedback; compliments, token economy.
➢ Spiral curriculum Topic to be presented at several levels of education increasing in
difficulty.

- END-

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