Aquatic Studies

ES/EM 8

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

B. Chemical Attributes
 Often determined by inputs from the surrounding environment or catchment area but can
also be influenced by rain and the addition of pollution from human sources.
 Affect aesthetic qualities (e.g. looks, smell and taste).
 Affect toxicity.
 Used to detect imbalances within the ecosystem (e.g. presence of certain pollutants).

1. pH
 Measure of acidity/basicity; 0 – 14 (in log scale).
o 7 is neutral
o <7 is acidic
o >7 is basic
 pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the water) and
biological availability (amount that can be utilized by aquatic life) of chemical
constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy metals (lead,
copper, cadmium, etc.).
 Change in stream water pH can affect aquatic life.
o low pH level increases solubility of certain heavy metals.
o high pH levels can damage gills and skin of aquatic organisms.
 pH depends on several factors including types of rock (limestone – CaCO3) and
vegetation (humic acid from decaying vegetation) within the watershed.
 Pollution can change a water's pH – water coming out of an abandoned coal mine can
have a pH of 2.
 Precipitation can also affect – the pH of clean rain is between 5.0 and 5.5, but when
combined with sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides (acid rain), pH becomes 4.0.
 atmospheric CO2 – dissolved CO2 decreases the pH of water.

2. Alkalinity
 Determines the stream's buffering capacity (common value 20-200ppm).
 Buffering capacity may mask the presence of acidic and basic pollutants.
 pH levels can fluctuate daily due to photosynthesis and respiration in the water. The
degree of change depends on the alkalinity of the water.

3. Acidity
 The capacity of the water to neutralize OH- ions.
 Occurs in the presence of weak acids such asH 2PO4-, CO2, H2S, proteins, fatty acids and
acidic metal ions particularly Fe3+.
 Acid mine drainage contains an appreciable amount of free mineral acid – H 2SO4 and
HCl.

Chemoclines (chemistry gradients)

 Chemoclines can be based on oxygen, salinity, or other chemical factors that do not
cross the cline, such as carbon dioxide.
 Due to CO2’s influence on the pH of water, stratification can cause pH levels to differ
across a cline.

Alkaline and Acid Lakes

Alkaline lakes (soda lakes)
 have a pH level between 9 and 12.
 have high concentrations of minerals, particularly dissolved salts: sodium, calcium,
magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates.
 borates, sulfates and other elements (usually strong base ions) can also be present.
  Alkaline lakes are formed when the only outlet for water is evaporation, leaving the
minerals behind to accumulate.
 commercial source for soda ash and potash.

Acid lakes
 usually develop near volcanoes, where sulfuric acid, hydrogen sulfide, hydrofluoric
acid, hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide can leach into the water (enter through an
active fumarole, or volcanic vent).
 in non-volcanic areas, acid lakes can also develop after acidic deposition from events
such as acid rain, pollution (atmospheric diffusion from coal burning) or acid runoff
from mining operations.
 acid lakes also have no outlet except evaporation, concentrating the sulfates and
acids.

4. Oxidation-Reduction Potential
 Transfer of electrons from chemical species.
 Measures the ability of a lake or river to cleanse itself or break down waste products,
such as contaminants and dead plants and animals.
 Significant reactions are carried out by bacteria.
 Healthy waters read between 300 and 500 millivolts.
 REDOX reactive species – salts of many metals (Fe 2+, Fe3+) and strong oxidizing (Cl2)
and reducing (SO32-) agents.
 ORP is a nonspecific measurement, i.e., the measured potential is reflective of a
combination of the effects of all the dissolved species in the medium.
 Directly proportional to DO.

5. Hardness
 Total concentration of cations, specifically Ca2+ Mg2+, Fe2+ and Mn2+.
 Water moves through rocks (and picks up minerals as it does so) on its way to rivers and
lakes. When limestone and dolomite dissolve in water, one half of the molecule is
calcium or magnesium (the "hardness") and the other half is the carbonate (the
"alkalinity”).
 the level of water hardness and alkalinity in a place will be very similar but they are very
separate measurements, and have very different importance.

6. Density/Salinity
 Related to salt content and water temperature.
o ≈ salinity determines what organism can survive.
 Changes in land use, seasonal variations and longer-term changes to climate can all affect
surface water, groundwater, the flows between them, and the amounts of salt that they
contain.
 Higher salt content, higher salinity, higher density.

Three major sources:

 Small amounts of salt (primarily sodium chloride) are evaporated from ocean water and
are carried in rainclouds and deposited across the landscape with rainfall.
 Some landscapes may also contain salt that have been released from rocks during
weathering (gradual breakdown).
 Salt may remain in sediments left behind by retreating seas after periods where ocean
levels were much higher or the land surface much lower.
(Fresh water - 0.5 ppt or less; Estuaries - 0.5-30 ppt or depending on proximity to river
inflows or ocean; Ocean - 35 ppt).

7. Conductivity
 The ability of water to carry electrical current.
 Higher ions mean higher conductivity.
  Indicates presence of dissolved chemicals (from dissociation of naturally-occurring,
inorganic compounds).
 Though the conductivity of water increases with added ions, it remains electrically
neutral as it splits the water and so the concentrations of each positive and negative
charge remain equal.
 A sudden increase or decrease in conductivity in a body of water can indicate pollution.
 Most bodies of water maintain a fairly constant conductivity that can be used as a
baseline of comparison to future measurements.

8. Nitrogen
 An essential nutrient that is required by all plants and animals for the formation of amino
acids.
o N2 – not usable to aquatic plants
o NH3/NH4+ - taken up by plants
o NO3-/NO2- - oxidized form (by bacteria) – MOST COMMON
 Nitrates are odorless, colorless, and tasteless so it is important to test feed and drinking
water.
 High concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia (also
known as blue baby syndrome). Concentrations >10 ppm can be harmful to young babies
and should be avoided by nursing mothers.
 Concentrations >100 ppm are toxic to livestock.

9. Phosphorus
 An essential nutrient that is required by all plants and animals for the formation of amino
acids.
o PO43- – only form available to living organisms (orthophosphates)
o Total P – estimate of potentially available P
 “Growth-limiting” factor for plants - it is usually scarce in water because it attaches to
sediments in the water.
 Organic phosphate - phosphate molecule associated with a carbon-based molecule, as in
plant or animal tissue.
 Monitoring phosphorus can be challenging - involves measuring very low concentrations
(~0.01 mg/L or even lower).

10. Dissolved Oxygen

 Two main sources:
o Aquatic plants (photosynthesis) - Aquatic vegetation and algae directly release
oxygen into the water during photosynthesis (during the day). At night, plants
actually use oxygen for their metabolism.
o Atmosphere (turbulence) - More turbulence creates more opportunities for
oxygen to enter streams.
 Amount is limited by temperature and atmospheric pressure.
o Cold water holds more dissolved oxygen than warm water.
o Streams at higher elevations will generally have less oxygen.
 Affected by salinity – the higher the salinity level, the lower the DO concentration.
 Fish growth and activity requires 5-6 ppm.

11. Oxygen Demand

 Two kinds:
o Biological oxygen demand (BOD) - amount of oxygen used by aerobic bacteria
during decomposition.
o Chemical oxygen demand (COD) - direct chemical demands on oxygen in the
water for certain oxidation-reduction reactions.

NOTE: COD is the amount of oxygen to degenerate all pollution in a chemical way while BOD
is only for biodegradable organic pollution. Hence, COD must be greater than BOD.
12. Solids
 Total Dissolved Solids - mainly carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium.
 Total Suspended Solids - examples are clay, silt organic and inorganic particulate, algae,
planktons and other microorganisms.

*MICROBIALLY MEDIATED REACTIONS*

 Photosynthesis
o CO2 + H2O {CH2O} + O2
 Respiration
o {CH2O} + O2 CO2 + H2O (aerobic)

o 2{CH2O} + SO42- + 2H+ H2S + 2CO2 + 2 H2O

 Degradation
o 2{CH2O} CH4 + CO2 (fermentation reaction)