Basics of

immunity
 Topic outcomes

2-3.5. explain the terms antigen, immunogens, hapten, epitope,

adjuvant, superantigen and heterophile antigen.

2-3.4. list the primary and secondary lymphoid organs and the
different cells involved in immunity.
 TERMINOLOGY

2-3.5. explain the terms antigen, immunogens, hapten,

epitope, adjuvant, superantigen and heterophile antigen.
 A molecule or any substance (part of a molecule)
➢ recognized by the receptors of the adaptive
immune system

➢ that causes the body to make an immune

Antigens response against that molecule or substance
(a specific target of the immune response)

➢ composed of many determinants or

EPITOPES, IMMUNOGENS

Include
➢ Toxins: chemicals
➢ Microorganisms: bacteria, viruses
➢ self antigens or foreign antigens
 a substance that
➢ stimulates an immune response such as
production of an antibody &
Immunogen ➢ serves as the target of that response
when introduced into an animal
example of an immunogen is the surface antigen of the
hepatitis B virus

➢ a single antigenic determinant-the portion

Epitopes of a molecule that will combine with a
particular antibody combining site.

the antigen-binding site of an antibody molecule

 Epitopes

➢ Immune cells do not interact with or recognize an entire

immunogen instead they recognize discrete sites on the
macromolecule which is called epitopes

➢ Epitopes are immunologically active regions of an

immunogen that bind to antibodies (or other receptors)

➢ An epitope is part of a much larger antigen, such as a viral

protein, with which an antibody can react

➢ A viral protein may contain a large number of epitopes

capable of interacting with many different specific antibodies
or T-cell receptors.
 Haptens
➢ Haptens are incomplete antigens which could never induce an
immune response when administered by themselves, but which
can when coupled to a carrier molecule.

➢ Haptens though non immunogenic can react with the products of

a specific immune response

➢ Haptens are compounds capable of being bound by immunologic

receptors, but they do not necessarily elicit an immune response
by themselves
For example, a relatively simple chemical compound such as
penicillin cannot by itself induce an antibody response. If the hapten
is coupled to a macromolecule, such as a protein, antibodies can be
generated that bind very specifically to the hapten
 Superantigens

The antigens which polyclonally activate a large fraction of the

T cells. Examples:
✓ Staphylococcal enterotoxins (food poisoning)
✓ Staphylococcal toxic shock toxin (TSST 1)
The result is that a whole 'family' of T cells respond, rather
than a single clone, with excessive & potentially damaging
over production of cytokines.
 ➢ Common antigens that exist among
humans, animals & microorganisms

➢ a variety of viruses & bacteria have similar

antigenic structures with some tissues or
Heterophile extracellular components of normal human
antigens body

➢ immune response to these heterophilic

antigens will produce cross-reactive
antibodies and cause autoimmune diseases
 COMPONENTS OF IMMUNE
SYSTEM

2-3.4. list the primary and secondary lymphoid organs and the
different cells involved in immunity.
 Mechanisms of immunity

➢ Innate immunity (natural, or native, immunity) react

immediately, constitute the first line of defense

➢ Adaptive immunity (acquired, or specific, immunity) develops

more slowly than innate immunity, more powerful in combating
infections, consists of mechanisms that are stimulated by
(“adapt to”) exposure to microbes and other foreign substances
COMPONENTS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE

➢ epithelial barriers that block entry of microbes

➢ phagocytic cells (neutrophils & macrophages)
➢ dendritic cells
➢ natural killer cells
➢ innate lymphoid cells
➢ several plasma proteins, including the
proteins of the complement system
 COMPONENTS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE

➢ The first cells to appear at the site of damage

Neutrophils or infection
➢ Phagocytose bacteria
➢ promote inflammation through the secretion
of cytokines

➢ secrete cytokines signaling often initiates the

innate immune response, as they are
Macrophages resident in many tissues

➢ phagocytose pathogens & antigens

 COMPONENTS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE

➢ tissue-resident lymphocytes that lack T-cell

antigen receptors

➢ cannot respond to antigens, activated by

Innate lymphoid cytokines & other mediators produced at sites
cells (ILCs) of tissue damage

➢ sources of inflammatory cytokines during early

phases of immune reactions
 COMPONENTS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE
➢ provide early protection against many viruses &
intracellular bacteria
Natural killer
(NK) cells ➢ recognize mutated or damaged cells

➢ Takes part in both Innate & Adaptive immune response

One type of
innate lymphoid ➢ NK cells contain special proteins perforin & proteases
cells known as granzymes

➢ Upon release in close proximity to a cell slated for

killing, perforin forms pores in the cell membrane of the
target cell through which the granzymes & associated
molecules can enter, inducing apoptosis
 COMPONENTS Basics
OF THE of Immunity
INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE

➢ specialized cells present in epithelia, lymphoid

organs, & most tissue
Dendritic cells
➢ phagocytose antigens

➢ secrete cytokines , which recruit activate other

immune cells promote inflammation
Cellular Receptors for Microbes, Products of Damaged
Cells, & Foreign Substances

Cells that participate in innate immunity are capable of recognizing certain

components that are shared among related microbes & that are often
essential for infectivity (cannot be mutated to allow the microbes to evade the defense mechanisms).
These microbial structures are called pathogen-associated molecular
patterns

Pattern recognition receptors are located in all cellular compartments

➢ plasma membrane receptors detect extracellular microbes
➢ endosomal receptors detect ingested microbes
➢ cytosolic receptors detect microbes in the cytoplasm
Five major families of cellular receptors in
innate immunity:

✓ TLRs (Toll-like receptors)

✓ CLRs (C-type lectin receptors)

✓ NLRs (NOD-like receptors)

✓ RLRs (RIG-like receptors)

✓ CDSs (cytosolic DNA sensors)

 Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive immune system consists of lymphocytes & their products,
including antibodies
Two types of adaptive immunity

➢ humoral immunity ➢ cell-mediated immunity

protects against extracellular microbes responsible for defense against
& their toxins intracellular microbes & against cancers

Humoral immunity is mediated by B (bone Cellular immunity is mediated by T (thymus-

marrow–derived) lymphocytes & their derived) lymphocytes
secreted products, antibodies
Both classes of lymphocytes express highly specific receptors for a wide variety of substances,
which are called antigens
 Cells of the Adaptive Immune System-T lymphocyte

▪ Mature lymphocytes that have not encountered the antigen

for which they are specific are said to be naïve
(immunologically inexperienced)

▪ After they are activated by recognition of antigens & other

signals, lymphocytes differentiate into effector cells
 Cells of the Adaptive Immune System-T lymphocyte

➢ Helper T lymphocytes stimulate B lymphocytes to make

antibodies & activate other leukocytes to destroy microbes

➢ Cytotoxic (killer) T lymphocytes (CTLs) kill infected cells

➢ Regulatory T lymphocytes limit immune responses & prevent

reactions against self-antigens
➢ T cell recognizes a specific cell-bound antigen by means of
an antigen-specific TCR

➢ TCR recognizes peptide antigens that are bound to &

presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
molecules on the surfaces of antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
 The principal classes of lymphocytes & their functions. B and T lymphocytes are the cells
of adaptive immunity

Cells of the
Adaptive
Immune
System
 B Lymphocytes
➢ B lymphocytes are the only cells in the body capable of producing
antibodies, the mediators of humoral immunity. B lymphocytes develop
from precursors in the bone marrow

➢ B cells recognize antigen via the B-cell antigen receptor complex

Membrane-bound antibodies of the IgM & IgD isotypes, present on the surface of all
mature, naïve B cells, are the antigen-binding component of the B-cell receptor (BCR)
complex

➢ After stimulation by antigen & other signals B cells develop into plasma
cells (protein factories for producing antibodies as well as long-lived memory cella)
 Antigen-presenting cells
➢ Dendritic cells are the most important antigen-presenting cells for
initiating T-cell responses against protein antigens

➢ Macrophages are a part of the mononuclear phagocyte system:important

functions in the induction & effector phases of adaptive immune
responses are discussed.

➢ Macrophages function as antigen-presenting cells in T-cell activation

(macrophages that have phagocytosed microbes & protein antigens process the
antigens & present peptide fragments to T cells)

➢ Macrophages are key effector cells in certain forms of cell-mediated

immunity, the reaction that serves to eliminate intracellular microbes
➢ In this type of response, T cells activate macrophages & enhance their ability to kill ingested
microbes
 Tissues of the Immune System
consist of
➢ Thymus, where T cells develop
Primary (central )
lymphoid organs ➢ Bone marrow: site of production of all
blood cells, including naïve B cells
➢ in which T & B lymphocytes mature &
become competent to respond to antigens
➢ Lymph nodes
Secondary (peripheral)
➢ Spleen
lymphoid organs
➢ Mucosal & cutaneous lymphoid tissues

➢ in which adaptive immune responses to

microbes are initiated
 Thymus

▪ Located in the anterior mediastinum

▪ Immature T cell precursors that migrate from the bone

marrow undergo maturation & selection to become mature,
naïve T cells that are capable of responding to antigen

▪ The thymus is critical to the development of a normal T cell

Homes of Acquired Immunity

Both, T and B cells proliferate, Immunologically competent B and

get education and become T cells migrate here and wait for
immunologically competent. fight with pathogens.

Tonsils

(T(Tcells)
cells)

(B cells)

MALT (mucosa associated

lymphoid tissue) in
GIT (Peyer Patches);
Tracheobronchial tree &
Genitourinary tract.
Origin of Immune Cells
 Secondary lymphoid organs
➢ Secondary lymphoid organs are the residence
for a variety of lymphoid cells (mainly T and B
lymphocytes, dendritic cells)
➢ Lymph nodes are nodular aggregates of
lymphoid tissues located along lymphatic
channels throughout the body
➢ As lymph slowly suffuses through lymph
nodes, antigen-presenting cells are positioned
to recognize antigens (e.g., derived from microbes
that may enter through epithelia into tissues and are carried
in the lymph). In

➢ DCs pick up & transport antigens of microbes

from epithelia & tissues via lymphatic vessels
to the lymph nodes.
The location of B cells ( stained green, using
the immunofluorescence technique) and T
cells (stained red) in a lymph node.
Normal lymph node, microscopic

well-defined connective tissue capsule

subcapsular sinus where afferent

lymphatics drain lymph fluid from tissues
peripheral to the node

germinal centers- red arrows

The lymph may contain macrophages & dendritic cells, both forms of antigen-
presenting cells, carrying antigens to the node. Beneath the subcapsular sinus is
the paracortical zone (▲) with lymphoid follicles having pale germinal centers with
a predominance of B lymphocytes. In the germinal centers (∗), immune responses
to antigens are generated, assisted by a darker mantle zone of mainly T
lymphocytes. Central to the follicles are sinusoids extending to the hilum of the
node. The efferent lymphatics drain out the hilum
 Normal lymph node, microscopic at high magnification

Sub-capsular sinus

A lymph node follicle with a germinal center contains larger lymphocytes undergoing
cytokine activation. At the lower right is the subcapsular sinus (+). The center of the
lymphoid follicle—the germinal center—is where CD4 helper lymphocytes and antigen-
presenting cells (macrophages and follicular dendritic cells) interact with B
lymphocytes, leading to an antibody-mediated adaptive immune response.
The spleen is an abdominal organ that serves
the same role in immune responses to blood-
borne antigens as the lymph nodes do in
responses to lymph-borne antigens
 Spleen
➢ The spleen is an abdominal organ that serves the same role in immune responses
to blood-borne antigens as the lymph nodes do in responses to lymph-borne
antigens

➢ Blood entering the spleen flows through a network of sinusoids lined by

macrophages and DCs. Blood-borne antigens are trapped in the spleen by these
cells, which can then initiate adaptive immune responses to these antigens

➢ Individuals without a functioning spleen are more susceptible to encapsulated

bacteria.

➢ The spleen also sequesters roughly one third of the body’s platelets

➢ The spleen contains white pulp & red pulp, surrounded by a fibrous capsule

➢ Red pulp contains large numbers of red blood cells & macrophages and other
antigen presenting cells (APCs) phagocytose antigens

➢ White pulp contains large numbers of white blood cells

The cutaneous and mucosal lymphoid systems

▪ located under the epithelia of the skin & the gastrointestinal

& respiratory tracts, respectively

▪ They respond to antigens that enter through breaches in the

epithelium

▪ Pharyngeal tonsils & Peyer patches of the intestine are two

anatomically defined mucosal lymphoid tissues

▪ At any time, a large fraction of the body's lymphocytes are

in the mucosal tissues (reflecting the large size of these
tissues), and many of these are memory cells