FORENSIC FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION

HISTORY, INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF

FINGERPRINTS
Fingerprints as forensic evidence:
Among the forensic sciences, fingerprint analysis is one of the most popular and well-
established subdisciplines. Fingerprints have been used for personal identification for more
than a century. After a suspected criminal is arrested, their fingerprints are taken and
compared to previous arrest records. Using fingerprint powders and chemical processing
techniques, fingerprints are created at crime scenes and in labs. Throughout history, they have
been used to solve innumerable crimes. Thousands of fingerprint examiners worldwide
identify fingerprints on a daily basis.

Three main areas of forensic science are: (1) proving the existence of evidence that a crime
has been committed; (2) identifying the perpetrators and their relationships to the crime scene
and other people; and (3) reconstructing the crime scene and the events that transpired.
Throughout these procedures, fingerprints may be used to generate leads for further
investigation. The evidence linkage triangle, a popular pictorial depiction of the connection
between the crime scene, the victim, and the suspect, is shown in Figure. Multiple suspects,
victims, or even crime scenes could exist. Fingerprints have the power to connect a suspect to
a crime scene, a victim to a crime scene, or both.

Fingerprints are taken from evidence items in order to generate leads for further investigation.
However, they serve as proof in and of themselves. "Anything that tends to prove or disprove
a fact in contention" is what Gardner refers to as evidence. There are two categories of
evidence: tangible and testimonies. Verbal reports, such as eyewitness statements or
interview transcripts, are referred to as testimonial evidence. Subjective evidence is
susceptible to the deliberate or inadvertent biases of the individual providing it. Physical
evidence comprises forensic evidence like fingerprints, DNA, and trace evidence, as well as
tangible evidentiary items like weapons and bloodstained clothing.

A scientist needs to be objective all the time. Integrity is essential to a fair forensic
investigation; it involves acknowledging that everyone has biases and actively working to
overcome them. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines integrity as "firm adherence to a
code of especially moral or artistic values." Additionally, it connects the terms
"completeness," "soundness," and "incorruptibility" with integrity. Your personal and
professional integrity must be compatible and unquestionable in the field of forensic sciences.

Fingerprint Analysis:
Because fingerprints are unique, fingerprint evidence is valuable. Every fingerprint is unique.
As a result, fingerprint examiners are able to identify the original fingerprint. The process of
comparing two friction ridge impressions to see if they originated from the same source—that
is, if the same person made both impressions—is known as fingerprint comparison. In order
to identify the source of the prints, fingerprint examiners compare unknown fingerprints from
crime scenes or pieces of evidence to known fingerprints.
There are two types of structural characteristics of fingerprints that allow fingerprint
examiners to compare fingerprints and make identifications: pattern types and minutiae.
Pattern types—arches, loops, and whorls—are not unique to the individual. They are class
characteristics.
Class characteristics are those features that place an individual or object in a group or
subcategory.
Minutiae (pronounced mi-noo-sha) are individualizing characteristics.
Individualizing characteristics are those features that are unique to one particular person or
thing. Fingerprint examiners analyze both the class characteristics and individualizing
characteristics of fingerprints in order to reach a conclusion.
There are eight sub-pattern types within those categories: ulnar loop, radial loop, plain
whorl, double-loop whorl, central pocket loop whorl, accidental, plain arch, and tented arch.
Other class characteristics of fingerprints include the presence of creases and scars, the ridge
count of a loop, and the whorl tracing of a whorl pattern.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1 The three basic fingerprint pattern types: (a) arches, (b) loops, and (c) whorls.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 2 The eight fingerprint subpattern types: (a) plain arch, (b) tented arch, (c) rightslanted loop, (d) left-slanted
loop, (e) plain whorl, (f) central pocket loop whorl, (g) double-loop whorl, and (h) accidental whorl.
 (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3 A line drawing of a (a) bifurcation, (b) dot, and (c) ending ridge.

Ridge Ending
Bifurcation

Dot

Fig. 4 A bifurcation, dot, and ending ridge in a magnified portion of a fingerprint.

Fig. 5 A fingerprint magnifier, also known as a loupe.

 (a) (b)

Fig.6 A fingerprint that has been identified to a suspect. (a) a latent fingerprint from a crime scene, (b) the left
thumbprint of the suspect.

The word “minutiae” refers to small details. The friction ridges that make up a fingerprint
pattern are not continuous, as they may appear at first glance.
There are three types of fingerprint minutiae: bifurcations, ridge endings, and dots.
When one friction ridge divides into two, resembling a fork in a road, this is known as a
bifurcation. An abrupt termination of a friction ridge can form an ending ridge. Instead of
being continuous, a friction ridge can have ending ridges on both ends. We call this a short
ridge. The dot, which, as its name suggests, appears as a dot between two friction ridges, is
the third kind of minutiae. That ridge is the shortest that can exist. Magnification is the best
way to observe minutiae. The 3× to 5× magnification of a standard fingerprint magnifier
enables us to compare the fine details between known and unknown fingerprints.

A fingerprint comparison can yield one of three results: inconclusive, exclusion, or

identification. Are the fingerprints identical? This is referred to as individualization or
positive identification. This indicates that the fingerprint came from a single person and
nowhere. The SWGFAST defines "individualization" and "identification" as synonymous
terms. When two fingerprints' corresponding areas are incompatible, it results in an
exclusion. When a fingerprint cannot be positively identified or ruled out, an inconclusive
result is obtained.

Uniqueness and Permanence:

Two main premises form the basis for the science of fingerprint identification:
1. Fingerprints are unique.
2. Fingerprints are permanent.
Uniqueness means that there are likely no two people in the world with the same
fingerprints. Even identical twins, with identical DNA, have different fingerprints. We
know fingerprints are unique because of the inherent randomness of nature. Throughout the
history of fingerprint identification, it has been widely accepted that no two people have the
exact same fingerprints.
Permanence means your fingerprints do not change throughout your lifetime. They form in
utero from the deepest layer of the epidermis and do not change as you age.

Physiology of the Fingerprints:

In order to appreciate the inherent biological differences that make fingerprints unique, we
must first begin with a discussion about how fingerprints are generated. Human
embryological development is a complex process that starts with the joining of two cells, the
sperm and the egg. Embryology, or developmental biology, is the study of the development of
an organism from the egg stage through birth. Three fundamental aspects of
developmental biology are cell growth (how cells grow and divide), cell differentiation
(what kind of cells they will become), and morphogenesis (what structures the cells will
form).
The process of cell growth through mitosis, or cell division, starts when the sperm fertilize
the egg. At first, every cell appears the same. We refer to these cells as stem cells. Cells
differentiate as development advances to the embryonic stage. They develop into specialized
cells from stem cells. "To become different" is what the word differentiation means. When a
cell receives a biochemical signal that determines the kind of cell it will develop into,
differentiation takes place. A stem cell may differentiate into an epithelial cell, which can
further differentiate into any of the numerous varieties of skin cells. Red blood cells, kidney
cells, or liver cells can all develop from stem cells.

Fig.7 Mitosis is the process in which one cell replicates its DNA and splits into two cells. Physiology and
Embryology

Gene expression results in complex biochemical processes and cell signaling molecules. Your
complete genome, or genetic code, is present in every nucleated cell in your body, but only a
small portion of it is expressed, or put to use. Certain genes are activated while others are
inactive. Genes that govern the growth and differentiation of every cell in the human body are
turned on and off by a variety of processes. However, the field of epigenetics is shedding
light on the additional roles that the environment plays in cell differentiation. The study of
factors that regulate gene expression outside of the genetic code is known as epigenetics.

Epigenetic factors influencing friction ridge growth may include the mother’s nutrition,
disease, environmental factors, or the position and environment of the foetus in the uterus.
It is simple to understand how nature could never repeat itself given that the human genome
contains between 20,000 and 30,000 genes and that numerous factors influence how each of
those genes is expressed. There are just too many variables influencing different facets of
biological development for two organisms to develop in precisely the same way.

Biological development is a unique, randomized, natural process. This is the basis of the
premise that no two fingerprints are exactly alike, and therefore every fingerprint is unique.
Layers of the Skin:
The skin is made up of three main layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and a layer of
subcutaneous fatty tissue known as the hypodermis.
1. Epidermis: The epidermis is the top section of skin stratified into five layers: the stratum
corneum, the stratum lucidum, the stratum granulosum, the stratum spinosum, and the
stratum basale.
The top layer of skin is called the Stratum Corneum, or the "horny layer." This is the visible
layer. Keratinocytes, a type of skin cell packed with fibrous protein bundles known as
keratin, make up this resilient outer "shell." Keratinocytes make up the majority of the
epidermis's cells.

The basal layer is another name for the Stratum Basale, which is the deepest layer of the
epidermis. The epithelial cells that make up the friction ridges are produced by a single layer
of cells called the basal layer. New cells are continuously growing from the basal layer and
making their way to the surface of the finger by passing through the layers of the epidermis.
One cell divides into two separate cells during the process of mitosis, which creates new
cells. The basal cells push up through multiple layers of skin as they divide. Adhesion
proteins called desmosomes hold neighbouring cells together during this process.

The skin cell sheds when it gets to the surface and is replaced by the cell below. The cycle of
cellular shedding, migration, and generation is ongoing.

Sweat Duct Pore Opening

Epidermis Generating Layer

Layer
Basement Membrane
Dermis
Primary Ridge
Sweat Gland Secondary Ridge

Fig.8 A cross section of friction ridge skin.

Stratum corneum

Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum

Stratum mucosum

Stratum basale (basal layer)

Fig. 9 The five layers of the epidermis: stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum
spinosum, and stratum basale.

Stratum
spinosum

Progression of mitosis B

B B
B
C
Basal
cell B
B C

DNA

A A A A
A A A A

Dermis

Fig. 10 Basal cells (A) undergo mitosis. The resultant daughter cells (B and C) are pushed up through the layers
of the skin.

2. Dermis: The dermis is a layer of skin tissue that is deeper than the epidermis. The dermis
and epidermis are joined by the basement membrane zone, also known as the dermal–
epidermal junction. This zone is made up of fibers that come from the dermis that reach
toward the basal layer and fibers that come from the basal cells that reach into the dermis.
The fibers hold the layers together, much like a plant's roots do. The dermis is an elastic,
thick layer that houses blood vessels, nerve endings, and sweat glands.
The structures known as dermal papillae are peg-like projections that rise toward the
epidermis and are located in the upper layer of the dermis. Nutrients are transferred from
capillaries to the dermis and epidermis over a larger surface area by the dermal papillae.
While the foetus is developing inside the mother, all of these structures form.

Embryological Development of Friction Ridges:

The foetus develops friction ridge skin during the first two trimesters of human development.
Although the order of the developmental stages is predetermined, each stage's duration differs
from person to person. There could be overlap between these processes, adding to the variety.
Similar to how teenagers going through puberty grow and develop at different rates, foetuses
also grow and develop at different rates. All cells, structures, and organisms, however, grow
differently from one another. "A difference in the size or rate of growth of dissimilar
organisms, tissues, or structures" is the definition of differential growth.

Differential growth following cell differentiation culminates in morphogenesis. The Latin

words morpho, which means shape, and genesis, which means to come into being, are the
source of the word morphogenesis. Morphogenesis in this context refers to the beginning of a
biological form or shape. About six weeks following egg fertilization, the development of the
foetal hand marks the beginning of this process. The foetus's paddle-shaped hand starts to
resemble a hand with fingers between weeks six and seven of pregnancy. The webbing that
was first visible between the "fingers" starts to break apart.
At this point, the developing hand's fingertips and palmar areas begin to swell and develop
what are known as volar pads. Most mammals, including cats and dogs, have volar pads all
the way up to adulthood. Volar pads are present in a wide variety of no-primate mammals.
These are the delicate enlargements found on an animal's paw bottoms. Friction ridges do not
form because most mammals do not use their hands to grasp and manipulate objects. Walking
on all fours is made more comfortable by the volar pads.

Between the sixth and tenth weeks of a human foetal's development, volar pads keep
growing. Their positions, sizes, and shapes begin to change. The volar pads start to recede or
deflate around week ten or eleven. This results in "localized increases in basal cell
activity," as described by Alfred Hale of Tulane University, which starts the formation
of primary friction ridges. The epidermal layers start to form and thicken during the volar
pad recession and friction ridge development processes. Sweat glands begin to form and coil
up in the thicker layer of tissue beneath the epidermis, known as the dermis, during weeks 14
and 15. The sweat glands are connected to the surface where they will expel sweat through
pores spaced along the fingerprint ridges.

In the basal layer of the epidermis, which is the deepest layer, the cells that will eventually
differentiate into the primary ridges that we can clearly see on our fingers and palms begin to
differentiate. This is the location of the first friction ridge formation. These growing
epidermal ridge cell areas are known as "localized cell proliferations," according to renowned
researcher on prenatal friction ridge development Dr. William Babler. They begin in the
center of the regressing volar pad. In the receding volar pad, ridges start to form in various
places and eventually spread out to join and form the patterns and minute details that are
visible on our fingers.

The growth stresses of the evolving skin surface influence the formation of friction ridges.
The skin compresses and stretches as volar pads disappear. In the retreating volar pad,
friction ridges form perpendicular to the plane of growth stresses and compression forces. Up
until about week seventeen of prenatal development, primary ridges will continue to form and
push up through the epidermal layers to the surface.

The formation of secondary ridges occurs between weeks 15 and 17. Tiny ridges called
secondary ridges develop in the valleys or furrows that separate the main friction ridges.
Although they are located deep within the epidermis, in between each primary ridge, they are
devoid of sweat glands. The end of primary ridge formation is indicated by the formation of
secondary ridges. Friction ridges appear not only on the fingers but also on the palm, finger
joints, feet, and toes; however, the development of friction ridges on the feet is a week or so
later than on the hands.

Dermal papillae develop around the same time as the primary and secondary ridge structures.
In his paper, Hale states, "The dermal papillae are shaped through pressures and growth
stresses exerted by an epidermis which is increasing in area as well as thickness." At about 19
or 20 weeks, primary ridges appear on the skin's surface. By week 25, friction ridge
formation is finished. These mature friction ridges' permanent patterns will serve as the
fetus's fingerprints throughout its adult life.

Embryological Development of Minutiae:

Friction ridges are made up of hundreds of friction ridge units, each fused to its neighbor to
form a nearly continuous structure. Ridge units are the foundational elements of friction
ridges. Each ridge unit consists of a single sweat gland and its corresponding sweat pore.
Many factors influence the formation of each friction ridge unit. The fusion of different
friction ridge units produces a variety of primary ridge structures and morphology. The width
of each ridge unit varies, resulting in friction ridges that are contoured like mountain ranges
rather than smooth ones. Ridge unit widths vary, as does the depth of ridge penetration into
the dermis, unit alignment, and ridge spacing. The placement, shape, and size of the pore on
each ridge unit are also unique.

Friction ridges do not always form a continuous curve. Growth stresses cause ridge path
deviations, which result in bifurcations. Alfred Hale investigates the development of
bifurcations in his 1951 publication, The Morphogenesis of Volar Skin in the Human Fetus.
He claims that bifurcations "arise out of the lateral swellings described on the primary ridge"
and that growth forces stretching the epidermis pull new ridge units away from the primary
ridge, resulting in a forked or bifurcating ridge. Thus, a bifurcation is the separation of one
primary ridge rather than the union of two distinct primary ridges.

Ending ridges form due to the timing and rate of primary ridge proliferation. As the finger
grows and spaces between primary ridges become available, new primary ridges emerge.
They will continue to grow as friction ridge units fuse together and lengthen the developing
ridge. Eventually, around the fifteenth to seventeenth week of foetal development, the
process of primary ridge proliferation ends. This ends the extension process, bringing
developing ridges to an abrupt halt. This results in an ending ridge. If a new ridge began
elongating shortly before the primary ridge formation was completed, it would not have had
time to lengthen. This forms a short ridge. Short ridges vary in length, but they can be as
short as one friction ridge unit. They are commonly referred to as dots. Thus, the same
process produces both ending ridges and short ridges. Ridge elongation halts when primary
ridge proliferation ceases.

In other words, as Hale points out, "the minutiae are the products of the interaction between
stress and the ability of ridges to multiply, as well as the chronology of their origin."
Fingerprints are unique because of the random variability in friction ridge development and
minutiae formation. The properties and mechanisms of differential growth contribute to
fingerprint analysis' uniqueness premise. The following factors contribute to the development
of volar pads, ridge units, and minutiae, as well as the uniqueness of fingerprints:

• Genetics
• Epigenetic factors (nutrition, position, environment, etc.)
• Growth stresses due to differential growth
• Volar pad topography (thickness, height, width, and contour)
• Compression due to volar pad recession
• Metacarpal bone formation and morphology
• Timing and rate of ridge maturation
• Vessel–nerve pairs in the dermal papillae

Permanence:
The second premise that underpins the science of fingerprint identification is the concept that
fingerprints are permanent. Fingerprint patterns that change throughout a person's life would
be useless for identification. As previously discussed, the basal layer is responsible for the
friction ridge patterns seen on the surface. The basal layer can be thought of as a blueprint for
creating friction ridges. The blueprint never changes. It's set for life. Mitosis is the process by
which each cell in the basal layer produces identical daughter cells.

If the basal layer is cut, burned, or mutilated, changes to the friction ridge pattern may occur
in isolated areas. When this happens, a scar develop. The dermis and epidermis layers will be
repaired, but the blueprint has been damaged. Flattened keratinocytes migrate upward,
resulting in non-ridged areas of skin within the friction ridge pattern. These permanent scars
are also useful in the early stages of fingerprint comparison because of their distinct shape
and size. The epidermis' structures, whether friction ridges or scars, remain throughout a
person's life. The science of fingerprint analysis relies on uniqueness and permanence.