MEE2307: APPLIED MECHANICS

LECTURE NOTE
Prepared By:

Muawiya Sadiq

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, BABURA,
JIGAWA STATE

21ST MARCH, 2024.

APPLIED MECHAINCS

COURSE OUTLINE
The course outline is generally divided into two particular sections: Statics and Dynamics.

STATICS
 Basic principles and definition of terms
 Resolution of forces in Two and Three Dimensions (2-D & 3-D systems of forces)
 Moment
 Free Body Diagram
 Equilibrium of body in Two and Three Dimensions
 Friction and its Applications

DYNAMICS
 Kinematics of particles
 Kinetics of particles
 Kinematics of rigid body
 Kinetics of rigid body
 Simples harmonic motion

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 1.0 Introduction
Mechanics is the physical science that deals with the action of forces on body or particles taking
into account the effects it produce. The aspect of mechanics is divided into two segment_
STATICS & DYNAMICS

 STATICS: Concerned about the analysis of equilibrium of stationery bodies under the
influence of various kinds of forces
 DYNAMICS: Concerns with motion of bodies and the forces related to the motion

Delving into the aspects of Dynamics, it’s further divided into Kinetics and Kinematics.

 KINETICS: Is the study of motion of bodies and the forces related to the motion.
 KINAMATICS: Is the study of the motion of body without references to the forces that
cause the motion or the resultant forces due to that motion.

Engineering mechanics is the application of the the principles of mechanics to the solution of
practical problems. Modern researches and developments in the field s of vibration, stability &
strength of structure & machine, rockets & spacecraft design, engine fluid performance flow,
electric machines and apparatus, molecular, atomic & sub-atomic behavior are highly dependent
upon the basic principles of mechanics.

Engineering
Mechanics

Dynamics Statics

Kinetics Kinematics

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2.0 STATICS
Starting with the statics aspect of Mechanics; let’s refresh our memory by taking a closer look
into some basic definitions that we passed through from our secondary school Physics.

2.1 Basic Principles and Definitions

2.1.1 Force:
Force is a vector quantity that represents the interaction between objects, resulting in a change
in their motion or state of rest. It is typically denoted by the symbol "F" and measured in units
of Newtons (N) in the International System of Units (SI).

 Vector Quantity: Force has both magnitude and direction. This means that not only does
it tell us how strong the interaction is (magnitude), but also in which direction it acts.
 Interaction between Objects: Force arises from interactions between objects. These
interactions can occur through direct contact (contact forces) or at a distance (non-contact
forces) via fields like gravity or electromagnetism.
 Change in Motion or State of Rest: Forces cause objects to accelerate, decelerate, change
direction, or deform. In essence, they lead to changes in an object's velocity or shape. For
example, pushing a book across a table, pulling a spring, or supporting the weight of an
object against gravity all involve forces.
 Units: The standard unit of force is the Newton (N), named after Sir Isaac Newton. One
Newton is defined as the force required to accelerate a one-kilogram mass by one meter
per second squared.
 Newton's Laws of Motion: Force is central to Newton's laws of motion, which provide
the foundation for classical mechanics. These laws describe how the motion of an object
changes when subjected to external forces.

Engineers apply the principles of force to design structures, machines, and systems that perform
reliably and efficiently in various environments.

2.1.2 Particle:
In the field of engineering mechanics, a "particle" refers to a theoretical construct used to simplify
the analysis of a physical system. A particle is considered to be an idealized point object that has
mass but occupies zero volume and has no spatial extent. In other words, it's a mathematical
abstraction used to represent the behavior of a physical object without considering its size or

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shape. The concept of a particle serves as a fundamental building block in engineering mechanics,
providing a simplified yet effective way to analyze and understand the behavior of physical
systems.

 Mathematical Representation: A particle is typically represented mathematically by its

position vector, which defines its location in space relative to a chosen reference point or
coordinate system. In two-dimensional space, the position of a particle can be described by
its coordinates (x, y), while in three-dimensional space, it can be described by its
coordinates (x, y, z).
 Mass: A particle is assumed to have mass, which is concentrated at its theoretical point
location. This mass is considered to be concentrated within an infinitesimally small
volume, allowing us to treat the particle as having a well-defined mass without any
dimensions.
 Simplification: Treating objects as particles is a common simplification used in
engineering mechanics, particularly in the study of dynamics and kinematics. It allows
engineers and physicists to focus on the motion or behavior of a system without having to
consider the complexities of its size, shape, or internal structure.
 Application: Particles are often used to model various physical systems, ranging from
simple point masses in classical mechanics to more complex systems in fluid mechanics,
where small elements of a fluid are treated as particles for analysis purposes.
 Assumptions and Limitations: While the particle model is useful for simplifying analysis,
it's important to recognize its limitations. In reality, all physical objects have size, shape,
and internal structure, which can affect their behavior. Therefore, the particle model is most
applicable when the size and shape of the object are negligible compared to the scale of the
problem being analyzed.

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 y-axis
z-axis y-axis

x-axis Particle (x,y,z)

Particle (x,y)
y-axis
Figure 2:1 Mathematical Representation of Particles in 2-D & 3-D respectively

2.1.3 Scalar & Vector Quantity:

In engineering mechanics, understanding scalar and vector quantities is fundamental as they
represent different types of physical quantities.

2.1.4 Scalar Quantity:

A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that is fully described by its magnitude (size or amount)
alone, without any direction. Scalars are represented by single numerical values. Understanding
the distinction between scalar and vector quantities is crucial in solving engineering mechanics
problems and accurately describing physical phenomena.

Examples of scalar quantities include:

 Mass: It only requires a numerical value to describe the amount of matter in an object.
 Temperature: Temperature is described solely by its magnitude, for example, 25°C.
 Energy: Energy can be expressed in scalar terms, such as 100 joules.
 Time: Time is another scalar quantity, such as 10 seconds.

2.1.5 Vector Quantity:

A vector quantity, on the other hand, is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Vectors are represented by arrows, where the length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and
the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the vector quantity.

Examples of vector quantities include:

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  Displacement: It not only tells us how far an object has moved but also in which direction
it has moved.
 Velocity: Velocity describes both speed and direction of motion. For instance, 20 meters
per second (m/s) eastward.
 Force: Force is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude (measured in Newtons)
and direction.
 Acceleration: Acceleration is a vector quantity that describes the rate of change of
velocity, including both magnitude and direction.

Distinguishing Factors:

 Magnitude vs. Magnitude and Direction: Scalars are defined by magnitude only, while
vectors have both magnitude and direction.
 Representation: Scalars are represented by single numerical values, while vectors are
represented by arrows or bold letters.
 Mathematical Operations: Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided by
scalar or vector quantities, resulting in a scalar. Vector operations include addition,
subtraction, scalar multiplication, and vector multiplication, resulting in another vector.
 Physical Effects: Vectors describe physical quantities that involve motion, forces, or
direction, whereas scalars describe quantities like time, temperature, or mass which do not
involve direction.

2.1.6 Space:
In the context of engineering mechanics, "space" refers to the three-dimensional continuum in
which physical phenomena occur. Engineers use coordinate systems, reference frames, and vector
spaces to precisely describe the position, motion, and interactions of objects within this space,
taking into account both physical and conceptual boundaries. Understanding space is essential for
analyzing and designing engineering systems across various disciplines.

When we talk about "space" in the context of engineering mechanics, we're typically referring to
the region or area in which physical phenomena occur. Space is a fundamental concept in
engineering mechanics as it provides the framework within which objects move, forces act, and
energy is transferred.

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Here's a more detailed explanation:

 Physical Space: In engineering mechanics, physical space refers to the three-dimensional

continuum in which all objects and phenomena exist. This space is defined by three
perpendicular axes: x, y, and z. Engineers use coordinate systems to precisely describe the
position, velocity, and acceleration of objects within this space.
 Coordinate Systems: Engineers commonly use Cartesian coordinate systems to represent
points and vectors in space. These systems consist of three perpendicular axes (x, y, z)
intersecting at the origin. By specifying coordinates along these axes, engineers can
precisely locate objects and describe their motion.
 Reference Frames: In addition to coordinate systems, engineers often work within
reference frames that are either fixed or moving. A fixed reference frame remains
stationary relative to the observer, while a moving reference frame may be accelerating or
rotating. Understanding reference frames is crucial for analyzing the motion of objects,
especially in dynamic systems.
 Conceptual Space: Space in engineering mechanics also encompasses conceptual
frameworks such as phase space, which describes the state of a dynamic system using
variables like position and momentum. Engineers use phase space diagrams to visualize
the behavior of systems over time and identify important characteristics such as stability
and chaos.
 Vector Space: In many engineering applications, space is treated as a vector space,
meaning it satisfies certain algebraic properties. Vectors in this space represent quantities
like force, velocity, and displacement, which have both magnitude and direction. By
manipulating vectors within this space, engineers can perform calculations to analyze
forces, motion, and energy transfer.
 Physical Boundaries: Space is often bounded by physical boundaries such as walls,
surfaces, or interfaces. These boundaries influence the behavior of objects within the space
by imposing constraints on their motion and interactions. Engineers must consider these
boundaries when designing structures, machines, or systems to ensure they operate
effectively and safely within their given space.

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2.1.7 Time & Mass:
Understanding time and mass is essential for engineers to analyze and predict the behavior of
mechanical systems accurately. These concepts form the basis for numerous principles and laws
in engineering mechanics, such as Newton's laws of motion and principles of conservation.

2.1.8 Time:
Time is a fundamental concept in physics that represents the progression of events from the past,
through the present, and into the future. It is a measurable quantity used to sequence events,
quantify durations, and compare the intervals between them.

Related terms:

 Temporal Dimension: Time is often conceptualized as the fourth dimension, along with
the three spatial dimensions (length, width, and height), forming what's known as
spacetime.
 Measuring Time: Time is typically measured in units such as seconds, minutes, hours,
days, etc., depending on the scale of the events being measured. In engineering mechanics,
time is often measured in seconds or fractions thereof.
 Scalar Quantity: Time is a scalar quantity, meaning it only has magnitude and no
direction. It is often represented symbolically by the letter’t’.
 Role in Dynamics: Time is crucial in describing the motion of objects and systems over
time. It allows for the calculation of velocities, accelerations, and other dynamic properties.

2.1.9 Mass:
Mass is a fundamental property of matter that quantifies the amount of substance in an object. It
is a measure of the resistance an object exhibits to changes in its motion due to the influence of
external forces.

Related terms:

 Inertia: Mass is closely related to inertia, which is the tendency of an object to resist
changes in its state of motion. Objects with greater mass have greater inertia and require
more force to accelerate or decelerate.
 Measuring Mass: Mass is typically measured in units such as kilograms (kg) in the
International System of Units (SI) or pounds (lb) in the imperial system.

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  Scalar Quantity: Similar to time, mass is also a scalar quantity, meaning it is characterized
solely by its magnitude and has no directional component. It is represented symbolically
by the letter 'm'.
 Conservation of Mass: In many engineering mechanics problems, mass is considered
conserved within a closed system, meaning the total mass of the system remains constant
unless acted upon by external forces.
 Role in Dynamics: Mass plays a critical role in the analysis of forces and motions of
objects and systems. It determines how objects respond to applied forces, influencing
acceleration and momentum.

2.1.10 Rigid Body

A rigid body is an idealized concept used in mechanics to represent a solid object that maintains
its shape and size under the action of external forces. In other words, it does not deform when
subjected to forces or moments. A rigid body is assumed to be perfectly stiff, meaning that the
distances between its constituent particles remain constant regardless of the applied forces or
torques.

Related terms:

 No deformation: One of the key characteristics of a rigid body is that it does not deform
when subjected to external forces. This means that the shape and size of the body remain
unchanged, even when forces are applied.
 Constant inter-particle distances: Within a rigid body, the distances between its
constituent particles remain constant. This implies that if two particles are a certain distance
apart initially, they will remain at that exact distance from each other, regardless of external
forces acting on the body.
 Idealized assumption: It's important to note that in reality, no object is perfectly rigid. All
materials exhibit some degree of deformation when subjected to forces. However, for many
engineering analyses and calculations, assuming rigid body behavior simplifies the
problem without significantly sacrificing accuracy.
 Mathematical convenience: Treating bodies as rigid simplifies the mathematics involved
in analyzing mechanical systems. It allows for the use of equations derived from principles

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 of statics and dynamics that are easier to work with than those required for deformable
bodies.
 Applications: Rigid body mechanics finds applications in various engineering disciplines,
including structural analysis, machine design, robotics, and vehicle dynamics. By
considering objects as rigid bodies, engineers can model and predict the behavior of
complex systems with greater ease and accuracy.

2.1.11 Differences between Kinds of Vectors

In engineering mechanics, vectors are often used to represent quantities such as forces, velocities,
and accelerations. These vectors can be categorized into different types based on their behavior
and characteristics. Below is the definition and distinction between free vectors, sliding vectors,
and rigid vectors:

2.1.12 Free Vector:

A free vector is a vector that can be moved parallel to itself to any point in space without changing
its magnitude or direction. It represents a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction
but is not bound to any specific location or origin.

Characteristics:

 Magnitude: The length of the vector represents the magnitude of the physical quantity.
 Direction: The orientation of the vector indicates the direction of the physical quantity.
 Free Movement: It can be translated to any point in space without altering its properties.

Example: A force acting on a particle or an object is often represented by a free vector since the
force can be applied at different points without changing its magnitude or direction.

2.1.13 Sliding Vector:

A sliding vector is a vector that can only be moved parallel to itself along a specific line or axis
without changing its magnitude or direction. It represents a physical quantity that is constrained to
move only along a certain path.

Characteristics:

 Magnitude: Similar to a free vector, its length represents the magnitude of the physical
quantity.

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  Direction: The orientation of the vector still indicates the direction of the physical
quantity.
 Constrained Movement: It can only be translated along a specified line or axis without
altering its properties.

Example: In a system where motion is restricted to a single direction, such as a block sliding on a
frictionless surface, the force acting on the block can be represented by a sliding vector along the
direction of motion.

2.1.14 Rigid Vector:

A rigid vector is a vector that is fixed in both magnitude and direction relative to a rigid body. It
represents a physical quantity that is associated with the motion or deformation of the body as a
whole.

Characteristics:

 Fixed Magnitude and Direction: Unlike free or sliding vectors, the magnitude and
direction of a rigid vector are fixed relative to the rigid body it represents.
 Attached to Rigid Body: It is typically associated with the motion or deformation of a
rigid body as a whole.

Example: In analyzing the motion of a rigid body like a beam or a frame, the external forces acting
on the body (such as applied loads or reactions) are represented by rigid vectors fixed to specific
points on the body.

2.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton's laws of motion are fundamental principles in classical mechanics that describe the
behavior of objects in motion. These laws are applicable in various real-life scenarios and
engineering applications, providing a fundamental understanding of how objects move and interact
with each other in the physical world.

2.2.1 Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):

States:

"An object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external force."

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Instances: Consider a book lying on a table. It remains stationary until an external force (such as
someone pushing it) acts upon it.

Example: Suppose a car is traveling at a constant velocity of 20 m/s on a straight road. Suddenly,
the brakes are applied, causing the car to come to a stop. The force exerted by the brakes overcomes
the inertia of the car, bringing it to rest.

2.2.2 Newton's Second Law (Law of Acceleration):

States:

"The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting upon
it and inversely proportional to its mass."

Instances: Pushing a shopping cart. The harder you push (increasing force), the faster the cart
accelerates. Similarly, a larger mass requires more force to accelerate at the same rate.

Example: A 10 kg object experiences a net force of 50 N. Using Newton's second law (F = ma),
the acceleration can be calculated as follows:

a = F/m = 50N/10kg = 5 m/s2

2.2.3 Newton's Third Law (Action-Reaction Law):

States:

"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."

Instances: When you walk, your feet push against the ground (action), and the ground pushes back
on your feet with an equal force in the opposite direction (reaction), propelling you forward.

Example: If you're in a boat and you push against the water with an oar, the water pushes back on
the oar with an equal force in the opposite direction. This propels the boat forward.

3.0 RESOLUTION OF FORCES

In applied mechanics, we often encounter situations where a single force acting on a body needs
to be analyzed in different directions. This process of breaking down a single force into multiple
components is called resolution of forces. These components, acting along specific directions,
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can then be analyzed independently to understand their effect on the body's motion. Consider two
identical objects p1 and p2 acted upon by forces of equal magnitude but at different direction
shown in figure below;

There are three main methods for resolving forces:

3.1. Triangle Law:

The triangle law is the most intuitive approach. Here's how it works:
 Draw an arrow representing the original force (the resultant).
 From the tail of the arrow, draw two component forces at a desired angle (usually
perpendicular for simplicity).
 The magnitudes of the component forces are proportional to the lengths of the sides of the
right triangle formed by the original force and the components.
 You can use trigonometric functions (sine and cosine) to calculate the magnitudes of the
components based on the original force's magnitude and the chosen angle.

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This method is particularly useful for resolving a force into two perpendicular components, often
referred to as the x-component and y-component.

3.2. Parallelogram Law:

The parallelogram law provides a more general approach for resolving forces that act at any angle
relative to each other. Here's the concept:
 Draw the original force as one side of a parallelogram.
 From the head and tail of the original force, draw parallel lines representing the two
component forces.
 The component forces will complete the parallelogram.
 The magnitude and direction of each component force can be determined by the
corresponding side of the parallelogram.
Consider two forces f1 and f2 acting on a particle (as shown below). It’s possible to replace them
by a resultant force which is a diagonal of a parallelogram that sides equal to the two given forces.
This method is applicable for resolving a single force into any two non-collinear components.

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3.3. Polygon Law (for multiple forces):
The polygon law is an extension of the parallelogram law and is used when dealing with multiple
forces acting on a body simultaneously. Here's the basic idea:
 Represent each force as a vector with an arrow.
 Place the tail of one force vector at the head of another, forming a head-to-tail chain.
 The resultant force (the combined effect of all individual forces) is represented by the
vector drawn from the first tail to the last head of the chain.
This method allows you to resolve a system of multiple forces into a single equivalent force,
simplifying the analysis of the overall effect on the body.

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4.0 TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) FORCE SYSTEM
A two-dimensional (2-D) force system refers to a scenario where all the forces acting on a body
lie within the same plane. This plane can be a physical surface the object rests on or an imaginary
plane for conceptualizing the forces. Analyzing these forces is essential in various engineering
applications to understand their effects on an object's motion and stability. It’s useful to split up
(resolve) forces into two components. The direction of the two forces are assumed as a
perpendicular arm of a triangle. The most common 2-D splitting of force is the resolution into
rectangular component as shown below:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐹= 𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2
𝐹𝑥
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐹𝑦

The axis may not necessarily be perpendicular to each other. Because dimensions are not always
given in horizontal and vertical directions. Thus, it’s necessary to determine the correct
components of a force.
4.1 Analytical Determination of the Resultant of a System of Forces
Consider arbitrary body as shown below subjected to a number of forces f1, f2, & f3. The resultant
R of these three forces may be determined graphically by resolving each force into components
say X & Y, and summing in each direction to yield:

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 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 + 𝐹3𝑥

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 = 𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 + 𝐹3𝑦

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2

5.0 MOMENT
The moment of a force, also known as torque, is a crucial concept in applied mechanics. It
quantifies the rotational effect of a force acting on a body about a specific point or axis. In simpler
terms, it tells us how much a force tends to make an object rotate.

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Apart from the tendency of a force to move a body in the direction of its application, a force can
also tends to rotate the body about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the body. This tendency is
known as the moment M for the force F about the given axis. The moment M is given
mathematically as Mo = F.d

Where; d is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force. Moment can
be clockwise or anticlockwise. Let consider anticlockwise as positive in all our discussion.

5.1 Key aspects of Moment of Force:

 Rotational Effect: A force can not only cause linear motion (translation) but also induce
rotation. The moment of force captures this tendency for rotation.
 Perpendicular Distance: The moment of force depends not just on the force itself but also
on its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation. The greater this distance (moment
arm), the larger the moment and the greater the rotational effect.
 Vector Quantity: Moment of force is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and
direction. The direction is perpendicular to the plane formed by the force and the moment
arm, following the right-hand rule.

5.2 Applications of Moment of Force:

Understanding moment of force is essential for analyzing various mechanical systems, including:

 Levers: Levers work on the principle of moments. By adjusting the fulcrum (axis of
rotation) and the application points of forces, we can achieve mechanical advantage
(increased force or distance).

 Gears: Gears transmit torque (moment of force) between shafts, allowing for changes in
speed and direction of rotation.
 Machines: Many machines rely on moments of force to perform tasks. For example, a
screwdriver creates a moment to rotate a screw, while a wrench applies a moment to tighten
or loosen a nut.
5.3 Principle of Moment
The principle of moments is a fundamental concept in applied mechanics that governs the
rotational equilibrium of a rigid body. It essentially states that for a body to be in static equilibrium

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(not rotating), the sum of clockwise moments about a chosen point must be equal to the sum of
counterclockwise moments about the same point.
Consider a special case of two equal and opposite forces F1, d distance apart as shown below.

It can be seen clearly that there is no resultant. Now let’s take moment about O; this gives:
𝑀0 = 𝐹(𝑑 + 𝑙) − 𝐹𝑙 = 𝐹𝑑
The system of this kind is considered as couple.
It’s possible to replace a given force acting on a body by an equal and parallel force and a couple
to compensate for the change in the moment of the force. It follows also that a given couple and
force which lies in the plane of the couple (normal to the couple vector) maybe considered to
produce a single force reversing the procedure.

5.3.1 Key aspects of the Principle of Moments:

 Equilibrium: The principle applies specifically to situations where the body is not rotating.
If the sum of moments is not zero, the body will experience a net rotational effect.
 Moments and Forces: The principle relates moments of forces acting on the body. Each
force contributes a moment depending on its magnitude and its perpendicular distance from
the chosen point (axis of rotation).

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  Choice of Point: The principle holds true regardless of the point chosen as the axis of
rotation. However, for convenience, it's often chosen to be a fixed support point or a point
where one of the forces acts.
Applications of the Principle of Moments:
The principle has numerous applications in various mechanical systems, including:
 Levers: Levers work by manipulating the moments of forces acting on them. By adjusting
the fulcrum (axis of rotation) and the application points of forces, we can achieve
mechanical advantage (increased force or distance).
 Seesaws: A classic example of a lever, seesaws rely on the principle of moments. The
weight of individuals on either side, along with their distances from the fulcrum, determine
the balance of the seesaw.
 Balancing Beams: Analytical balances use the principle to compare the weights of two
objects. The moments created by the weights on either side of the central pivot are balanced
for the beam to remain horizontal.

6.0 FREE-BODY DIAGRAM

A free body diagram (FBD) is a graphical tool used in physics and engineering to visualize the
forces acting on an object in a specific situation. It helps us understand the forces that cause an
object to move, stay still, or accelerate.
Imagine isolating an object from its surroundings. A free body diagram depicts this isolated object,
along with all the external forces acting on it. These forces can be due to gravity, friction, tension
in a string, normal forces exerted by surfaces, applied forces, and so on. The diagram uses arrows
to represent these forces, with the arrow's length indicating the relative magnitude of the force and
the arrow's direction showing the direction it acts upon the object.
Examples:
 A book resting on a table: The FBD would show the book with a downward arrow
representing gravity and an upward arrow representing the normal force exerted by the
table.
 A ball rolling on the ground: The FBD would show the ball with a downward arrow for
gravity, a backward arrow for friction, and an arrow in the direction of motion for the net
force causing the rolling.

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6.1 Steps to Constructing a Free Body Diagram:
1. Isolate the object: Imagine cutting the object free from its surroundings.
2. Draw the object: Represent the object as a simple shape (box, circle, etc.) in the diagram.
3. Identify the forces: List all the external forces acting on the object. These can include
gravity, normal forces, tension, friction, applied forces, etc.
4. Draw the force arrows: Draw arrows on the object's diagram originating from its center
of mass. Each arrow represents a force acting on the object.
5. Label the forces: Clearly label each arrow with the type of force it represents (e.g., gravity,
normal force, tension).
Creating a free body diagram help us effectively represents the forces acting on an object, aiding
us in analyzing its motion or equilibrium state using Newton's laws of motion.

7.0 EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO-DIMENSIONS

When the resultant of a system forces acting on a body is zero, and the sum of the moments of the
forces about some point is also zero, the body is said to be in equilibrium. It will remain at rest or
continue to move in straight line with a constant speed. This is direct consequences of Newton’s
first law of motion.

For equilibrium, the summation of forces in any direction is equal to zero:

∑Fx = 0 ; ∑Fy = 0

And the moment about any point is zero;

i.e ∑M = 0

7.1 Special Cases of Equilibrium

1. If there are only two forces in equilibrium. The forces must be equal, opposite and
collinear_ i.e act in the same straight line.
2. If there are only three forces in equilibrium concurrently i.e they must pass through a
common point. This is easily seen by first combining any two of the forces and applying
the special case 1 above.

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8.0 THREE DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS

In mechanics, we often encounter situations where multiple forces act on an object in three
dimensions. Analyzing these forces requires a more nuanced approach compared to 2D problems.
Consider a force F acting at a point O, on the rectangular components as shown below , Fx, Fy and
Fz as given below

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𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥;

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑦;

𝐹𝑧 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧.

F = √Fx2+ Fy2 + Fz2

𝐹⃗ = 𝑖𝐹 + 𝑗𝐹𝑦 + 𝑘𝐹𝑧

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹(𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥 + 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑦 + 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧)

i, j & k are unit vectors in x, y and z directions respectively.

Introducing the direction cosines of F,

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 𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥; 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑦; 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧;

Where; l2 + m2 + n2 = 1

We may write the force as

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹(𝑖𝑙 + 𝑗𝑚 + 𝑘𝑛)
8.1 Resolution of Forces in 3D:

Unlike 2D where forces can be simply added vectorially, 3D forces need resolution into their
components. We typically resolve them along the three orthogonal axes of a 3D coordinate system
(x, y, and z). This allows us to analyze each force's contribution in each direction independently.
In addition to resolving forces along the x, y, and z axes, we can use direction cosines for more
complex scenarios. Direction cosines are the cosines of the angles between a force vector and each
of the coordinate axes. By multiplying the force magnitude with these cosines, we obtain the force
components in each direction. This approach is particularly useful when the force doesn't lie
perfectly along an axis.

8.1.2 Dot and Cross Products:

 Dot Product: The dot product of two vectors provides their scalar projection along a
specific direction. In 3D force systems, the dot product can be used to calculate the work
done by a force along a specific displacement or determine the angle between two forces.
 Cross Product: The cross product of two vectors results in a third vector perpendicular to
both original vectors. In 3D force systems, the cross product is crucial for calculating the
moment of a force about a point.
Revise your scalar and vector note!

8.3 Moment and Couple in 3D:

 Moment: The moment of a force about a point is a measure of its tendency to cause
rotational motion about that point. In 3D, the moment is calculated using the cross product
of the force vector and the position vector from the point of rotation to the point of force
application. The moment has both magnitude and direction, with the direction being
perpendicular to the plane formed by the force and position vectors.

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  Couple: A couple is a special case of a moment where two equal and opposite forces act
on an object with a separation distance between their lines of action. A couple produces
only pure rotation and has no net translational force acting on the object.
8.2 Applications in Engineering:

Understanding 3D force systems is fundamental in various engineering disciplines:

 Structural Engineering: Analyzing forces on beams, trusses, and frames to ensure their
stability and load-bearing capacity.
 Machine Design: Calculating forces and moments in gears, linkages, and other mechanical
components to ensure proper operation and prevent failure.
 Robotics: Determining the forces and moments needed for robots to manipulate objects
and perform tasks effectively.

8.3 Software Tools:

Several software tools such as RISA-3D, SAP2000 and STAAD.Pro are available to aid in
analyzing 3D force systems. These tools can perform complex calculations, generate visualizations
of forces and moments, and help engineers design and analyze structures and machines subjected
to various loading conditions.

8.4 Equilibrium in 3-Dimension

For equilibrium in 3-dimensions, the following equations must be satisfied;

∑𝐹 = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0; ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0; ∑𝐹𝑧 = 0;

∑𝑀 = 0 𝑜𝑟 ∑𝑀𝑥 = 0; ∑𝑀𝑦 = 0; ∑𝑀𝑧 = 0

9.0 FRICTION
Friction is the force that resists the relative motion of two surfaces in contact. It arises from the
microscopic interlocking of irregularities and intermolecular forces between the contacting
surfaces. While it may seem like a hindrance, friction plays a crucial role in many engineering
applications.

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9.1 Understanding Friction:
Types of Friction:
There are two main types of friction:
 Static Friction (μs): This force opposes the initiation of motion between stationary
objects. It increases with the applied force until a maximum value (limiting friction) is
reached, at which point the object overcomes static friction and starts moving.
 Kinetic Friction (μk): This force acts on objects already in motion and resists their
continued movement. It is generally smaller than static friction (μk < μs).

Factors Affecting Friction:

Several factors influence the magnitude of friction:
 Normal Force (N): The force pressing the surfaces together. Friction is directly
proportional to the normal force.
 Surface Texture: Rougher surfaces have greater friction due to increased interlocking.
 Material Properties: The materials in contact can significantly affect friction.

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9.2 Advantages of Friction:
1. Provides Traction: Friction allows us to walk, run, and drive without slipping. It's
essential for gripping and controlling objects.
2. Braking and Stopping: Friction in brakes helps slow down and stop moving objects.
3. Power Transmission: Friction between belts and pulleys or gears enables the transfer of
power in machines.

9.3 Disadvantages of Friction:

1. Energy Loss: Friction dissipates energy as heat, reducing efficiency in machines. Bearings
and lubricants are used to minimize this energy loss.
2. Wear and Tear: Continuous friction can cause wear and tear on contacting surfaces,
requiring maintenance or replacement of parts.

9.4 Applications of Friction in Engineering

Friction is harnessed in various engineering applications:
1. Vehicle Tires: The tread pattern provides friction for traction and braking.
2. Clutches and Brakes: Friction materials in clutches and brakes control the engagement
and stopping of machinery.
3. Screws and Threaded Fasteners: Friction prevents nuts and bolts from loosening under
vibration.
4. Conveyors and Belts: Friction between belts and pulleys ensures proper material
movement in conveyor systems.
Engineers constantly strive to optimize friction. They may aim to:
1. Minimize Friction: In bearings, lubricants reduce friction and wear.
2. Maximize Friction: In brakes and clutches, high-friction materials are essential for safe
operation.
9.5 Mechanism of Friction
Consider a solid block of mass M being pushed on a horizontal surface by the application of a
force P as shown below.

From an experiment, the friction force (F) is proportional to the normal reaction (N) i.e

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 𝐹 ∝ 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁

Where the constant of proportionality, (𝜇) is called the coefficient of friction.

The angle of friction θ is defined mathematically as

𝛩 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜇 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐹/𝑁

9.6 Application of Friction in Machines

Generally the effect of friction in machines is either to prevent slipping or to dissipate energy
between two contacting surfaces. Three main areas in machines where friction is an advantage to
certain extent are discussed below.

9.6.1 Wedges

Wedges are those simple inclined planes, are surprisingly reliant on friction for their functionality.
Friction's role in wedges can be visualized through force diagrams as shown in the figure below.
The applied force on the wedge gets divided into components: one pushing the object apart (normal
force) and another acting along the inclined surface (opposed by friction). The higher the friction,
the larger the force needed to overcome it and achieve separation.

Two Faces of Friction in Wedges:

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 1. Aiding Separation: We use wedges for splitting objects or forcing them apart. This relies
on a low coefficient of friction between the wedge and the object being separated. The
applied force creates a normal force pushing the object's surfaces apart. Ideally, minimal
friction allows this normal force to dominate, effectively splitting the object.
2. Gripping and Holding: Wedges are also used for securing objects in place, like doorstops
or carpentry wedges. Here, we want high friction between the wedge and the surrounding
surfaces. As you push the wedge in, the high friction creates a large gripping force that
holds the object in position.

The ideal amount of friction in a wedge depends on its application:

 Splitting Wedges (Axe, Knife): These require a lower coefficient of friction to minimize
resistance during separation. A smooth, polished metal wedge might be suitable.
 Gripping Wedges (Doorstop, Carpentry Wedge): These benefit from a higher
coefficient of friction for a strong hold. Materials with textured surfaces, like wood or
rubber, can provide the necessary grip.

9.6.2 Screw and Nut

Friction plays a critical role in the functionality of screws and nuts. When torque is applied to nut
in order to tight it in a threaded bolt and the bolt is subjected to axial tension (the load), sliding
frictional forces is are distributed over the threaded surfaces, however, the effort, load and friction
forces are in a fixed relation for a given dimension and material type as well as the consequently
its permissible to lump them together and to assume that they are in equilibrium at a point of the
effective radius of the screw. The force system is analogues to pulling load W up an inclined plane
(at the thread helix angle) against a friction resistance. This forms the mathematical model on
which the subsequent analysis is based.
9.6.2.1 Application of friction in Screw and Nut
1. Preventing Loosening:
 The primary function of friction in screws and nuts is to prevent them from loosening
under external forces like vibration or applied loads.
 As the threads of the screw and nut interlock, friction creates a force that opposes the
tendency for them to rotate relative to each other. This keeps the joint secure.

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2. Increasing Holding Power:
 The amount of friction directly affects the holding power of a screw-nut assembly. A
higher coefficient of friction between the threads results in a greater force required to
loosen the joint.
 This is crucial for applications where the joint experiences significant loads or vibrations,
such as in engines or machinery.
3. Self-Locking Mechanisms:
 Friction is also utilized in self-locking screws and nuts. These fasteners have threads
designed with a higher thread angle, which increases the normal force between the threads
and consequently, the friction force. This creates a self-locking effect, preventing the screw
from loosening even under significant vibration without an external torque applied.

9.6.3 Square Threaded Screw

Let W be the axial load against which the screw is turned and P the tangential force at the near
thread radius r necessary to turn the nut as shown below.

N is the normal reaction and µ is the friction force.

The resultant of N and µN is R.

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θ is the angle of friction and α is the helix angle of the thread, both given by:

𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛µ; 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ/𝜋𝑑

It can be easily shown that;

𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 + 𝜃)
𝑃= = 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛(α + θ)
cos(𝛼 + 𝜃)

The torque (turning moment), T, required to raise the load is given by:

𝑑 𝑊𝑑𝑡𝑎𝑛(α + θ) 𝑑
𝑇 = 𝑃. = ; =𝑟
2 2 2

It can also be shown that the efficiency (ɳ) of the screw and nut pair is:

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
ɳ=
tan(𝛼 + 𝜃)

9.6.4 V Threaded Screw

In this case, because of the semi-apex angle ϒ, the normal reaction N at threaded are not in the
same axial plane as P & W.

The angle of friction θz and coefficient of friction µe in this case are given by:

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 µ𝑒
𝜃 = arctan ( ) ; µ𝑒 = µ𝑐𝑜𝑠ϒ
𝑐𝑜𝑠ϒ

θ = θe;

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
∴
tan(𝛼 + 𝜃𝑒)

9.6.5 Unloading a Square Threaded Screw and Nut

When unloading a screw, the effort, P’ is given as

𝑑 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 − 𝛼)
𝑃′ = 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃 − 𝛼) =
2 2

r = d/2;

If θ < α will be negative indicating that the load will be run back as soon as the positive/tightening
effort is removed. This condition is referred to as ‘Overhauling’. This is to be avoided, it’s
necessary that θ > α

9.6.6 Belt and Drive

Power transmitted from one shaft to another by means of belt drives running between pulleys
attached to the shafts. The operation of belt drives depends on the development of friction forces
around the arc of contact with the pulleys. The rims of the drive pulleys maybe flat or V-grooved.

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9.6.7 Flat Pulley Drives
The diagram below shows a typical belt drive in which the smaller pulley of radius r is the driver.
It follows the higher the tension is T1 (on the tight side) and the lower the tension T2 (on the slack
side), θ being the arc of the contact (also called angle of lap).

Activity: Draw the fbd of a beam shown below

The end!

But the lecture note may subject to review!!!

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